Learning English as a Foreign Language: Challenges and Strategies - Extensive Research

Foreigners Learning English Language

Abstract

The prevalence of the English language on the world stage is irrefutable, and an increasing focus exists in recent literature regarding obstacles faced by English as a foreign language (EFL) students. This research inquiry explored studies published in peer-reviewed journals within the past five years, revealing that three, common obstacles exist for EFL students in non-English speaking nations; these are low self-efficacy, poor attitudes, and narrow teaching strategies. In surmounting these obstacles, reflective journaling emerged as a channel for addressing all three challenges and boosting learner autonomy in accordance with accommodation theory. The greatest gap in the literature is a failure to address any preventative measures for countering low self-efficacy and poor attitudes before they manifest in students.

Introduction

Students learning English as a foreign language (EFL) are presented with a myriad of challenges that significantly affect how efficiently they acquire the language. Nations in which English is not the primary language are increasingly recognising the global nature of English, particularly with respect to professional communications. As the English language becomes more and more paramount in the twenty-first century as a common tongue in the global marketplace, EFL students are charged to surmount the challenges they face learning the language in a non-English speaking nation. This inquiry posits that there are shared problems faced by EFL students in non-English speaking nations, and finding relevant solutions to these problems is essential given the primacy of English as the twenty-first century progresses.

Despite the dominance of English in the global marketplace, only a handful of nations recognize English as an official language (Crystal, 2003). Attitudes regarding English as the proverbial global language vary widely all over the world, with those hailing from English-speaking nations, particularly the United Kingdom and the United States, exhibiting protective feelings over English while EFL students may begrudge the effort required to acquire such a complex language (Crystal, 2003). Moreover, the cultural survival of some nations is being threatened by the focus on English, birthing resentment and anger among EFL students. English has, however, gained status as a global language due to its prevalence around the world, and nations have made choices, both strategic and unwitting, to accept English into their societies (Crystal, 2003).

Accommodation theory asserts that speakers of languages automatically adjust their communicative behaviours due to their roles in the conversation (Crystal, 2003). Accommodating behaviours are generally evident only in face-to-face communication, manifesting as complex, reciprocal mannerisms and expressions that both affect and are affected by attitudes, self-efficacy, and autonomy of the speaker (Nunan, 1998). This theory is applicable to EFL students as it facilitates understanding of why students learning English in a non-English speaking nation may interpret their roles in a specific way in accordance with their non-native English speaking status.

The purpose of this study is to ascertain what common challenges are faced by EFL learners, as this is particularly critical given English's global language status (Crystal, 2003). By extension, the following two research questions are posed:

1. What common challenges are faced by EFL learners in non-English speaking nations?

2. How can these challenges by surmounted, if at all?

Methodology

In recognising that there are problems faced by EFL students around the world, this researcher pursued the posed questions by exploring recent, scholarly literature on the topic. Using an electronic library search, literature was selected that was published in peer-reviewed journals within the last five years. The following keywords were used for the search, within the context of peer-reviewed journals published since the year 2006: English as a foreign language, challenges, students, teaching strategies, obstacles, and learning differences. Any literature that did not focus on non-English speaking nations specifically was eliminated, and four, peer-reviewed journal articles were selected for addressing the research questions.

The articles were selected due to their scientific nature, using mixed-method methodologies, and their critical discussion of challenges faced by EFL students in a range of nations around the world. Supplementing these four studies were two texts that provided a theoretical foundation for the study; these texts were not confined to the ten-year timeframe for publishing. The study explored the research questions by synthesising the authors' conclusions and expanding on their evidence critically and thoughtfully.

Results

The research suggests that there are several common challenges faced by EFL students; these are related to self-efficacy, attitudes, learner autonomy, and teaching strategies. The literature varies considerably regarding how these challenges should be overcome, as most of the empirical evidence surrounded identifying the challenges and only speculated how these challenges could be surmounted. The four studies varied widely according to participant pools and methodologies used; and yet, the aforementioned, common themes were evident.

Young EFL Learner Self-Efficacy

The link between learner self-efficacy and academic performance is well documented but has been asserted as even more paramount within the context of language acquisition (Wang & Pape, 2007). Authors Wang and Pape (2007) cite that learners with a higher degree of self-efficacy are more persistent in solving language problems but highlighted that self-efficacy among young language learners is under-studied. Given the dearth of research regarding young EFL students and self-efficacy, the authors examined the relationship between self-efficacy and English language learning among three, Chinese students.

