Cupcat 9 | - Freelance Writer
Jan 15, 2018 | #1
Abstract
Rapid developments in technology have defined today's society. One of the most popular technological innovations is the mobile device, in the form of the tablet, phablet, smartphone or laptop. Today, millions of individual user mobile devices for various reasons, as do companies. The multiple functionalities of the mobile device in addition to its portable size has made it a highly appealing gadget that may be used for different types of transactions. Over recent years, it has been noted that users of mobile devices are challenged with both privacy and security issues. The primary security issue encountered by mobile device users is hacking, while the worst privacy violation pertains to identity theft. Ethical theories may be used to analyze these issues.
Introduction
Mobile devices have become increasingly ubiquitous as millions of users around the world (including students) find them highly appealing because of their multiple functionalities. Indeed, mobile devices such as smartphones, tablets, phablets and laptops now have greater processing powers, larger memories, and high-definition and extended screen displays, among others. Typically, mobile devices usage are cost-based and privacy-sensitive services, including, "SMS, MMS, telephony, GPRS, camera, and GPS" among others. Thus, a good number of mobile device users want to preserve their privacy but oftentimes fall into the pitfall of believing that their gadgets are secure by default. However, the truth is that many security and privacy issues have been discovered in recent times as they pertain to mobile devices, even matching the same levels as desktop computers. The most important security issue regarding mobile devices is hacking while theft of personal information is the most troublesome privacy issue. This paper presents a discussion of privacy and security issues pertaining to mobile devices, as well as the ethical theories that may be used in analyzing these issues.
New mobile devices, including, Apple's iPhone and iPad, Google's Android-based devices, and Samsung's Galaxy, have remarkable transformed the ways through which people access, store and use information. Businesses are also increasingly benefiting from "data-enabled, multi-network (mobile operator and WiFi enabled), always-on mobile devices" that enhance the efficiency of organizational processes and transactions. Today, mobile devices have gained functionalities that make them like mini-computers. It is unfortunate that juts like desktop computers, mobile devices have also become vulnerable to cyber attacks, primarily hacking. According to some experts, mobile devices are even more vulnerable to security issues because of their smaller size. Mobile devices have smaller screens and keyboards such that webpage address fields tend to be hidden from sight in order to accommodate content. Smaller keyboards usually mean that passwords are shorter and PINs that may be easily cracked are more often in use now. Apart from these, mobile devices have battery constraints such that users do not find it convenient to apply security technologies. In light of these, hackers have found different ways to attack mobile devices through four vulnerabilities.
The first is cellular interception, which is done by intercepting the signals being sent by the device. This was demonstrated by a mobile security analyst named Chris Paget who showed how mobile-phone data on GSM networks may be intercepted through the use of even home-made systems that detect and capture subscriber identities. The second most commonly-used entry point used by mobile hackers is Bluetooth.
Hackers use Bluetooth in three ways. Bluejacking is undertaken when a hacker sends unsolicited messages to open Bluetooth nearby and then exploits Bluetooth's electronic business card feature, vCard. Therefore, Bluetooth must always be switched off if not in use. The second is through bluesnarfing, through which the hacker uses software to steal information by accessing the Bluetooth OBEX push profile. Third, through bluebugging, the hacker exploits the same entry points of the other two methods for the purpose of actually gaining control of the mobile device. The third most widely-used vulnerability by hackers is Wi-Fi. To note, Wi-Fi signals are transmitted through the air, which is an uncontrolled space. This means to say that Wi-Fi signals can travel through walls, ceilings, and windows of buildings "to thousands of feet outside of the building walls."
Wireless LAN devices may not be secure, even their user stations and access points, such that hackers may exploit the vulnerability of the Wi-Fi network and the wired network. The fourth vulnerability that hackers exploit is the global positioning system (GPS) which the majority of mobile devices now have. A hacker can ping a mobile in order to discern the cell tower to which the device is connected. Typically, mobile phone companies triangulate a mobile device's estimated location by triangulation so that the nearest transmission mast to the hone may be determined. This is what hackers access through GPS for the purpose of finding out the user's location, even if the mobile device is off. Hackers even share this information among themselves.
The unique features of mobile devices, such as their mobility, personalization and location-awareness, are the primary enablers of privacy issues. It must be emphasized that mobile device owners use their gadgets in different transactions: from online shopping, to receiving messages from their healthcare providers, and to downloading applications for which they have to pay. In all of these transactions, the mobile owner provides personal and location information so that their transactions may be completed. Consequently, mobile users are easily identifiable to unscrupulous entities such as hackers who seek to access users' demographic data, location information, calling patterns, credit card numbers, social security numbers, and even physical addresses. In cases such as these, hackers invade the privacy of users unless the latter has excellent data protection and privacy safeguards in their mobile devices - which is often not the case. On the other hand, privacy may also violated by non-hackers, such as marketers who reach users through their mobile devices in order to attain sales of a broad range of products and services.
