English Writer 13 | - Freelance Writer
Feb 19, 2018 | #1
Abstract
This paper is concerned with the relationship between social identity and bilingualism. Language is not only a means of communication, but an important part of how people see themselves and relate to society. Language can serve as a bridge for membership in social groups. Individuals that are bilingual can be expected to have membership in more than one social group and the possibility for increased self-esteem. Studies have indicated that there is a positive correlation between language proficiency and successful integration into a culture which speaks that language. Bilingual individuals frequently feel as though they are members of more than one cultural group. This can be an advantage when an individual is attempting to adapt to a new culture. Individuals that master a language, which is similar to members of a social group, are more likely to be accepted as members of that group. Second generation immigrants who are fluent in the language of their heritage are more likely to feel a part of their native culture (Lee). This serves the purpose of providing these individuals with a more secure sense of self and higher sense of self-esteem. Second-generation immigrants who are adept at the dominant language also have increased self-esteem. Immigrants who are the most successful and have the highest self-esteem are bilingual and completely fluent in both their heritage language and the dominant culture language. Bilingual individuals have the advantage of being members of their heritage cultural group and the dominant culture.
Introduction
Language is not only a means of communication; it is also an important part of how people establish their social identity (Jaspal). Many people use language as a way of establishing their distinctiveness relative to others. Language can be used as a means of indicating one's social status, membership in groups, and general orientation to the environment. Individuals that are members of a social group will often use distinctive terms, which help to establish social ties.
An individual's identity is formed by a number of factors, one of which is a membership in social groups. The social identity of the group is formed through a sharing of respect, which encourages self respect of the group members. Social psychologists point out that an individual's self identity can be threatened if there are significant changes in the social context of their life.
Language has also been noted as a means of establishing one's cultural identity. The native tongue is particularly important with regard to ethnic identity. Many people view their ethnicity and native tongue as an inheritance which cannot be altered. For many people, the ethnic group to which they feel a member is vitally important to their self-concept. This is especially true early in life. As individuals develop, they often consider themselves to be members of additional subcultures, which add to their sense of self. For example, many people become strict followers of a certain religion. People can also become members of a profession. All of these groups are likely to have distinct terminology and language patterns, which will affect the individual's language and self-identity.
The way in which a social identity is affected by language is a complex and intricate process. An individual's attitude toward the language, or languages, they use must be taken into account. For example, the Persian language has a number of Gallicisms, which are associated with the French language. However, Iran was never colonized by France. Further investigation into this curious phenomenon reveals that historically there were many Iranian intellectuals who studied in France. These individuals viewed the French culture with respect and integrated French into the modern Persian language.
The fact that an individual's social identity is partially based on their language brings into question the effect of being bilingual. This paper explores how bilingualism affects an individual's social identity. There will also be an attempt to determine if there are advantages of being bilingual.
The effect language has on an individual's social identity has been explored by scholars from both social psychology and sociolinguistics. One theory which social psychologists have used to explain how language affects an individual is the Self-Aspects Model of Identity. This model considers there to be both a collective identity and individual identity. The collective identity is formed by the socially shared self. The individual identity is a self interpretation which is based on a number of aspects. In other words, people consider themselves to be individuals and members of a group simultaneously.
Another important theory used by social psychologists regarding language and social identity is the Identity Process Theory (Jaspal & Coyle). This explanation considers that individuals may use a language in response to an identity threat. In this situation, it can allow a group or individual to establish their distinction from a dominant majority. The language is being used as a coping strategy for dealing with the identity threat. Identity Process Theory explains that there is both an evaluation and assimilation-accommodation process which occurs when a social identity is formed. An individual will assimilate new information and accommodate themselves to the situation. They then enter the process of evaluation and determine how to properly adjust their social identity.
Jaspal & Coyle investigated the socialization of bilingual second-generation Asians in the United Kingdom. All of these individuals had become fluent speakers in English, yet had retained the ability to speak the native language of their parents. These bilingual individuals were fluent in both languages.