Self-efficacy is defined by Wang and Pape (2007) as "individuals' judgments of what they can do with the skills they possess, rather than the judgments of the skills themselves, and four major sources of self-efficacy information impact the level of self-efficacy: mastery or enactive experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and physiological or emotional state" (p. 364). Mastery and enactive experiences relates to past experiences of successes and failures, with the former raising self-efficacy and latter diminishing it, while vicarious experience refers to the observation of others' successes and failures (Wang & Pape, 2007). Social persuasion is the feedback received by students from peers and adults regarding the adequacy of language performance, and somatic information is the meaning given to the learning challenge (Wang & Pape, 2007).

Three, Chinese boys within the same academic context were qualitatively studied over a six month period. The methodology included three audiotaped parental interviews, six hours of interviews with the children, fifteen videotaped observations of the participants at play, fifteen classroom observations, thirty follow-up, unstructured interviews, and a wide range of academic documents (Wang & Pape, 2007). A mix of Chinese and English were used during the study, and self-efficacy was judged according to persistence in accomplishing language tasks, self-awareness of English proficiency, and willingness to engage in language activities (Wang & Pape, 2007). The study concluded that self-efficacy was mutable according to observed context. Moreover, vicarious self-efficacy was not able to be examined since there was no modeling available to students, and there was a strong influence of the particular task on the students' self-efficacy. The simpler the task, overall, the higher the degree of self-efficacy for the students (Wang & Pape, 2007). Natural settings, such as the playground or cafeteria, seemed to boost student self-efficacy over classroom settings, though the bulk of observation took place in the classroom.

Attitudes of EFL Higher Education Students

Similar to self-efficacy, attitudes of language learners are posited to have a significant impact of learning success (Abu-Melhim, 2009). Attitudes diverge from self-efficacy, however, in several important ways. Attitudes are associations between objects and evaluations of those objects. Alternatively, attitudes are enduring evaluations of aspects of the social world that are stored within students' memories. Positive attitudes reveal the advantages of the object or, more specifically, the advantages of the subject's acknowledgement of the object's value (Abu-Melhim, 2009). Negative attitudes are those that conversely reveal the disadvantages of the object (Abu-Melhim, 2009).

Attitudes have three components; these being affective or feelings about the attitude object, behavioural or a predisposition to act toward the attitude object in a specific way, and cognitive or beliefs specifically about the attitude object (Abu-Melhim, 2009). With respect to language specifically, the affecting attitudes are toward the language, toward learning the language, toward the teacher, and toward school in general. Abu-Melhim (2009) explored the attitudes of forty-five female EFL students in Jordan through qualitative interviews, concluding that the motivations for learning English significantly impacted the attitudes toward English language learning.

For example, many students believed that learning English was necessary to achieve their career goals, while others were merely pursuing the language because their parents were recommending they do so. Positive attitudes toward the language stemmed from believing it was important for becoming a global citizen, traveling and communicating cross-culturally. Only 64% of students cited that they "liked" the English language, and over 60% of participants had chosen the institution in which they were studying the language. A dominant theme existed that highlighted perceived necessity of English as influencing student attitudes.

Teaching Strategies and EFL Learning

Both Abu-Melhim and Wang and Pape highlighted that the teacher holds the power to support learner success, countering low self-efficacy and negative attitudes among learners, respectively. Gocer (2010) extends this point by citing that teaching strategies determine the techniques used by students during language acquisition, promoting listening, speaking, reading, and writing to varying degrees. For example, an educator that utilises visual and auditory tools will attract student attention, create dialogue environments, and assist in promoting the use of language in a natural environment.