Hacking and invasion of mobile users' privacy may be analyzed using four ethical principles, namely, Kantian ethics, cultural relativism and act and rule utilitarianism.
Kantian Ethics
Kant is among the first philosophers who emphasized human value. According to Kant, human beings have "dignity" and "intrinsic worth" making them valuable "above all price," over and beyond everything on Earth. Kant asserts that human beings are so valuable and irreplaceable due to the fact that they alone have dignity - a quality that other beings do not possess. Therefore, invading another person's privacy is a violation of this dignity. On the other hand, Kant also teaches that the rightness or wrongness of an act is not determined through consequences by whether they fulfill a person's duty. Kant explains that the supreme principle of morality is the Categorical Imperative, which identifies what human beings' duties are. One of the unconditional mandates of the Categorical Imperative is that a person should "act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only." When an individual treats another person as an end, the latter is treated properly and respectfully. In other words, the Categorical Imperative means to say that a person should promote the welfare of others, respect their rights, avoid harming them, and generally, "endeavor, so far as we can, to further the ends of others." Thus, hacking and invasion of privacies are immoral because they show disrespect to other people, is harmful to others and treats others only as a means rather than an end.
The cultural relativist perspective holds that customs can never be "correct or incorrect" considering that all social standards are "culture-bound." Cultural relativism also states that the "right way is the way which the ancestors used and which has been handed down." A specific tradition is its own authority for observance may not be subjected to verification of any kind. Cultural relativism state that people should always respect traditions because they "contain in themselves the authority of the ancestral ghosts" (Rachels 305). Hence, the traditional moral code of a given society should be the determinant of what is right or wrong. Cultural relativism states that it would be arrogant for a person to "to judge the conduct of other peoples" because to be moral, one should respect the practices of other cultures. Therefore, if Americans consider hacking and privacy violations are immoral, Asians should not condemn Americans if they do not agree.
Utilitarianism has two major schools of thought called act and rule utilitarianism. Although both schools consider actions according to their consequences, they have differing perspectives. The perspective of act utilitarianism is that the greatest happiness to the most number of people hinges upon the appropriateness of their actions in a given situation. An act is moral if it is useful to the most number of people. Interestingly, from this perspective, if hacking and violations of privacy are useful to the most number of people, then they are not immoral act. In contrast, rule utilitarianism holds that an act can only be considered if it follows rules that will cause the greatest good or happiness to the most number of people. Rule utilitarianism is based on the belief that an action is appropriate depending on the appropriateness of its rules. When rules are followed, then the greatest happiness to the most number of people follows. In light of these, hacking and violations of privacy can never be moral actions because they break rules about privacy and security.
Conclusion
Mobile devices are now highly sophisticate gadgets that have multiple functionalities. They are like mini computers that are very useful for various types of transactions and personal uses. However, they are even more vulnerable to security and privacy issues compared to computers mainly because of their size. Hacking is the main security issue plaguing mobile devices while privacy violations have been occurring at increasing rates. To note, both privacy and security issues may be analyzed using key ethical theories.
Bibliography
Air Defense."Wireless LAN Security: What Hackers Know That You Don't."
Banuri, Hammad, et al. "An Android runtime security policy enforcement framework." Personal & Ubiquitous Computing 16, no. 6: 631-641. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost.
Browning, Dennis, and Gary C. Kessler. "Bluetooth Hacking: A Case Study." Journal of Digital Forensics, Security & Law 4, no. 2: 57-71. Criminal Justice Abstracts with Full Text.
Cleff, Evelyne Beatrix. "Privacy Issues in Mobile Advertising." International Review of Law, Computers & Technology 21, no. 3: 225-236. Business Source Premier.
Goode, Alan. "Managing mobile security: How are we doing?." Network Security, no. 2
Jakobsson, Markus. "Why Mobile Security is not Like Traditional Security." 2016.
MacMillan, Robert. "Hacker Snoops on GSM Cell Phones in Demo." 2015.
Rachels, James and Stuart Rachels. The Elements of Moral Philosophy, 7/e. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Rachels, James. "The Challenge of Cultural Relativism." In, Nancy Jecker (ed.). Bioethics. New York: Jones & Bartlett, 2017.