It has been suggested that increased identification with a culture will lead to proficiency in the predominant language used by the culture. However, the subject is complex and a number of questions have arisen with regard to this phenomenon. One question which arises is the direction of causality. In other words, do individuals become more proficient in the language because they identify with the culture, or do they identify with the culture because they are more proficient with the language?
A study by Chen, Benet-Martinez & Bond investigated the relationships between bilingualism, bicultural identity, and psychological adjustment. The groups which this study focused on were Filipino workers in Hong Kong, mainland Chinese immigrants to Hong Kong, and college students in Hong Kong as well as mainland China. The study hoped to determine if theories, which had been applied to Canada and the United States were applicable to immigrants in Hong Kong.
The study found that bilingual competence was a significant predictor of adjustment to the society in Hong Kong among the Filipino workers. This was particularly interesting since many of these workers were only in Hong Kong for a short period of time as domestic helpers. All the groups studied experienced negative effects on their sense of well-being in relation to acculturative stress. This type of stress was brought on by feeling as though they were culturally isolated, objects of discrimination, and stress in the linguistic domain due to problems learning a new language. It is particularly interesting to note that all three groups experienced problems learning a new language as a significant acculturative stress.
Immigrants to Hong Kong who experienced significant acculturative stress were at risk for developing clinical symptoms of anxiety and depression. This was true even when an analysis of covariance was used to eliminate the effects of pre-existing personality traits. An Individual which experienced learning the new language as taxing was significantly more likely to experience acculturative stress which led to depression or anxiety.
The study by Chen, Benet-Martinez & Bond found that there were complex interrelationships between language, intercultural relations, and work. For example, individuals that learn the dominant language of their surroundings were more likely to have jobs in which they were satisfied and have good relationships with people from the other culture. However, it is difficult to draw cause-and-effect conclusions from the study due to its correlational nature. While it is true the study found individuals which were more competent in the new language were better adjusted, it cannot be concluded that their language skills are the reason for their superior adjustment. There could be a 3rd factor responsible for both such as intelligence or socioeconomic status.
The level of bilingual literacy can have a significant effect on educational success. This is an important concept since the world is becoming an increasingly global society with an increasing number of individuals attending schools, which use a language which is not native to the student. For example, between 1970 and 1995 the number of immigrant children in the United States attending school rose from 3.5 to 8.6 million. More than 50% of these children were from the Caribbean or Latin America, and Spanish was their native language (Bartlett).
There are complex relationships between bilingual literacy, membership in social groups, and the success of academic achievement. A student's bilingual literacy often provides the framework for determining which social group they associate with. A number of schools with bicultural students are also bilingual. The course instruction is likely to be in the predominant language of the region. Many of the students may have a different native language. There is a tendency for groups of children who have similar language proficiency to gather into social groups. There is also a tendency for the groups which are more proficient in both languages to be higher academic achievers. A student who finds themselves good at both languages is more likely to be accepted into a group of peers who are similarly gifted. This group is also more likely to be successful academically and value the pursuit of goals, which require academic success.
A case study was done by Bartlett to investigate the relationship between bilingual literacy, social identity, and academic success. The individual upon whom the case study focused was Maria. She was a Spanish speaking student entering a bilingual high school for students who are Spanish speaking immigrants to New York. The school teaches in English, but most of the teachers have Spanish as their native language.
Maria was chosen for the case study due to entering the high school and being identified as a student with interrupted formal education. This is a status assigned to immigrant students who are similar to the "special needs" children of mainstream schools. Maria was found to be significantly behind her peers with regard to her educational level. Despite this humble beginning, Maria had a number of academic successes, which are likely to lead to her attending a university. She accomplished these successes by working hard at her coursework, focusing on learning English, and being accepted by a group of students with a high level of bilingual literacy. Upon acceptance into this group, she was surrounded by peers who shared her values regarding the importance of education and language.
An article by Bucholtz examined the relationship between linguistic practices, and the different social groups two Laotian American teenage students identify with. Despite similar family and cultural backgrounds, the two girls identified with very different cultural groups. One of these cultural groups is referred to as the "model minority nerd" while the other is referred to as the "dangerous gangster". Both girls were first-generation immigrants to the United States.