The three, dominant types of teaching strategies are metacognitive, or those that involve knowing about learning and controlling it accordingly, cognitive, or those that transform the material, and social-affective, or those that involve the learner in direct communication (Gocer, 2010). The ability of the teacher to promote an environment in which learners experience all types of strategies to varying degrees is paramount, but non-native English speaking teachers struggle with balancing instruction in this way (Gocer, 2010). By extension, a salient challenge faced by students is the non-native English speaking status of teachers. Gocer (2010) investigated the relationship between teaching strategies and student success in several Turkish high schools, using qualitative interviews. The study concluded that most teachers use multi-media techniques in teaching and approach EFL instruction from an eclectic perspective. The author highlighted a possible dearth of discussion regarding the advantages of English language learning in class, citing that teachers did not examine the importance of English beyond the classroom to a sufficient extent. Alternative assessments and learner-centered instruction were rarely employed, and Gocer (2010) acknowledged that this is a considerable issue and would provide greater success among EFL students.

Porto (2007) corroborated Gocer's (2010) conclusions that lecture-and-drill methods of teaching and assessment were insufficient in promoting the success of EFL students. According to Porto (2007), students should be afforded a certain amount of independence during their learning, and this is particularly critical for language learners. Learner independence manifests in learner choice, which also boosts self-efficacy, learner reflection, which encourages introspection and a reevaluation of potentially poor attitudes toward the language. Porto (2007) examined the efficacy of learning diaries in promoting EFL learning among Argentinean college students learning English, concluding that the diaries were an invaluable teaching tool that boosted self-efficacy and countered negative attitudes among EFL learners.

Discussion

The literature suggests that the common challenges facing EFL learners of all ages are low self-efficacy, poor attitudes, and teaching strategies that do not afford them a high degree of independence. Three of the four studies (Abu-Melhim, 2009; Gocer, 2010; Porto, 2007) also suggested that non-native English speaking teachers could inadvertently hinder the language acquisition of students, with Abu-Melhim (2009) asserting that these teachers were less likely to use alternative assessments and eclectic teaching strategies. The literature was limited by the cultural contexts in which the studies were conducted, but Jordan, Argentina, China, and Turkey are reflective of a broad, cultural context. The following section synthesises the research, affording particular respect to existing gaps and limitations while making recommendations for future studies.

Research Question I: Challenges Faced by EFL Learners

Though Wang and Pape's (2007) study focused on young EFL students, and the other three studies highlighted university-level learners, the challenges faced by all participants seemed markedly similar. The common challenges are related to low self-efficacy, poor attitudes, and narrow teaching strategies that fail to promote learner independence. In identifying these challenges, methods for surmounting them in answer to the second research question will become more evident.

Self-Efficacy Problems.

For example, Wang and Pope's (2007) study asserted that all three participants were very aware that their English proficiency was low, reporting low self-efficacy levels for tasks that required a skill level greater than what they possessed. Vocabulary was a particular area of struggle for the participants, and past, negative experiences in English vocabulary tests significantly lowered the participants' self-efficacy levels. Emerging from Wang and Pape's (2007) study, however, was that areas in which the language content was situated was particularly critical. One of the participants, for instance, excelled at the game of chess, so language-related questions that highlighted chess boosted his self-efficacy levels considerably.

All three students in Wang and Pape's (2007) study had low self-efficacy with respect to social persuasion, as the participants' parents and teachers had given the children regular, derogatory comments regarding their English-speaking ability. Poor report cards and low test scores that were not mediated by any verbal feedback or constructive criticism were particularly damaging to the students' self-efficacy, and, in turn, boost anxiety levels during language learning. Anxiety levels were among the most significant self-efficacy challengers, and there seemed to be a reciprocal relationship between anxiety and self-efficacy (Wang & Pape, 2007). Anxiety as being interconnected to self-efficacy was highlighted by Porto (2007) as well, with the author examining how teaching strategies boosting learner independence also reduce anxiety and boost self-efficacy.

Overall, self-efficacy as it relates to EFL success and learner autonomy is prevalent in all four studies. Accommodation theory asserts that language speakers will assume the roles they believe they have (Crystal, 2003), and self-efficacy then has the power to promote success not only in the classroom context but also during practical application of English in the proverbial real-world. If the classroom is a microcosm of environment in which students will apply their English knowledge, then a high degree of self-efficacy in the academic world will translate accordingly in professional and social contexts.

EFL students are in a unique position in that English is generally not entirely foreign to these learners; they have preconceived notions of grammar and vocabulary birthed from interactions with films and other media (Crystal, 2003). By extension, self-efficacy birthed from past experience with English that was positive is critical to EFL success. Moreover, creating opportunities for students to place English in a context with which they are familiar, such as relating it to a sport or otherwise culturally relevant subject, is paramount in boosting self-efficacy for young learners in particular.

