English Writer 13 | - Freelance Writer
Feb 20, 2018 | #1
Introduction
The development of criminal profiles in order to aid the investigative process has proven to be useful in the past and it is believed that there is considerable potential in this as yet fledgling field to identify and apprehend criminals. In the words of Kocsis et al, "The fundamental role of a psychological profiler is to use information gathered at the scene of a crime and from victims and witnesses in order to construct a biographical sketch that is as specific as possible to the type of person who perpetrated the crime" (79). It is the job of the criminal profiler to pinpoint defining personality characteristics of the offender. Profilers come from a variety of disciplines and consequently criminal profiling is known by a variety of terms that are used interchangeably such as offender profiling, behavioral profiling, or criminal investigative analysis.
Given the nature of this particular field which tends to deviate from established, scientifically proven investigative techniques, a lot of questions have been raised regarding its use in law enforcement. An examination of the process of criminal profiling as an investigating tool, the need for it and an evaluation of its relative strengths and weaknesses provides one with an understanding of how best it may be used to apprehend criminals.
Criminal profiling is a lengthy and complicated process that calls for the painstaking collection of information pertinent to the crime. For the profiler, the process begins at the crime scene - the pieces needed to solve the puzzle are found here, and it would be tough going to proceed without a thorough investigation of the crime scene. Forensic evidence, details concerning the mode of attack, the victim chosen and other relevant details are collected by the profiler and these serve as the foundation on which the criminal profile is constructed. The evidence gathered at the scene of the crime both physical and behavioral serves as the springboard on which the profiler gains access to the criminal mind and a probable solution to the case.
- RECONSTRUCTING THE CRIME
Data accumulated from the crime scene enables the profiler to reconstruct the crime as it occurred. This provides a valuable insight into the psyche of the criminal. As Lee et al put it, "The objectives of crime scene investigation are to recognize, to collect, to interpret, and to reconstruct all the relevant physical evidence at the crime scene" (7). Therefore, crime scene analysis is the cornerstone in developing a viable criminal profile.
Initially, every scrap of physical evidence is gathered, photographed, and carefully preserved by dint of observation and forensic technology. Physical evidence needs to be treated with care as it serves a twofold purpose - to corroborate any behavioral evidence gathered from the scene and to link the suspect to the scene of the crime. An unnecessarily violent and brutal killing for instance helps one understand the psychological makeup of the criminal and would lead to the logical inference that the criminal is sadistic and possesses an ugly temper.
The characteristics of the victim need to be studied in order to understand the aspects of the crime and the hidden attributes of the criminal. If the victim has survived, a lot of information can be gleaned regarding the personality of the offender. General demeanor, manner of speaking, attitude to the victim, degree of violence employed etc. may be ascertained by interviewing the victim. Even otherwise, the type of victim selected can be very revealing. Valuable clues regarding the offender's nature, motives, habits, needs, and personal grievances can be obtained by studying the personal and physical characteristics of the victim.
Thus an analysis of the crime scene, physical evidence, witness reports, and the unique characteristics of the victim selected can help the profiler reconstruct the crime as it occurred leaving no margin for error or doubt. Chisum emphasized the importance of crime scene reconstruction to the development of a criminal profile by stating, "Criminal profilers have realized the need to reconstruct the crime. To explain the behavior of the criminal they need to know what was done at the scene. The study of the crime scene holds many answers to the motives of the suspect, but only if the crime is understood" (qtd. in Bevel & Gardner 25).
By carefully reconstructing the crime, the profiler can put together the numerous nuggets of information in logical fashion. The modus operandi of the criminal will be understood and this is of particular importance in serial killings, where a link can be established between seemingly unrelated crimes. A skeletal profile of the offender begins to emerge and it is the task of the profiler to sift through the information accumulated from an analysis of the crime scene and to use it to flesh out the emerging profile, thereby putting investigators on the scent of the criminal and closing the gap between the offender and justice.