Linguistic structures can be used to identify social positioning, and this is frequently referred to as "style" (Bucholtz). Style is especially important in the life of teenagers who are attempting to negotiate an institutional structure such as an educational system. These teenagers will frequently form groups, which mirror the distinctions present in the surrounding society. The linguistic style they choose is a way of identifying themselves as members of a group and strengthening alignments with other members.
Linguistic styles are a technique used by many individuals to help establish an identity in emergent social situations. The way in which language is used with regard to practice and performance can be an important part of establishing a social identity in a new environment.
The case study done by Bucholtz studied two Laotian American teenage girls and emphasized the different social identities which can be developed through language. The two girls assigned themselves the Americanized names of Nikki and Ada for the study. Both were from working-class families that were Laotian refugees. Even their choice of a name is indicative of their differences. The girl who decided to follow a gangster style chose the trendy name of Nikki. The girl who identified herself with the traditional and nerdy group chose the more traditional name of Ada, which was pronounced as "aedÉ™". This is characteristic of the nerdy group which identifies itself with more advanced written languages.
The speech patterns of Nikki and Ada were observed in interviews and exhibit the importance of speech style with regard to social group membership. Nikki used informal language such as "when you in a gang... you have a little clique." (Bucholtz, p 134). She participated in a number of gang practices such as wearing a blue bandanna and clothing which was oversized. While completely fluent in both Laotian and English, Nikki chose to speak like other members of the gang she associated with.
An interview with Ada revealed that she spoke middle-class American English. She viewed gang membership and success in school as being mutually exclusive. She shied away from gang membership in order to be successful in her academic endeavors. She placed a high value on intelligence and avoided any colloquial or slang use of English. Her English was impeccable and precise.
Identity is a complex combination of many factors such as culture, education, religious orientation, belief systems, and family values (Brown). Ethnic identity involves how an individual views themselves as part of a particular cultural group. This is an important concept for minority groups that have a different cultural background and language. It is generally true that the social identity of a minority group member is more important to them than social identity is to members of the majority group.
There is a positive relationship between how individual feels about their ethnic identity and their level of language proficiency in the heritage language. Second generation immigrants who are more proficient in the heritage language frequently feel as though they have stronger ties to their ethnic group. For example, second-generation Korean-Americans who were more fluent in the Korean language tended to have a stronger sense of ethnic identity. This has also been found to be true with second generation Puerto Rican children with regard to their competence in Spanish.
Second generation Korean Americans who were fluent in both English and Korean had a stronger sense of ethnic identity than similar individuals that were not as fluent in Korean. This a stronger sense of ethnic identity was associated with a more secure self-perception and increased self-esteem. Mastery of the heritage language served as a method for these individuals to feel grounded in their history. It also led them to feel as though they were members of a group. Both factors led to an increased self-image and a more secure cultural identity.
Language is a part of how people determine their social identity and can also the used as a defense mechanism when an individual feels their identity is threatened. A study of British South Asians focused on the linguistic repertoire of these individuals. The complex linguistic repertoire of many members of this group has been both criticized and praised in the British media. A number of cognitive advantages associated with bilingualism have been reported. On the other hand, there have been politicians from the United Kingdom, who have criticized this group for not speaking English in their homes. This is seen by some as a barrier to becoming true British citizens.
The media attention, and occasional criticism, of British South Asians with regard to their language provides an opportunity to explore their response to the identity threat. Their response was studied using the model of identity process theory. This theory asserts that there are four universal processes, which determine an identity. These processes are distinctness from others, continuity through time, control of one's life, and feelings of social value. Recently, scholars have added the motives of belonging and life purpose.
One strategy which the British South Asian immigrants appeared to have adopted is to more readily identify with the majority language. In this particular case, the British South Asian individuals evaluated English as being a language which is preferred over their native tongue. This appears to be an attempt to enhance their feeling of social value and belonging in British culture.
It is important to note that despite the tendency to offer a more positive view of the English language when their social identity was threatened, most of these individuals also maintained the importance of their native language. They were using a coping strategy of maintaining their self-identity through the maintenance of their native language, while increasing their social status by a greater acceptance of English.