Rapid developments in technology have defined today's society. One of the most popular technological innovations is the mobile device, in the form of the tablet, phablet, smartphone or laptop. Today, millions of individual user mobile devices for various reasons, as do companies. The multiple functionalities of the mobile device in addition to its portable size has made it a highly appealing gadget that may be used for different types of transactions. Over recent years, it has been noted that users of mobile devices are challenged with both privacy and security issues. The primary security issue encountered by mobile device users is hacking, while the worst privacy violation pertains to identity theft. Ethical theories may be used to analyze these issues.
Introduction
Mobile devices have become increasingly ubiquitous as millions of users around the world (including students) find them highly appealing because of their multiple functionalities. Indeed, mobile devices such as smartphones, tablets, phablets and laptops now have greater processing powers, larger memories, and high-definition and extended screen displays, among others. Typically, mobile devices usage are cost-based and privacy-sensitive services, including, "SMS, MMS, telephony, GPRS, camera, and GPS" among others. Thus, a good number of mobile device users want to preserve their privacy but oftentimes fall into the pitfall of believing that their gadgets are secure by default. However, the truth is that many security and privacy issues have been discovered in recent times as they pertain to mobile devices, even matching the same levels as desktop computers. The most important security issue regarding mobile devices is hacking while theft of personal information is the most troublesome privacy issue. This paper presents a discussion of privacy and security issues pertaining to mobile devices, as well as the ethical theories that may be used in analyzing these issues.
Security Issues
New mobile devices, including, Apple's iPhone and iPad, Google's Android-based devices, and Samsung's Galaxy, have remarkable transformed the ways through which people access, store and use information. Businesses are also increasingly benefiting from "data-enabled, multi-network (mobile operator and WiFi enabled), always-on mobile devices" that enhance the efficiency of organizational processes and transactions. Today, mobile devices have gained functionalities that make them like mini-computers. It is unfortunate that juts like desktop computers, mobile devices have also become vulnerable to cyber attacks, primarily hacking. According to some experts, mobile devices are even more vulnerable to security issues because of their smaller size. Mobile devices have smaller screens and keyboards such that webpage address fields tend to be hidden from sight in order to accommodate content. Smaller keyboards usually mean that passwords are shorter and PINs that may be easily cracked are more often in use now. Apart from these, mobile devices have battery constraints such that users do not find it convenient to apply security technologies. In light of these, hackers have found different ways to attack mobile devices through four vulnerabilities.The first is cellular interception, which is done by intercepting the signals being sent by the device. This was demonstrated by a mobile security analyst named Chris Paget who showed how mobile-phone data on GSM networks may be intercepted through the use of even home-made systems that detect and capture subscriber identities. The second most commonly-used entry point used by mobile hackers is Bluetooth.
Hackers use Bluetooth in three ways. Bluejacking is undertaken when a hacker sends unsolicited messages to open Bluetooth nearby and then exploits Bluetooth's electronic business card feature, vCard. Therefore, Bluetooth must always be switched off if not in use. The second is through bluesnarfing, through which the hacker uses software to steal information by accessing the Bluetooth OBEX push profile. Third, through bluebugging, the hacker exploits the same entry points of the other two methods for the purpose of actually gaining control of the mobile device. The third most widely-used vulnerability by hackers is Wi-Fi. To note, Wi-Fi signals are transmitted through the air, which is an uncontrolled space. This means to say that Wi-Fi signals can travel through walls, ceilings, and windows of buildings "to thousands of feet outside of the building walls."
Wireless LAN devices may not be secure, even their user stations and access points, such that hackers may exploit the vulnerability of the Wi-Fi network and the wired network. The fourth vulnerability that hackers exploit is the global positioning system (GPS) which the majority of mobile devices now have. A hacker can ping a mobile in order to discern the cell tower to which the device is connected. Typically, mobile phone companies triangulate a mobile device's estimated location by triangulation so that the nearest transmission mast to the hone may be determined. This is what hackers access through GPS for the purpose of finding out the user's location, even if the mobile device is off. Hackers even share this information among themselves.
Privacy Issues
The unique features of mobile devices, such as their mobility, personalization and location-awareness, are the primary enablers of privacy issues. It must be emphasized that mobile device owners use their gadgets in different transactions: from online shopping, to receiving messages from their healthcare providers, and to downloading applications for which they have to pay. In all of these transactions, the mobile owner provides personal and location information so that their transactions may be completed. Consequently, mobile users are easily identifiable to unscrupulous entities such as hackers who seek to access users' demographic data, location information, calling patterns, credit card numbers, social security numbers, and even physical addresses. In cases such as these, hackers invade the privacy of users unless the latter has excellent data protection and privacy safeguards in their mobile devices - which is often not the case. On the other hand, privacy may also violated by non-hackers, such as marketers who reach users through their mobile devices in order to attain sales of a broad range of products and services.