- DEVELOPING A CRIMINAL PROFILE
It must be understood that the profiler is not a magician, and it is not the purpose of the profile to zero in on the likely criminal, rather the profiler seeks to define probable characteristics of the criminal in the hope of narrowing down the list of suspects and in doing so, link the suspect to the scene of the crime and in the long run to gather enough evidence to convict the criminal. It is the aim of the profiler to use the raw data available from the crime scene analysis to reconstruct the crime and create a profile. Profiling entails providing information about the offender's personality traits, approximate age, and physical appearance, marital status, behavior patterns, and psychological characteristics. The profiler must also try to predict future attacks in order to nab the criminal red - handed. Profiling may be inductive or deductive.
According to Turvey, "An inductive criminal profile is a set of offender characteristics that are reasoned by correlational, experiential, and/or statistical inference, to be shared by offenders who commit the same type of crime" (26). In other words, an inductive profile is created on the basis of experience, anecdotal evidence, and informed generalization. It is a study in averages. An example of inductive profiling was seen in the case of Ginger Hayden first published by Gordon, who was stabbed 56 times. The profile of her killer stated that he was likely to be between the ages of 17 - 24, was known to the victim and had an explosive temper . However, this method has come in for a lot of criticism because of its haphazard technique that emphasizes creative thinking as opposed to scientific rationale. It is also regarded as arbitrary, unreliable, inaccurate, and often invalid.
In contrast, a deductive criminal profile does not rely on averages; rather, it focuses on generating a profile that results from an integration of physical as well as behavioral evidence obtained from an analysis of the crime scene. Conclusions drawn about the offender have their basis in physical facts that can be verified and is therefore reliable to an extent. Provided the interpretation of the available facts is correct, chances are the investigators are on the right track. An example for deductive method in creating a criminal profile is the Torney case mentioned by Gudjonsson and Haward: The defendant suggested that it was his 13 - year old son who was responsible for the murders as he gone 'berserk'. Gudjonsson was called in his professional capacity to testify for the crown. On the basis of the physical and behavioral evidence gathered from the crime scene, he found that the murders appeared to have been perpetrated by a cold - blooded killer, proficient in the use of firearms, who went about his business with efficiency. It was a planned execution, one that a 13 - year old gone berserk could not have possibly carried out. Following this testimony, the defendant was convicted.
The British approach to profiling is closer to the deductive methods whereas the American approach was mostly inductive. But nowadays, a combination of inductive as well as deductive reasoning techniques are used since it is acknowledged that there are benefits to both and this makes for a far more flexible approach. The profiler's approach usually depends on the type of crime.
- CRIMES SUITABLE FOR PROFILING
It must be remembered that not all crimes under investigation may be suitable for criminal profiling. It appears that profiling is most useful in those cases where there are indications that the perpetrator is psychologically deviant. Such offenders leave telltale signs that include evidence of sadism, necrophilia, fetishism, rape, and particularly violent acts like eviscerations, decapitations, and the like. According to Hazelwood and Burgess, "...certain crimes are particularly appropriate for the process; these crimes include a series of rapes, serial murders, child molesting, ritualistic crimes, threat communications, violence in the workplace, and serial arson" (qtd. in Holmes & Holmes 10).
Over the years, forensic technology has improved vastly and has had a tremendous impact on police investigations as we know it. Some people go as far as to say that the infamous Jack the Ripper would have been nabbed if Scotland Yard had had the benefits of the enhanced forensic technology available today. Be that as it may, evidence in the form of a fingerprint left on the crime scene, a shoe print, physical evidence like hair, fibers, semen, blood, or other bodily fluids can go a long way in helping the police identify the perpetrator. Locard's Exchange Principle was a groundbreaking development in forensic technology.