A study by Lee investigated the effect bilingual confidence had on the self-esteem of Chinese students between the ages of 11 and 18 who were enrolled in a Chinese language school in western Canada. A number of measures of self-esteem were used including the Cultural Free Self -Esteem Inventories, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Multi-group Ethnic Identity Measure. A multivariate analysis of covariance was used to remove the effect of grade point average.
The study done by Lee involved 110 Chinese Canadian students ranging in age from 11 to 18 years old. The average age was 14, and their grades were between 7 and 12. There were slightly more girls, at 59%, than boys. Approximately, 40% of the sample was born in Canada. The largest majority born outside of Canada were native to Hong Kong. Nearly 32% of the sample had lived in Canada for more than 6 years.
Data analysis of this study revealed several important relationships between self-esteem and other measures of the study. Specifically, global self-esteem was positively correlated with ethnic identity, grade point average, and confidence in speaking English. Academic self-esteem was negatively correlated with age, and positively correlated with the grade point average. Individuals that had a stronger ethnic identity and were more proficient with English had higher academic self-esteem. Social self-esteem was positively correlated with the length of time an individual had been in Canada and their level of proficiency with English. The strongest predictor of self-esteem among the Chinese youth in Canada was English proficiency. Members of this group who were more proficient in English had a higher self-esteem.
The study done by Lee confirmed the findings of other research projects that social identification with one's culture of heritage is an important part of an individual's self-esteem. Students who were closely aligned with their cultural heritage had higher self-esteem. The findings also noted that individuals that were more proficient in English had higher self-esteem. The students who had the highest self-esteem were those who identified with their culture of heritage and fully embraced the English language (Lee).
Conclusion
Language is an important part of how people develop their social identity. Language can be used as a method of communication as well as an indication of group membership. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of being bilingual has on an individual's social identity, and if there are any advantages to being fluent in two languages.
Studies have shown that there is a relationship between levels of language acquisition and social group membership. The study by Chen, Benet-Martinez & Bond looked into the relationship between bilingualism and bicultural identity. It was discovered that immigrants to Hong Kong, who were more proficient in the language had better jobs, stronger social relations, and more satisfying lives. People who were fluent in both languages identified with the culture in Hong Kong and their own culture of heritage. The relationship between language and social identity was also supported by the research of Bartlett. These researchers discovered that a student, who was academically disadvantaged, could use language to help her become a member of a social group which was academically successful. Membership in this group helped the students achieve academic success.
Social identity and self-esteem are a complex phenomenon affected by a number of factors, including education, culture, religious orientation, belief systems, family values, and language. Second-generation immigrants who develop proficiency in the language of their heritage feel a stronger sense of ethnic identity. This ethnic identity leads to increased self-esteem and a more stable concept of self. The study by Lee supported these findings and indicated that the self-esteem of both second generation and first-generation Chinese immigrants to Canada had increased self-esteem if they were proficient in their heritage language. It was also discovered that these individuals had higher self-esteem if they were more proficient in English.
The majority of studies indicated that for immigrants to a country with a different language, being bilingual had several advantages in relation to social identity. Individuals that are fluent in their language of heritage feel closer to their familial roots. This leads to a more stable sense of self and higher self-esteem. Individuals that are fluent in the majority language feel like they are more respected members of society, have better jobs, and better social relationships with the majority culture.
References
Bartlett, L. (2007). Bilingual literacy, social identification, and educational trajectories. Linguisticsa and Education, 18(2), 15-31.
Brown, C. L. (2009). Heritage language and ethnic identity: A case study of Korean-American college students. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 11(1), 1-16.
Bucholtz, . (2004). Styles and stereotypes: The linguistic negotiation of identity among Laotian American youth. Pragmatics, 14(2/3), 127-147.
Cavazos-Rehg, P. A., & DeLucia-Waack, J. L. (2009). Education, ethnic identity, and acculturation as predictors of self-esteem in Latino adolescents. Journal of Counseling & Development, 87, 47-54.
Chen, S. X., Benet-Martinez, V., & Bond, M. H. (2008). By cultural identity, bilingualism, and psychological adjustment in multicultural societies: Immigration-based and globalization-based the acculturation. Journal of Personality, 76(4), 803-838.