Discussion: Application of Ethical Principles
Hacking and invasion of mobile users' privacy may be analyzed using four ethical principles, namely, Kantian ethics, cultural relativism and act and rule utilitarianism.
Kantian Ethics
Kant is among the first philosophers who emphasized human value. According to Kant, human beings have "dignity" and "intrinsic worth" making them valuable "above all price," over and beyond everything on Earth. Kant asserts that human beings are so valuable and irreplaceable due to the fact that they alone have dignity - a quality that other beings do not possess. Therefore, invading another person's privacy is a violation of this dignity. On the other hand, Kant also teaches that the rightness or wrongness of an act is not determined through consequences by whether they fulfill a person's duty. Kant explains that the supreme principle of morality is the Categorical Imperative, which identifies what human beings' duties are. One of the unconditional mandates of the Categorical Imperative is that a person should "act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only." When an individual treats another person as an end, the latter is treated properly and respectfully. In other words, the Categorical Imperative means to say that a person should promote the welfare of others, respect their rights, avoid harming them, and generally, "endeavor, so far as we can, to further the ends of others." Thus, hacking and invasion of privacies are immoral because they show disrespect to other people, is harmful to others and treats others only as a means rather than an end.
The cultural relativist perspective holds that customs can never be "correct or incorrect" considering that all social standards are "culture-bound." Cultural relativism also states that the "right way is the way which the ancestors used and which has been handed down." A specific tradition is its own authority for observance may not be subjected to verification of any kind. Cultural relativism state that people should always respect traditions because they "contain in themselves the authority of the ancestral ghosts" (Rachels 305). Hence, the traditional moral code of a given society should be the determinant of what is right or wrong. Cultural relativism states that it would be arrogant for a person to "to judge the conduct of other peoples" because to be moral, one should respect the practices of other cultures. Therefore, if Americans consider hacking and privacy violations are immoral, Asians should not condemn Americans if they do not agree.
Utilitarianism has two major schools of thought called act and rule utilitarianism. Although both schools consider actions according to their consequences, they have differing perspectives. The perspective of act utilitarianism is that the greatest happiness to the most number of people hinges upon the appropriateness of their actions in a given situation. An act is moral if it is useful to the most number of people. Interestingly, from this perspective, if hacking and violations of privacy are useful to the most number of people, then they are not immoral act. In contrast, rule utilitarianism holds that an act can only be considered if it follows rules that will cause the greatest good or happiness to the most number of people. Rule utilitarianism is based on the belief that an action is appropriate depending on the appropriateness of its rules. When rules are followed, then the greatest happiness to the most number of people follows. In light of these, hacking and violations of privacy can never be moral actions because they break rules about privacy and security.
Conclusion
Mobile devices are now highly sophisticate gadgets that have multiple functionalities. They are like mini computers that are very useful for various types of transactions and personal uses. However, they are even more vulnerable to security and privacy issues compared to computers mainly because of their size. Hacking is the main security issue plaguing mobile devices while privacy violations have been occurring at increasing rates. To note, both privacy and security issues may be analyzed using key ethical theories.
Bibliography
Air Defense."Wireless LAN Security: What Hackers Know That You Don't."
Banuri, Hammad, et al. "An Android runtime security policy enforcement framework." Personal & Ubiquitous Computing 16, no. 6: 631-641. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost.
Browning, Dennis, and Gary C. Kessler. "Bluetooth Hacking: A Case Study." Journal of Digital Forensics, Security & Law 4, no. 2: 57-71. Criminal Justice Abstracts with Full Text.
Cleff, Evelyne Beatrix. "Privacy Issues in Mobile Advertising." International Review of Law, Computers & Technology 21, no. 3: 225-236. Business Source Premier.
Goode, Alan. "Managing mobile security: How are we doing?." Network Security, no. 2
Jakobsson, Markus. "Why Mobile Security is not Like Traditional Security." 2016.
MacMillan, Robert. "Hacker Snoops on GSM Cell Phones in Demo." 2015.
Rachels, James and Stuart Rachels. The Elements of Moral Philosophy, 7/e. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Rachels, James. "The Challenge of Cultural Relativism." In, Nancy Jecker (ed.). Bioethics. New York: Jones & Bartlett, 2017.