According to Saferstein, it "... states that when an offender comes into contact with a location or another person an exchange of evidence occurs. Consequently, the perpetrator leaves a part of himself behind while also taking something with him that is bound to link him to the crime. Physical evidence left behind may be compared against a database of known offenders and more often than not the identity of the perpetrator can be established. Fingerprint technology and DNA profiling can further be used to create an airtight case against the offender. Therefore, as Weston puts it, "It is against this background of rapidly increasing technology that the crime scene is now examined" (22).
Many people believe implicitly in forensic technology grounded as it is in pure scientific rationale and wonder if there is any need for criminal profiling, particularly as the latter calls for behavioral expertise and innovative thought processes that deviate from established scientific methodology. The answer is that forensic technology can do only so much in certain cases. According to Ainsworth, "FBI investigators noted that whilst much forensic evidence can prove a link between a perpetrator and certain crime scene, such evidence is only of real value once a suspect has been identified through other means" (99). There are cases where sophisticated criminals and repeat offenders who have managed to elude arrest are involved. These offenders are meticulous and cautious about leaving physical evidence behind. In these cases as well as cases which are very difficult to solve because they are lacking in clues, particularly serial killing and the like, criminal profiling can be used to narrow down the list of suspects and to point the investigation in the right direction. The profilers of course rely heavily on forensic evidence to glean behavioral information from the scene of the crime. Therefore, it may be concluded that criminal profiling, crime scene analysis, and forensic technology are best used in tandem in order to supplement the results gained using these respective techniques.
The need for criminal profiling was recognized a long time ago in the history of mankind. Over the ages, investigators have made many attempts to determine behavioral characteristics of criminals and have successfully made forays into the criminal mind. However, there is very little documented evidence on the history of criminal profiling save many a dramatic write - up to be found in newspaper clippings or the works of profilers themselves who may be biased in their own favor. Having said that, it must be mentioned that Dr. Brussel is widely regarded as one of the pioneers in the field who drove home the need for criminal profiling on account of the results he was able to achieve. His abilities were successfully showcased in the case of the 'Mad Bomber' who terrorized the city of New York during the 1940s and 1950s. Dr. Brussel developed a profile of the offender that included revealing physical as well as psychological characteristics that were published in a leading newspaper. When George Metesky was apprehended (wearing the double - breasted suit Dr. Brussel predicted he would be wearing' for the bombings, Dr. Brussel's profile was found to be remarkably accurate. It was without doubt a triumph for criminal profiling.
Criminal Profiling has come in for a lot of criticism in recent times. It has been suggested that its greatest failing is the lack of professionalism and unscientific approach. But this approach is demanded by the nature of the work done by profilers. Every profiler has his own unique style and any attempt to create and follow a prescribed procedure on the basis of scientific fact will merely hinder rather than help the creative process that is called for in this line of work.
Still others point to the meager success rate profilers have. Studies on the effectiveness of criminal profiling as an investigative tool have been few and far between and even these have failed to yield concrete results. While the media lauds profilers who appear to have miraculously drawn up a profile that led to the perpetrator's eventual arrest the fact remains that there are many more cases were profiles have proven to be woefully inaccurate or misleading. And these spectacular failures usually go unmentioned. According to Campbell, "... profiles offer no more information than could be obtained from the local bartender; that they are so vague and ambiguous as to be no more than common sense and the only reason the police take any notice of them is that they are impressed by the qualifications of academia" (qtd. in Dwyer 58).
Despite these facts, it would be wrong to dismiss the use of criminal profiling as it has plenty of potential that needs to be tapped and harnessed in order to fight crime. Profiles drawn up by the FBI they claim helped win a conviction against Wayne Williams in the 'Atlanta Child - Killings Case" (Holmes & Holmes 45). Another example of successful profiling was seen in the 'Railway Rapist' case where John Duffy was arrested for a series of rapes and murders thanks to the profile drawn up by Professor David Canter. This profile was drawn up by the careful integration of behavioral theories and forensic data and it helped narrow down the field of suspects leading to the capture of Duffy. Results such as these are encouraging for the future of criminal profiling. Besides it would be unwise to ignore the genuinely talented profilers who have the special knack of striking a balance between scientific rationale and intuition in order to draw up useful profiles. Provided one is aware of the limitations of profilers, there is no reason to prevent the development of criminal profiling.