Jaspal, R. (2009). Language and social identity: A psychosocial approach. Psych-Talk, September, 17-20.
(a) Jaspal, R., & Coyle, A. (2009). Reconciling social psychology and sociolinguistic can have some benefits: Language and identity among second-generation British Asians. Social Psychological Review, 11(2), 3-14.
(b) Jaspal, R., & Coyle, A. (2009). Language and perceptions of identity threat. Psychology & Society, 2(2), 150-167.
Lee, J. W. (2008). The effect of ethnic identity and bilingual confident on Chinese youth's self-esteem. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 54(1), 83-96.
This paper is concerned with the relationship between social identity and bilingualism. Language is not only a means of communication, but an important part of how people see themselves and relate to society. Language can serve as a bridge for membership in social groups. Individuals that are bilingual can be expected to have membership in more than one social group and the possibility for increased self-esteem. Studies have indicated that there is a positive correlation between language proficiency and successful integration into a culture which speaks that language. Bilingual individuals frequently feel as though they are members of more than one cultural group. This can be an advantage when an individual is attempting to adapt to a new culture. Individuals that master a language, which is similar to members of a social group, are more likely to be accepted as members of that group. Second generation immigrants who are fluent in the language of their heritage are more likely to feel a part of their native culture (Lee). This serves the purpose of providing these individuals with a more secure sense of self and higher sense of self-esteem. Second-generation immigrants who are adept at the dominant language also have increased self-esteem. Immigrants who are the most successful and have the highest self-esteem are bilingual and completely fluent in both their heritage language and the dominant culture language. Bilingual individuals have the advantage of being members of their heritage cultural group and the dominant culture.
Introduction
Language is not only a means of communication; it is also an important part of how people establish their social identity (Jaspal). Many people use language as a way of establishing their distinctiveness relative to others. Language can be used as a means of indicating one's social status, membership in groups, and general orientation to the environment. Individuals that are members of a social group will often use distinctive terms, which help to establish social ties.An individual's identity is formed by a number of factors, one of which is a membership in social groups. The social identity of the group is formed through a sharing of respect, which encourages self respect of the group members. Social psychologists point out that an individual's self identity can be threatened if there are significant changes in the social context of their life.
Language has also been noted as a means of establishing one's cultural identity. The native tongue is particularly important with regard to ethnic identity. Many people view their ethnicity and native tongue as an inheritance which cannot be altered. For many people, the ethnic group to which they feel a member is vitally important to their self-concept. This is especially true early in life. As individuals develop, they often consider themselves to be members of additional subcultures, which add to their sense of self. For example, many people become strict followers of a certain religion. People can also become members of a profession. All of these groups are likely to have distinct terminology and language patterns, which will affect the individual's language and self-identity.
The way in which a social identity is affected by language is a complex and intricate process. An individual's attitude toward the language, or languages, they use must be taken into account. For example, the Persian language has a number of Gallicisms, which are associated with the French language. However, Iran was never colonized by France. Further investigation into this curious phenomenon reveals that historically there were many Iranian intellectuals who studied in France. These individuals viewed the French culture with respect and integrated French into the modern Persian language.
The fact that an individual's social identity is partially based on their language brings into question the effect of being bilingual. This paper explores how bilingualism affects an individual's social identity. There will also be an attempt to determine if there are advantages of being bilingual.
Social Psychology
The effect language has on an individual's social identity has been explored by scholars from both social psychology and sociolinguistics. One theory which social psychologists have used to explain how language affects an individual is the Self-Aspects Model of Identity. This model considers there to be both a collective identity and individual identity. The collective identity is formed by the socially shared self. The individual identity is a self interpretation which is based on a number of aspects. In other words, people consider themselves to be individuals and members of a group simultaneously.
Another important theory used by social psychologists regarding language and social identity is the Identity Process Theory (Jaspal & Coyle). This explanation considers that individuals may use a language in response to an identity threat. In this situation, it can allow a group or individual to establish their distinction from a dominant majority. The language is being used as a coping strategy for dealing with the identity threat. Identity Process Theory explains that there is both an evaluation and assimilation-accommodation process which occurs when a social identity is formed. An individual will assimilate new information and accommodate themselves to the situation. They then enter the process of evaluation and determine how to properly adjust their social identity.