Negative Attitudes.

Abu-Melhim (2009), Porto (2007), and Wang and Pape (2007) all placed considerable emphasis on negative attitudes toward the English language as a salient obstacle in learning the language. Wang and Pape (2007) cited that not only do negative attitudes toward English impede a willingness to learn; they significantly lower self-efficacy among young learners. Identifying with an English speaking community is paramount in non-English speaking nations for EFL students, and that identification should not be a coerced one. Promoting positive connections with English-speaking communities, be they virtual or otherwise, is then a valuable means of reducing negative attitudes and promoting self-efficacy.

Overall, the literature highlights attitudes towards English as malleable in the same way that self-efficacy can change over time (Abu-Melhim, 2009; Wang & Pape, 2007). Abu-Melhim (2009) highlights that attitudes are internalized, however, and external influences in the academic environment can only affect attitudes among students insofar as they allow those effects to take place. Positive attitudes toward the language promote a willingness to be challenged and make mistakes, and these attitudes are birthed only from a genuine willingness to want to learn the language (Abu-Melhim, 2009).

The positive attitudes had by EFL students fuel an internal desire to acquire the language that, according to Abu-Melhim (2009), is not entirely controllable by teachers. The author asserts "it is crucial that students play their role. The role they play depends very much on their attitude towards the language itself and learning it. For instance, if you perceive the English language as not important, then to you, learning the language is a sheer waste of time. Whatever the work you produce is done out of routine" (p. 682). In essence, positive attitudes serve as a motivator, while negative attitudes serve as a considerable demotivator.

While the literature is clear on the link between negative attitudes, poor self-efficacy, and low levels of EFL success, it does not discuss from where, precisely, these attitudes emerge. Though Wang and Pape (2007) and Abu-Melhim (2009) highlight that teachers should aim to counter negative attitudes, neither author makes any concrete recommendations regarding how to do so beyond promoting membership in English-speaking communities. Only Gocer (2010) and Porto (2007) articulate how certain teaching strategies could potentially promote positive attitudes toward English.

Teaching Strategies.

Both Gocer (2010) and Porto (2007) discuss various teaching strategies that promote EFL student success. According to Gocer (2010), teachers of English in Turkey are generally highly educated and pursue continuing education workshops regularly. In the classroom, however, they tend to opt for multimedia materials such as textbooks and CD-ROMs. Only 50% of participants had an eclectic teaching style that varied methods such as presentation, findings, naturalistic settings, role-play, and collaborative learning (Gocer, 2010). Physical, classroom conditions were often insufficient, as were schedules for the teachers. Gocer (2010) writes that "the teachers who teach English in Turkey as a foreign language do not have the necessary competence in terms of the use of modern education strategies, utilization of materials and class applications, etc.... [T]he lessons are attempted to be conducted with a traditional teaching approach in which no environment is prepared for the efficient use of the target language" (p. 196). Consequently, Gocer (2010) concluded that none of the students exhibited interest in or desire to learn English effectively.

Students must be exposed to the advantages of English beyond the classroom, lest they will not be sufficiently motivated to acquire English. In a non-English speaking country, exposure to English-speaking communities and the use of teaching strategies that employ alternative assessments beyond lecture-and-drill, textbook-based learning is critical in catering to a wide population of learners (Gocer, 2010; Porto, 2007). Students learn differently, and Gocer's (2010) study indicates that a large portion of highly education EFL teachers in Turkish schools are only employing narrow teaching methods.

Porto (2007) discussed the insufficient nature of most EFL teaching strategies, corroborating Gocer's (2010) point that many teachers rely heavily on their instructional materials and do not seek out alternative methods for assessment and instruction. Both Porto (2007) and Gocer (2010) highlight that EFL teachers frequently do not have time to explore alternative teaching strategies, but Porto (2007) argues that fostering learner independence is paramount to the EFL classroom and can be done in any curricular context.