Another serious charge leveled against profilers is that sometimes profiles are manipulated to fit the attributes of the most likely suspect and merely serve to strengthen the case of the prosecution. This leads to bias against the suspects and it is a pitfall that needs to be avoided in order to avoid prosecution of the innocent. In this regards it must be mentioned that forensic technology is also not exempt from errors arising from bias. In the words of Field and Thomas, in police investigations once a suspect has been identified, "... the objective of the inquiry becomes the one -sided collection [and sometimes 'manufacture'] of evidence to support the police version of what happened" (qtd. in McCartney 31). If profilers and investigators are made aware of this pitfall there is no reason they won't employ caution to keep their minds free from bias.
The limitations of criminal profiling were also apparent in the 2002 'Beltway serial sniper' shootings. Here the tendency of profilers to over - generalize the usability of existing research is evident and consequently, "Many profiles were generated following this series of random shootings. When the individuals accused of these crimes were later apprehended, little congruence emerged between the profiles and the accused persons" (Kocsis & Palermo 333). This complaint is common as misleading or inaccurate profiles can derail the police investigation allowing the criminal to make a clean escape.
Taking these factors into consideration, it must be said that neither forensic technology used in crime scene analysis not criminal profiling taken alone are infallible when it comes to crime detection. Therefore, the best points in both methods must be incorporated into the process of criminal investigation in order for it to be effective.
Conclusion
In light of the facts outlined above it may be concluded that criminal profiling has the potential to serve as a useful tool in the arsenal of law enforcement. It may be used to identify suspects, link them to a crime scene, and secure a conviction. It also helps to supplement the information gathered during the crime scene analysis. When taken together with forensic technology the two make for a formidable combination and make the investigative process easier. However, one must remember the shortcomings of this approach and proceed with caution.
Works Cited
Ainsworth, Peter, B. Offender Profiling and Crime Analysis. Cullompton: Willan Publishing. Print.
Bevel, Tom and Ross M. Gardner. Bloodstain Pattern Analysis: An Introduction to Crime Scene Analysis. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2002. Print.
Brain, Christine: Advanced Psychology: Applications, Issues, and Perspectives. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd. , 2002. Print.
Dwyer, Diana. Angles on Criminal Psychology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd. , 2001. Print.
Holmes, Ronald, and Stephen T. Holmes . Profiling Violent Crimes: An Investigative Tool. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications Inc. , 2002. Print.
Kocsis, Richard, N. et al. "Criminal Psychological Profiling in Violent Crime Investigations: A Comparative Assessment of Accuracy" . Criminal Psychology and Forensic Psychology: A Collaborative Approach to Effective Profiling. Ed. Grover M. Godwin. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2001. 79 - 104. Print.
Kocsis, Richard, N. and George B. Palermo. "Contemporary Problems in Criminal Profiling" . Criminal Profiling: International Theory, Research, and Practice. Ed. Richard, N. Kocsis. Totowa: Humana Press, Inc. 2007. 327 - 346. Print.
Lee, Henry, C. et al. Henry Lee's Crime Scene Handbook. San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press , 2001. Print.
McCartney, Carole. Forensic Identification and Criminal Justice: Forensic Science, Justice and Risk. Portland, Willan Publishing, 2006. Print.
Turvey, Brent, E. Criminal Profiling: An Introduction to Behavioral Evidence Analysis. 2nd ed. San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press, 2001. Print.
Weston, Norman. "The Crime Scene" . Crime Scene to Court: The Essentials of Forensic Science. 2nd ed. Ed. P. C. White. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2004. 21 -55. Print.