Bilingualism and Socialization
Jaspal & Coyle investigated the socialization of bilingual second-generation Asians in the United Kingdom. All of these individuals had become fluent speakers in English, yet had retained the ability to speak the native language of their parents. These bilingual individuals were fluent in both languages.
It has been suggested that increased identification with a culture will lead to proficiency in the predominant language used by the culture. However, the subject is complex and a number of questions have arisen with regard to this phenomenon. One question which arises is the direction of causality. In other words, do individuals become more proficient in the language because they identify with the culture, or do they identify with the culture because they are more proficient with the language?
Bilingualism and Bicultural Identity
A study by Chen, Benet-Martinez & Bond investigated the relationships between bilingualism, bicultural identity, and psychological adjustment. The groups which this study focused on were Filipino workers in Hong Kong, mainland Chinese immigrants to Hong Kong, and college students in Hong Kong as well as mainland China. The study hoped to determine if theories, which had been applied to Canada and the United States were applicable to immigrants in Hong Kong.
The study found that bilingual competence was a significant predictor of adjustment to the society in Hong Kong among the Filipino workers. This was particularly interesting since many of these workers were only in Hong Kong for a short period of time as domestic helpers. All the groups studied experienced negative effects on their sense of well-being in relation to acculturative stress. This type of stress was brought on by feeling as though they were culturally isolated, objects of discrimination, and stress in the linguistic domain due to problems learning a new language. It is particularly interesting to note that all three groups experienced problems learning a new language as a significant acculturative stress.
Immigrants to Hong Kong who experienced significant acculturative stress were at risk for developing clinical symptoms of anxiety and depression. This was true even when an analysis of covariance was used to eliminate the effects of pre-existing personality traits. An Individual which experienced learning the new language as taxing was significantly more likely to experience acculturative stress which led to depression or anxiety.
The study by Chen, Benet-Martinez & Bond found that there were complex interrelationships between language, intercultural relations, and work. For example, individuals that learn the dominant language of their surroundings were more likely to have jobs in which they were satisfied and have good relationships with people from the other culture. However, it is difficult to draw cause-and-effect conclusions from the study due to its correlational nature. While it is true the study found individuals which were more competent in the new language were better adjusted, it cannot be concluded that their language skills are the reason for their superior adjustment. There could be a 3rd factor responsible for both such as intelligence or socioeconomic status.
Bilingualism and Education
The level of bilingual literacy can have a significant effect on educational success. This is an important concept since the world is becoming an increasingly global society with an increasing number of individuals attending schools, which use a language which is not native to the student. For example, between 1970 and 1995 the number of immigrant children in the United States attending school rose from 3.5 to 8.6 million. More than 50% of these children were from the Caribbean or Latin America, and Spanish was their native language (Bartlett).
There are complex relationships between bilingual literacy, membership in social groups, and the success of academic achievement. A student's bilingual literacy often provides the framework for determining which social group they associate with. A number of schools with bicultural students are also bilingual. The course instruction is likely to be in the predominant language of the region. Many of the students may have a different native language. There is a tendency for groups of children who have similar language proficiency to gather into social groups. There is also a tendency for the groups which are more proficient in both languages to be higher academic achievers. A student who finds themselves good at both languages is more likely to be accepted into a group of peers who are similarly gifted. This group is also more likely to be successful academically and value the pursuit of goals, which require academic success.
A case study was done by Bartlett to investigate the relationship between bilingual literacy, social identity, and academic success. The individual upon whom the case study focused was Maria. She was a Spanish speaking student entering a bilingual high school for students who are Spanish speaking immigrants to New York. The school teaches in English, but most of the teachers have Spanish as their native language.