Research Question II: Surmounting the Challenges

Articulating the importance of cultural differences, Porto (2007) uniquely examines how learner autonomy is conducive to learning the English language, as it is situated in a capitalistic, individually focused culture. Learner autonomy, like high self-efficacy and positive attitudes toward English, is difficult to achieve and emerges gradually out of a combination of accommodation and resistance. In accordance with accommodation theory, learners who are allowed to independently pursue tasks begin to take on the role of being an independent speaker of English (Porto, 2007).

Autonomous learning takes place within one of four contexts; these are language awareness, awareness of learning options, awareness of learning goals, and awareness of self (Porto, 2007). Porto (2007) uses diary writing as a means of manifesting learner autonomy in all of these areas, emphasizing that the reflective nature of writing can counter internalised, negative attitudes toward the English language. Because poor attitudes exist on the unconscious level, particularly if they are enduring attitudes, diary writing can reveal issues affecting EFL success of which the student may be otherwise unaware.

In accordance with Wang and Pape's (2007) assertion that learners have higher self-efficacy when a language learning task is situated within a familiar context, Porto (2007) cites that allowing students a degree of freedom when writing in their diaries is paramount, as it supports the personally relevant pursuit of learning. Self-efficacy is significantly greater when there is a higher degree of learner choice, and the diaries allow students to effectively boost their own self-efficacy while navigating potential obstacles to learning (Porto, 2007). The learning diaries provided a context for self-reflection that revealed a range of issues affecting success in the EFL classroom and provided a valuable channel for formative assessment for the instructor.

Porto's (2007) use of self-reflection also aligns closely with Wang and Pape's (2007) recommendation that students focus on positive experiences as a means of boosting their self-efficacy. Journaling can uncover experiences with English that students may not otherwise be cognizant, thereby promoting further inquiry and greater self-efficacy. In countering negative attitudes, reflective journaling helps students unpack these attitudes, potentially revealing that they are unfounded (Porto, 2007). Porto (2007) also argues that urging students to discuss their journal entries facilitates a classroom community of reflection that is a powerful mechanism in motivating learners and fostering learner autonomy.

The accommodation theory framework is particularly critical to Porto's (2007) study, as it provides a structure within which learner independence functions to promote successful English speakers beyond the classroom. Traditional, EFL classroom practice counters learner autonomy and therefore does not provide a context in which learners will accommodate their role as independent English speakers. One of the greatest challenges faced by EFL students is an inability to make choices that will facilitate language-related decisions (Porto, 2007). In the proverbial real-world, there are no textbooks and vocabulary quizzes, and EFL students that have only been afforded lecture-and-drill opportunities for learning are not successful in the professional or social English-speaking context. Porto concludes the following:

In countries where the importance of reflection, critical thinking, and autonomy in language learning and learning in general is acknowledged and practiced, this study points to the value of systematic introspection by learners and instructors over time, not only in foreign language learning contexts but also in content area learning and in the acquisition of native languages. The results of this study also suggest that the exploration and public sharing of different understandings on the part of instructors and their students of what learning and teaching involve may foster tolerance, eradicate stereotyped views about learning and teaching, improve teacher-student relationships and, in this way, lead to autonomy and critical reflection in learning (p. 672).

The literature reveals that common challenges exist for English language learners in non-English speaking nations, and teaching strategies that extend beyond those found in traditional EFL practice have the ability to at least partially aid students in surmounting these challenges.

Synthesis

The literature clearly reveals that low self-efficacy, poor attitudes, and insufficient teaching strategies are the most significant challenges faced by EFL students. Gocer's (2010) study highlighted that teacher training is not a particular problem, though Abu-Melhim (2009) discussed that poor EFL teacher training has been emphasized in previous literature as formidable issues in the EFL profession. Limited resources, including time, were highlighted in both Gocer's (2010) and Porto's (2007) study as potential obstacles for EFL learners, but all four studies argued that self-efficacy, poor attitudes, and insufficient teaching strategies were common problems.

The four studies focused geographically and culturally on China, Turkey, Argentina, and Jordan, all of which are non-English speaking nations. Cultivating learner autonomy, boosting self-efficacy, and expanding teaching strategies seemed to be more realistic in terms of ways educators can affect EFL student success than changing the attitudes of students. However, the literature did highlight that attitudes, like self-efficacy, is mutable. Teachers that make use of strategies such as reflective journaling can then provide opportunities for students to amend their own attitudes in an autonomous way, as attitudes cannot be externally changed.