The development of criminal profiles in order to aid the investigative process has proven to be useful in the past and it is believed that there is considerable potential in this as yet fledgling field to identify and apprehend criminals. In the words of Kocsis et al, "The fundamental role of a psychological profiler is to use information gathered at the scene of a crime and from victims and witnesses in order to construct a biographical sketch that is as specific as possible to the type of person who perpetrated the crime" (79). It is the job of the criminal profiler to pinpoint defining personality characteristics of the offender. Profilers come from a variety of disciplines and consequently criminal profiling is known by a variety of terms that are used interchangeably such as offender profiling, behavioral profiling, or criminal investigative analysis.
Given the nature of this particular field which tends to deviate from established, scientifically proven investigative techniques, a lot of questions have been raised regarding its use in law enforcement. An examination of the process of criminal profiling as an investigating tool, the need for it and an evaluation of its relative strengths and weaknesses provides one with an understanding of how best it may be used to apprehend criminals.
Criminal Profiling as an Investigating Tool
Criminal profiling is a lengthy and complicated process that calls for the painstaking collection of information pertinent to the crime. For the profiler, the process begins at the crime scene - the pieces needed to solve the puzzle are found here, and it would be tough going to proceed without a thorough investigation of the crime scene. Forensic evidence, details concerning the mode of attack, the victim chosen and other relevant details are collected by the profiler and these serve as the foundation on which the criminal profile is constructed. The evidence gathered at the scene of the crime both physical and behavioral serves as the springboard on which the profiler gains access to the criminal mind and a probable solution to the case.- RECONSTRUCTING THE CRIME
Data accumulated from the crime scene enables the profiler to reconstruct the crime as it occurred. This provides a valuable insight into the psyche of the criminal. As Lee et al put it, "The objectives of crime scene investigation are to recognize, to collect, to interpret, and to reconstruct all the relevant physical evidence at the crime scene" (7). Therefore, crime scene analysis is the cornerstone in developing a viable criminal profile.
Initially, every scrap of physical evidence is gathered, photographed, and carefully preserved by dint of observation and forensic technology. Physical evidence needs to be treated with care as it serves a twofold purpose - to corroborate any behavioral evidence gathered from the scene and to link the suspect to the scene of the crime. An unnecessarily violent and brutal killing for instance helps one understand the psychological makeup of the criminal and would lead to the logical inference that the criminal is sadistic and possesses an ugly temper.
The characteristics of the victim need to be studied in order to understand the aspects of the crime and the hidden attributes of the criminal. If the victim has survived, a lot of information can be gleaned regarding the personality of the offender. General demeanor, manner of speaking, attitude to the victim, degree of violence employed etc. may be ascertained by interviewing the victim. Even otherwise, the type of victim selected can be very revealing. Valuable clues regarding the offender's nature, motives, habits, needs, and personal grievances can be obtained by studying the personal and physical characteristics of the victim.
Thus an analysis of the crime scene, physical evidence, witness reports, and the unique characteristics of the victim selected can help the profiler reconstruct the crime as it occurred leaving no margin for error or doubt. Chisum emphasized the importance of crime scene reconstruction to the development of a criminal profile by stating, "Criminal profilers have realized the need to reconstruct the crime. To explain the behavior of the criminal they need to know what was done at the scene. The study of the crime scene holds many answers to the motives of the suspect, but only if the crime is understood" (qtd. in Bevel & Gardner 25).
By carefully reconstructing the crime, the profiler can put together the numerous nuggets of information in logical fashion. The modus operandi of the criminal will be understood and this is of particular importance in serial killings, where a link can be established between seemingly unrelated crimes. A skeletal profile of the offender begins to emerge and it is the task of the profiler to sift through the information accumulated from an analysis of the crime scene and to use it to flesh out the emerging profile, thereby putting investigators on the scent of the criminal and closing the gap between the offender and justice.