Maria was chosen for the case study due to entering the high school and being identified as a student with interrupted formal education. This is a status assigned to immigrant students who are similar to the "special needs" children of mainstream schools. Maria was found to be significantly behind her peers with regard to her educational level. Despite this humble beginning, Maria had a number of academic successes, which are likely to lead to her attending a university. She accomplished these successes by working hard at her coursework, focusing on learning English, and being accepted by a group of students with a high level of bilingual literacy. Upon acceptance into this group, she was surrounded by peers who shared her values regarding the importance of education and language.
Linguistics and Group Acceptance
An article by Bucholtz examined the relationship between linguistic practices, and the different social groups two Laotian American teenage students identify with. Despite similar family and cultural backgrounds, the two girls identified with very different cultural groups. One of these cultural groups is referred to as the "model minority nerd" while the other is referred to as the "dangerous gangster". Both girls were first-generation immigrants to the United States.
Linguistic structures can be used to identify social positioning, and this is frequently referred to as "style" (Bucholtz). Style is especially important in the life of teenagers who are attempting to negotiate an institutional structure such as an educational system. These teenagers will frequently form groups, which mirror the distinctions present in the surrounding society. The linguistic style they choose is a way of identifying themselves as members of a group and strengthening alignments with other members.
Linguistic styles are a technique used by many individuals to help establish an identity in emergent social situations. The way in which language is used with regard to practice and performance can be an important part of establishing a social identity in a new environment.
The case study done by Bucholtz studied two Laotian American teenage girls and emphasized the different social identities which can be developed through language. The two girls assigned themselves the Americanized names of Nikki and Ada for the study. Both were from working-class families that were Laotian refugees. Even their choice of a name is indicative of their differences. The girl who decided to follow a gangster style chose the trendy name of Nikki. The girl who identified herself with the traditional and nerdy group chose the more traditional name of Ada, which was pronounced as "aedÉ™". This is characteristic of the nerdy group which identifies itself with more advanced written languages.
The speech patterns of Nikki and Ada were observed in interviews and exhibit the importance of speech style with regard to social group membership. Nikki used informal language such as "when you in a gang... you have a little clique." (Bucholtz, p 134). She participated in a number of gang practices such as wearing a blue bandanna and clothing which was oversized. While completely fluent in both Laotian and English, Nikki chose to speak like other members of the gang she associated with.
An interview with Ada revealed that she spoke middle-class American English. She viewed gang membership and success in school as being mutually exclusive. She shied away from gang membership in order to be successful in her academic endeavors. She placed a high value on intelligence and avoided any colloquial or slang use of English. Her English was impeccable and precise.
Language and Ethnic Identity
Identity is a complex combination of many factors such as culture, education, religious orientation, belief systems, and family values (Brown). Ethnic identity involves how an individual views themselves as part of a particular cultural group. This is an important concept for minority groups that have a different cultural background and language. It is generally true that the social identity of a minority group member is more important to them than social identity is to members of the majority group.
There is a positive relationship between how individual feels about their ethnic identity and their level of language proficiency in the heritage language. Second generation immigrants who are more proficient in the heritage language frequently feel as though they have stronger ties to their ethnic group. For example, second-generation Korean-Americans who were more fluent in the Korean language tended to have a stronger sense of ethnic identity. This has also been found to be true with second generation Puerto Rican children with regard to their competence in Spanish.
Second generation Korean Americans who were fluent in both English and Korean had a stronger sense of ethnic identity than similar individuals that were not as fluent in Korean. This a stronger sense of ethnic identity was associated with a more secure self-perception and increased self-esteem. Mastery of the heritage language served as a method for these individuals to feel grounded in their history. It also led them to feel as though they were members of a group. Both factors led to an increased self-image and a more secure cultural identity.
Language and Identity Threat
Language is a part of how people determine their social identity and can also the used as a defense mechanism when an individual feels their identity is threatened. A study of British South Asians focused on the linguistic repertoire of these individuals. The complex linguistic repertoire of many members of this group has been both criticized and praised in the British media. A number of cognitive advantages associated with bilingualism have been reported. On the other hand, there have been politicians from the United Kingdom, who have criticized this group for not speaking English in their homes. This is seen by some as a barrier to becoming true British citizens.