Recommendations for Future Research

All of the literature had relatively small participant pools, under fifty participants, and was very specific to a geographic locale. Future research should focus on expanding the participant pools across national and cultural lines. The most salient areas of future research that are indicative of gaps in the reviewed literature are alternative assessments, possible limitations in training opportunities for EFL teachers, and possible roots of negative attitudes toward the English language among EFL students.

In short, the literature revealed the challenges that exist and, to a certain extent, articulated how those challenges might be surmounted. However, there was no discussion regarding how those obstacles, particularly low self-efficacy and poor attitudes, might be preemptively addressed. In student self-efficacy can be high from the beginning of EFL instruction in accordance with positive attitudes, then self-efficacy need not be boosted and poor attitudes need not be countered. Language learning is a complex, multidimensional field that demands constant, empirical attention (Crystal, 2003; Nunan, 1998). Given the global nature of the English language, filling the existing gaps in the literature is a critical charge of language professionals in the twenty-first century (Crystal, 2003).

The limited role of the educator highlighted by Abu-Melhim (2009) is at once interesting and unsettling, as a significant part of EFL success is charged to the student alone. If educators cannot, of their own volition, foster students' absorption of English, then optimum channels for facilitating English language learning must be uncovered and implemented into the EFL landscape. Future trends in research will undoubtedly focus on EFL, particularly as it is affected by globalisation. Students in non-English speaking nations will increasingly have more prior engagements with the English language due to the World Wide Web's influence and other technological innovations. Precisely how these forces will impact EFL remains to be seen, though the research implies that positive, prior experiences will boost self-efficacy while negative ones will diminish it (Wade & Pape, 2007).

Though this study only discussed the themes of four, recent studies, the shared nature of these themes is very telling. Future research should examine more of these shared themes, be they challenges or means of surmounting these challenges, as shared obstacles to English language acquisition will emerge as the language itself becomes more common around the world. Additional forces that may emerge as critical in the twenty-first century are the "new Englishes" that are evolving as the language combines with other tongues (Crystal, 2003), English acquisition during early childhood as opposed to later in life, and the advent of business English, relevant primarily in the professional context.

Conclusion

This project aimed to address common problems among EFL students, asking what these problems are and how they might be reasonably surmounted in the classroom. The literature did reflect three common themes, and alternative teaching strategies that afford EFL students a higher degree of autonomy emerged as a salient means of overcoming these shared challenges. Though the studies only focused on four nations, the common challenges experienced by students in China, Argentina, Jordan, and Turkey is likely indicative of these challenges pervading EFL instruction all over the world; these nations have few cultural ties within one another, even in this age of globalisation, and amending EFL instruction globally is an important goal for modern educators all over the world.

Undoubtedly, however, there cannot be a universal means of providing EFL instruction, as tailoring the learning experience to students individually and as much as possible is integral to the modern field of education. Supporting learner independence and encouraging self-reflection among students can address a range of challenges burdening the learning community, many of which are related to inclusion and learner diversity. For language learners, however, the internalisation of an independent, English speaker's role is important if the language is going to be spoken outside of the classroom context which is, ultimately, the goal of EFL instruction.

This study could easily be expanded to delve into more studies that examine the role played by the three, identified challenges in foreign language learning in general, outside of the English language context. Language is acquired in much the same way across cultural lines (Nunan, 1998), and the investigation of common themes shared by the language learning community can benefit a range of learners. More research is needed to address from where the identified obstacles stem, as preventatively addressing the problems of low learner self-efficacy and poor attitudes toward the English language is preferable to allowing these issues to manifest and address them after-the-fact.

Accommodation theory was significantly useful in framing this problem, as it promotes the role of learner's perceptions in assuming the role of an EFL speaker. If learners perceive themselves to be poor speakers of English, they will effectually be poor speakers of English. Similarly, if students perceive English to be an instrument of cultural imperialism, they are unlikely to devote the time and energy needed to acquire English. Educators can provide opportunities for boosting self-efficacy and enhancing positive attitudes toward English, but they cannot force students to have high self-efficacy or view the language positively.