- DEVELOPING A CRIMINAL PROFILE
It must be understood that the profiler is not a magician, and it is not the purpose of the profile to zero in on the likely criminal, rather the profiler seeks to define probable characteristics of the criminal in the hope of narrowing down the list of suspects and in doing so, link the suspect to the scene of the crime and in the long run to gather enough evidence to convict the criminal. It is the aim of the profiler to use the raw data available from the crime scene analysis to reconstruct the crime and create a profile. Profiling entails providing information about the offender's personality traits, approximate age, and physical appearance, marital status, behavior patterns, and psychological characteristics. The profiler must also try to predict future attacks in order to nab the criminal red - handed. Profiling may be inductive or deductive.
According to Turvey, "An inductive criminal profile is a set of offender characteristics that are reasoned by correlational, experiential, and/or statistical inference, to be shared by offenders who commit the same type of crime" (26). In other words, an inductive profile is created on the basis of experience, anecdotal evidence, and informed generalization. It is a study in averages. An example of inductive profiling was seen in the case of Ginger Hayden first published by Gordon, who was stabbed 56 times. The profile of her killer stated that he was likely to be between the ages of 17 - 24, was known to the victim and had an explosive temper . However, this method has come in for a lot of criticism because of its haphazard technique that emphasizes creative thinking as opposed to scientific rationale. It is also regarded as arbitrary, unreliable, inaccurate, and often invalid.
In contrast, a deductive criminal profile does not rely on averages; rather, it focuses on generating a profile that results from an integration of physical as well as behavioral evidence obtained from an analysis of the crime scene. Conclusions drawn about the offender have their basis in physical facts that can be verified and is therefore reliable to an extent. Provided the interpretation of the available facts is correct, chances are the investigators are on the right track. An example for deductive method in creating a criminal profile is the Torney case mentioned by Gudjonsson and Haward: The defendant suggested that it was his 13 - year old son who was responsible for the murders as he gone 'berserk'. Gudjonsson was called in his professional capacity to testify for the crown. On the basis of the physical and behavioral evidence gathered from the crime scene, he found that the murders appeared to have been perpetrated by a cold - blooded killer, proficient in the use of firearms, who went about his business with efficiency. It was a planned execution, one that a 13 - year old gone berserk could not have possibly carried out. Following this testimony, the defendant was convicted.
The British approach to profiling is closer to the deductive methods whereas the American approach was mostly inductive. But nowadays, a combination of inductive as well as deductive reasoning techniques are used since it is acknowledged that there are benefits to both and this makes for a far more flexible approach. The profiler's approach usually depends on the type of crime.
- CRIMES SUITABLE FOR PROFILING
It must be remembered that not all crimes under investigation may be suitable for criminal profiling. It appears that profiling is most useful in those cases where there are indications that the perpetrator is psychologically deviant. Such offenders leave telltale signs that include evidence of sadism, necrophilia, fetishism, rape, and particularly violent acts like eviscerations, decapitations, and the like. According to Hazelwood and Burgess, "...certain crimes are particularly appropriate for the process; these crimes include a series of rapes, serial murders, child molesting, ritualistic crimes, threat communications, violence in the workplace, and serial arson" (qtd. in Holmes & Holmes 10).
The Need for Criminal Profiling
Over the years, forensic technology has improved vastly and has had a tremendous impact on police investigations as we know it. Some people go as far as to say that the infamous Jack the Ripper would have been nabbed if Scotland Yard had had the benefits of the enhanced forensic technology available today. Be that as it may, evidence in the form of a fingerprint left on the crime scene, a shoe print, physical evidence like hair, fibers, semen, blood, or other bodily fluids can go a long way in helping the police identify the perpetrator. Locard's Exchange Principle was a groundbreaking development in forensic technology.