The media attention, and occasional criticism, of British South Asians with regard to their language provides an opportunity to explore their response to the identity threat. Their response was studied using the model of identity process theory. This theory asserts that there are four universal processes, which determine an identity. These processes are distinctness from others, continuity through time, control of one's life, and feelings of social value. Recently, scholars have added the motives of belonging and life purpose.
One strategy which the British South Asian immigrants appeared to have adopted is to more readily identify with the majority language. In this particular case, the British South Asian individuals evaluated English as being a language which is preferred over their native tongue. This appears to be an attempt to enhance their feeling of social value and belonging in British culture.
It is important to note that despite the tendency to offer a more positive view of the English language when their social identity was threatened, most of these individuals also maintained the importance of their native language. They were using a coping strategy of maintaining their self-identity through the maintenance of their native language, while increasing their social status by a greater acceptance of English.
Bilingual Proficiency and Self-Esteem
A study by Lee investigated the effect bilingual confidence had on the self-esteem of Chinese students between the ages of 11 and 18 who were enrolled in a Chinese language school in western Canada. A number of measures of self-esteem were used including the Cultural Free Self -Esteem Inventories, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Multi-group Ethnic Identity Measure. A multivariate analysis of covariance was used to remove the effect of grade point average.
The study done by Lee involved 110 Chinese Canadian students ranging in age from 11 to 18 years old. The average age was 14, and their grades were between 7 and 12. There were slightly more girls, at 59%, than boys. Approximately, 40% of the sample was born in Canada. The largest majority born outside of Canada were native to Hong Kong. Nearly 32% of the sample had lived in Canada for more than 6 years.
Data analysis of this study revealed several important relationships between self-esteem and other measures of the study. Specifically, global self-esteem was positively correlated with ethnic identity, grade point average, and confidence in speaking English. Academic self-esteem was negatively correlated with age, and positively correlated with the grade point average. Individuals that had a stronger ethnic identity and were more proficient with English had higher academic self-esteem. Social self-esteem was positively correlated with the length of time an individual had been in Canada and their level of proficiency with English. The strongest predictor of self-esteem among the Chinese youth in Canada was English proficiency. Members of this group who were more proficient in English had a higher self-esteem.
The study done by Lee confirmed the findings of other research projects that social identification with one's culture of heritage is an important part of an individual's self-esteem. Students who were closely aligned with their cultural heritage had higher self-esteem. The findings also noted that individuals that were more proficient in English had higher self-esteem. The students who had the highest self-esteem were those who identified with their culture of heritage and fully embraced the English language (Lee).
Conclusion
Language is an important part of how people develop their social identity. Language can be used as a method of communication as well as an indication of group membership. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of being bilingual has on an individual's social identity, and if there are any advantages to being fluent in two languages.
Studies have shown that there is a relationship between levels of language acquisition and social group membership. The study by Chen, Benet-Martinez & Bond looked into the relationship between bilingualism and bicultural identity. It was discovered that immigrants to Hong Kong, who were more proficient in the language had better jobs, stronger social relations, and more satisfying lives. People who were fluent in both languages identified with the culture in Hong Kong and their own culture of heritage. The relationship between language and social identity was also supported by the research of Bartlett. These researchers discovered that a student, who was academically disadvantaged, could use language to help her become a member of a social group which was academically successful. Membership in this group helped the students achieve academic success.
Social identity and self-esteem are a complex phenomenon affected by a number of factors, including education, culture, religious orientation, belief systems, family values, and language. Second-generation immigrants who develop proficiency in the language of their heritage feel a stronger sense of ethnic identity. This ethnic identity leads to increased self-esteem and a more stable concept of self. The study by Lee supported these findings and indicated that the self-esteem of both second generation and first-generation Chinese immigrants to Canada had increased self-esteem if they were proficient in their heritage language. It was also discovered that these individuals had higher self-esteem if they were more proficient in English.
The majority of studies indicated that for immigrants to a country with a different language, being bilingual had several advantages in relation to social identity. Individuals that are fluent in their language of heritage feel closer to their familial roots. This leads to a more stable sense of self and higher self-esteem. Individuals that are fluent in the majority language feel like they are more respected members of society, have better jobs, and better social relationships with the majority culture.
References
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