In the end, it is the charge of students to authenticate their English language learning, and this authentication must come, in part, from an acknowledgement of English's role in the contemporary world. This project is significant in that it highlights that while English is prevalent in the world marketplace, EFL instruction is comparatively lacking. While predicting the future of languages is difficult, the English language is undoubtedly becoming standard throughout the world, particularly with respect to business (Crystal, 2003). EFL instruction is, by extension, integral to most standardised, educational systems in a range of nations, both developed and developing alike, and students who possess a genuine, accommodating interest in learning the language will be more successful in this task than those who do not. The role of the educator is an important one, but not an all-powerful one. Teachers are facilitators of language learning who open channels for language acquisition (Nunan, 1998); they do not embed information in students' minds.

Annotated Bibliography

Abu-Melhim, A. (2009). Attitudes of Jordanian College Students towards Learning English as a Foreign Language. College Student Journal, 43(2), 682-700.

This journal article discusses the critical role played by language learners' attitudes in an English as a foreign language (EFL) context. The researchers embarked upon an empirical, mixed-method investigation of Jordanian EFL learners' attitudes toward English and highlighted that shared, negative attitudes exist for these students, many of which stem from being forced to learn English by their parents or otherwise not feeling sufficiently motivated to learn the language. The author does not highlight other root causes for these attitudes, however, and this is a significant limitation of the study. This study will be used in identifying poor attitudes as a possible obstacle to EFL students. There are several parallels with other studies reviewed herein that are markedly useful to the inquiry, including how teachers might act to counter negative attitudes in a very limited way.

Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

This text provides a comprehensive, though sometimes speculative, look at how the English language is evolving in the twenty-first century. The author highlights that English is increasingly "global," and educators are aiming to catch-up to the pervasiveness of the language in the business landscape. This was one of two sources that were used primarily as reference books regarding to language instruction. Overall, the author provides a brief overview of accommodation theory, which is the primary, theoretical framework for the study. An additional use was the predictions made regarding English's manifestations in the future, which were discussed briefly in the conclusion.

Gocer, A. (2010). A Qualitative Research on the Teaching Strategies and Class Applications of the High School Teachers Who Teach English in Turkey as a Foreign Language. Education, 131(1), 196-231.

The author discusses how Turkish EFL teachers provide EFL instruction to their students, highlighting several limitations experienced by these instructors. Only half of the educators surveyed diversified instructional strategies, with the remaining participants relying heavily on textbooks and lecture-and-drill methods. The author argues that this is extremely detrimental for language learners, and alternative means of assessment need to be implemented in order for instruction to be more meaningful for students. This study will be used primarily to discuss the limited nature of traditional, EFL practice.

Nunan, D. (1998). Second Language Learning and Teaching. Boston, MA: Heinle Publishing.

This very general text discusses practical strategies for second language learning not limited to English. The author reveals dominating strategies in the foreign language classroom, discusses how pedagogical development influences language learning, and reveals future trends in foreign language instruction. In addition to the Crystal (2003) text, this text was used primarily as a reference book for general, language learning information.

Porto, M. (2007). Learning Diaries in the English as a Foreign Language Classroom: a Tool for Accessing Learners' Perceptions of Lessons and Developing Learner Autonomy and Reflection. Foreign Language Annals, 40(4), 672-703.

This study was very significant to this project. Highlighting how teaching strategies are too narrow in traditional, EFL learning to suit all students and promote learner independence, the author investigates how using reflective journaling can boost learner self-efficacy and counter negative attitudes toward English language acquisition. Because this study addressed directly all three of the challenges revealed as facing EFL students, it was used in answer to research question two, which discussed possible means of overcoming obstacles.

Wang, C., & Pape, S. J. (2007). A Probe into Three Chinese Boys' Self-Efficacy Beliefs Learning English as a Second Language. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 21(4), 364-399.

Though this study had a very small participant pool, it was useful in its overview of self-efficacy as it relates to the EFL student. The authors discuss the various types of self-efficacy as they directly inform EFL success. Though the use of only three participants proved problematic in revealing common themes, the authors' conclusions remain relevant in that they highlight how greater self-efficacy promotes EFL success. A unique point made by the author was that language learning opportunities situated within a personally relevant context promoted a greater degree of learner self-efficacy. Overall, this study will be employed as a means of highlighting low self-efficacy as a challenge faced by EFL students.