According to Saferstein, it "... states that when an offender comes into contact with a location or another person an exchange of evidence occurs. Consequently, the perpetrator leaves a part of himself behind while also taking something with him that is bound to link him to the crime. Physical evidence left behind may be compared against a database of known offenders and more often than not the identity of the perpetrator can be established. Fingerprint technology and DNA profiling can further be used to create an airtight case against the offender. Therefore, as Weston puts it, "It is against this background of rapidly increasing technology that the crime scene is now examined" (22).
Many people believe implicitly in forensic technology grounded as it is in pure scientific rationale and wonder if there is any need for criminal profiling, particularly as the latter calls for behavioral expertise and innovative thought processes that deviate from established scientific methodology. The answer is that forensic technology can do only so much in certain cases. According to Ainsworth, "FBI investigators noted that whilst much forensic evidence can prove a link between a perpetrator and certain crime scene, such evidence is only of real value once a suspect has been identified through other means" (99). There are cases where sophisticated criminals and repeat offenders who have managed to elude arrest are involved. These offenders are meticulous and cautious about leaving physical evidence behind. In these cases as well as cases which are very difficult to solve because they are lacking in clues, particularly serial killing and the like, criminal profiling can be used to narrow down the list of suspects and to point the investigation in the right direction. The profilers of course rely heavily on forensic evidence to glean behavioral information from the scene of the crime. Therefore, it may be concluded that criminal profiling, crime scene analysis, and forensic technology are best used in tandem in order to supplement the results gained using these respective techniques.
The need for criminal profiling was recognized a long time ago in the history of mankind. Over the ages, investigators have made many attempts to determine behavioral characteristics of criminals and have successfully made forays into the criminal mind. However, there is very little documented evidence on the history of criminal profiling save many a dramatic write - up to be found in newspaper clippings or the works of profilers themselves who may be biased in their own favor. Having said that, it must be mentioned that Dr. Brussel is widely regarded as one of the pioneers in the field who drove home the need for criminal profiling on account of the results he was able to achieve. His abilities were successfully showcased in the case of the 'Mad Bomber' who terrorized the city of New York during the 1940s and 1950s. Dr. Brussel developed a profile of the offender that included revealing physical as well as psychological characteristics that were published in a leading newspaper. When George Metesky was apprehended (wearing the double - breasted suit Dr. Brussel predicted he would be wearing' for the bombings, Dr. Brussel's profile was found to be remarkably accurate. It was without doubt a triumph for criminal profiling.
Criminal Profiling: An Evaluation
Criminal Profiling has come in for a lot of criticism in recent times. It has been suggested that its greatest failing is the lack of professionalism and unscientific approach. But this approach is demanded by the nature of the work done by profilers. Every profiler has his own unique style and any attempt to create and follow a prescribed procedure on the basis of scientific fact will merely hinder rather than help the creative process that is called for in this line of work.
Still others point to the meager success rate profilers have. Studies on the effectiveness of criminal profiling as an investigative tool have been few and far between and even these have failed to yield concrete results. While the media lauds profilers who appear to have miraculously drawn up a profile that led to the perpetrator's eventual arrest the fact remains that there are many more cases were profiles have proven to be woefully inaccurate or misleading. And these spectacular failures usually go unmentioned. According to Campbell, "... profiles offer no more information than could be obtained from the local bartender; that they are so vague and ambiguous as to be no more than common sense and the only reason the police take any notice of them is that they are impressed by the qualifications of academia" (qtd. in Dwyer 58).
Despite these facts, it would be wrong to dismiss the use of criminal profiling as it has plenty of potential that needs to be tapped and harnessed in order to fight crime. Profiles drawn up by the FBI they claim helped win a conviction against Wayne Williams in the 'Atlanta Child - Killings Case" (Holmes & Holmes 45). Another example of successful profiling was seen in the 'Railway Rapist' case where John Duffy was arrested for a series of rapes and murders thanks to the profile drawn up by Professor David Canter. This profile was drawn up by the careful integration of behavioral theories and forensic data and it helped narrow down the field of suspects leading to the capture of Duffy. Results such as these are encouraging for the future of criminal profiling. Besides it would be unwise to ignore the genuinely talented profilers who have the special knack of striking a balance between scientific rationale and intuition in order to draw up useful profiles. Provided one is aware of the limitations of profilers, there is no reason to prevent the development of criminal profiling.
Another serious charge leveled against profilers is that sometimes profiles are manipulated to fit the attributes of the most likely suspect and merely serve to strengthen the case of the prosecution. This leads to bias against the suspects and it is a pitfall that needs to be avoided in order to avoid prosecution of the innocent. In this regards it must be mentioned that forensic technology is also not exempt from errors arising from bias. In the words of Field and Thomas, in police investigations once a suspect has been identified, "... the objective of the inquiry becomes the one -sided collection [and sometimes 'manufacture'] of evidence to support the police version of what happened" (qtd. in McCartney 31). If profilers and investigators are made aware of this pitfall there is no reason they won't employ caution to keep their minds free from bias.
The limitations of criminal profiling were also apparent in the 2002 'Beltway serial sniper' shootings. Here the tendency of profilers to over - generalize the usability of existing research is evident and consequently, "Many profiles were generated following this series of random shootings. When the individuals accused of these crimes were later apprehended, little congruence emerged between the profiles and the accused persons" (Kocsis & Palermo 333). This complaint is common as misleading or inaccurate profiles can derail the police investigation allowing the criminal to make a clean escape.
Taking these factors into consideration, it must be said that neither forensic technology used in crime scene analysis not criminal profiling taken alone are infallible when it comes to crime detection. Therefore, the best points in both methods must be incorporated into the process of criminal investigation in order for it to be effective.
Conclusion
In light of the facts outlined above it may be concluded that criminal profiling has the potential to serve as a useful tool in the arsenal of law enforcement. It may be used to identify suspects, link them to a crime scene, and secure a conviction. It also helps to supplement the information gathered during the crime scene analysis. When taken together with forensic technology the two make for a formidable combination and make the investigative process easier. However, one must remember the shortcomings of this approach and proceed with caution.
Works Cited
Ainsworth, Peter, B. Offender Profiling and Crime Analysis. Cullompton: Willan Publishing. Print.
Bevel, Tom and Ross M. Gardner. Bloodstain Pattern Analysis: An Introduction to Crime Scene Analysis. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2002. Print.
Brain, Christine: Advanced Psychology: Applications, Issues, and Perspectives. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd. , 2002. Print.
Dwyer, Diana. Angles on Criminal Psychology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd. , 2001. Print.
Holmes, Ronald, and Stephen T. Holmes . Profiling Violent Crimes: An Investigative Tool. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications Inc. , 2002. Print.
Kocsis, Richard, N. et al. "Criminal Psychological Profiling in Violent Crime Investigations: A Comparative Assessment of Accuracy" . Criminal Psychology and Forensic Psychology: A Collaborative Approach to Effective Profiling. Ed. Grover M. Godwin. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2001. 79 - 104. Print.
Kocsis, Richard, N. and George B. Palermo. "Contemporary Problems in Criminal Profiling" . Criminal Profiling: International Theory, Research, and Practice. Ed. Richard, N. Kocsis. Totowa: Humana Press, Inc. 2007. 327 - 346. Print.
Lee, Henry, C. et al. Henry Lee's Crime Scene Handbook. San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press , 2001. Print.
McCartney, Carole. Forensic Identification and Criminal Justice: Forensic Science, Justice and Risk. Portland, Willan Publishing, 2006. Print.
Turvey, Brent, E. Criminal Profiling: An Introduction to Behavioral Evidence Analysis. 2nd ed. San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press, 2001. Print.
Weston, Norman. "The Crime Scene" . Crime Scene to Court: The Essentials of Forensic Science. 2nd ed. Ed. P. C. White. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2004. 21 -55. Print.