Research Paper on Multiculturalism & Educational Stratification

MULTICULTURALISM & EDUCATIONAL STRATIFICATION

Introduction

Since the 1960's, in response to the Civil Rights Movement, social issues of equality and inclusion have infiltrated the fields of sociology and education and effectively sparked the creation of the combination discipline of the sociology of education. The sociology of education is the study of how the social structure of schools and other educational institutions, both public and private, can affect a student's education and social experience. The closer examination of the American school system revealed that public and private schools may in fact perpetuate class discrimination, ultimately furthering social stratification within American society. This lead to the formation of the ideology of functionalism, which glorifies the creation of public schools and the sees the public education system in America as a way to maintain equality, and in contrast, the formation of the ideology of conflict theory, which maintains that the American school system perpetuates class distinctions. Both multiculturalism and conflict theory are similar in that both approaches to education wish to call attention to the inherent inequalities in the American school system and work to improve these inequalities through ideological and structural changes, in an effort to prevent and eliminate social stratification as a result of the educational system. Social stratification remains a constant threat to education in America, as indicated by current issues in educational sociology, such as multiculturalism and diversity in schools, and public versus private schools in relation to conflict theory.

Multicultural Education (this covers "student diversity" and "Multicultural history and education")

With diversity in the American school system consistently growing, the need for a multicultural curriculum and education grows steadily. Multiculturalism is an ideology and movement that seeks to include cultural perspectives from minority or counter-culture groups, within the larger mainstream culture. Primarily, multiculturalism is concerned with the dichotomy of a western ideology versus an eastern ideology. Western history and culture, that is, that of U.S. and European origin, has reigned as the primary scholarly approach to history and the arts. A multicultural perspective argues that the west should receive a pronounced prevalence in society, however it should be re-envisioned to include the perspectives of other cultures within the society (Banks, 2001, p. 231). This means including perspectives from minority ethnicities, such as African Americans and those of Latin decent, in American history and the humanities and arts.

Despite the concern over racial and ethnic equality, "culture" in the term multiculturalism, is somewhat of a misnomer, as multiculturalism champions the perspectives and experiences of all minorities and marginalized groups, such as those grouped based on religion, class, gender, and, sexuality (Billings, 2001, p. 51). As theorist Gloria Ladson-Billings points out, "Although multicultural education began as a challenge to the inequalities that students of color experienced in school and society, it soon became an umbrella movement for a variety of forms of difference" (Billings, 2001, p. 55). Multiculturalists wish to include the perspectives of all people within the collective mainstream culture. The mainstream or predominant culture in America is currently one that embraces and empowers White Anglo-Saxon Protestants as a dominant cultural group (Banks, 2001, p. 229). Multiculturalism is then not concerned with striping the dominant cultural group of power so much as it is concerned with equal inclusion within the power structure for minority groups, based on tolerance, understanding, and knowledge.

The need for a multicultural curriculum is of major concern within the fields of sociology and education, due to the implications of a mainstream-centric curriculum on a school, and ultimately a society. The most glaring problem of a mainstream-centric curriculum is that it "marginalizes the experiences" and does not reflect the perspectives of the minority population and underrepresented groups (Banks, 2001, p. 229). For the disenfranchised students, this can create a negative connotation to school and even their own ethnic or cultural group, as the two seem in extreme opposition. Similarly, the under-representation of a group in a curriculum can lead the students of that under-represented group to experience a negative self-image or a warped contextual understanding of themselves within the social structure of the institution.

In addition to the marginalized groups, members of the culturally dominant group may also experience negative sociological impacts due to a mainstream-centric and not multicultural curriculum. As sociology theorist James A. Banks explains, "A mainstream-centric curriculum has negative consequences for mainstream students because it reinforces their false sense of superiority, gives them a misleading conception of their relationship with other racial and ethnic groups, and denies them the opportunity to benefit from the knowledge, perspective, and frames of reference that can be gained from studying other cultures and groups" (Banks, 2001, p. 229). When students do not receive a well-rounded and multicultural education, in which varying viewpoint and experiences are discussed, incidents of prejudice are more likely to occur (billings, 2001, p. 54). Similarly, if schools promote a mainstream-centric curriculum, than the social group holding a position of power, will remain in a position of power without any competition. This not only creates social stratification within the schools, but it ultimately creates social stratification within the larger society. The viewpoints of the minority are overlooked and art, dance, music, and literature originating from minority groups or counter-cultures will only become legitimized, once it is adopted by the mainstream culture (Banks, 2001, p. 230). This means that positions of power are perpetuated, and this is precisely why many people do not wish to integrate a multicultural approach into school curriculums (Banks, 2001, p. 231). Political concern over the perpetuation of power structures is the major factor in why more schools have not adopted a multicultural approach to teaching and education.

Creating Multicultural Curriculums (This covers "the pedagogical cycle")

Creating a multicultural curriculum and integrating a multicultural approach to teaching is an effective way to combat marginalization and eliminate social stratification in the education system. Education which adopts a multicultural approach can often help bridge the social gap between a student's school environment and the student's family or home environment. As Banks explains, "The school can help students of color mediate between their home and school cultures by implementing a curriculum that reflects the culture of their ethnic groups and communities" (Banks, 2001, p. 230). Since the 1960's and the Civil Rights Movements many teachers and theorists have attempted to integrate multiculturalism and differing viewpoints into the curriculum. These attempts have resulted in the four main approaches used by teachers to adopt a multicultural curriculum. The first approach is the contribution approach, where teachers continue to highlight mainstream heroes and artifacts in history discussions, but ethnic heroes and cultural elements are slowly inserted into the course structure (Banks, 2001, p. 232). The second approach is the additive approach, in which cultural content and themes are added to existing content without changing the structure of the lesson. The transformation approach is where the structure of the lesson is changed to enable students to understand issues through the lens of another culture. And finally, the social action approach, occurs when a teacher allows the students to decide what is historically significant by facilitating independent research (Banks, 2001, p. 233). Many theorists claim that the final, social action approach is the most effective way to improve multiculturalism and student reception in schools.

Educational Stratification (this covers "curriculum standards and testing" and "different ways of learning")

The institutional source of an individual's education has become a heated issue in the fields of sociology and education over the past several decades as institutions and education has taken on more complex roles, normally associated with the family. For example, in recent years schools and teachers have become increasingly prominent in a students understanding of discipline and human sexuality. With such a predominant role in the upbringing of a child, many parents are choosing to forgo accessible and non-excludable public education in exchange for sending their child to a private school. In addition, as governments face economic difficulties, many public schools face low testing scores and graduation rates. Along with increasing school violence, private schools have become something of a necessity for the education of children in most families. However, not all families can afford a private education, which means that not everyone has access to an equal education, due to economic factors. This has created socioeconomic stratification within our society. As Psychologist Michael Commons, "A common definition of what it means to stratify something, including a society, is to divide or arrange it into classes, castes, or social strata. Social strata are distinctly different socioeconomic levels within society, to which groups of persons are classified when their education, culture, and/or other qualities are similar" (Commons, 2008, p. 430). Studies have shown that students enrolled in private school often outperform students enrolled in public school. This means that an individual's socioeconomic status can affect the level of education they have access to. This in turn, determines one's ability to obtain educational and occupational success (Marginso, 2007, p. 309). For example, student from wealthy families will receive the best education and thus the most high paying jobs, ensuring that they remain within their given socioeconomic status. Essentially, this means that there is a cyclical nature of inequality occurring, in which an individual cannot deviate from their respective socioeconomic class.

In relation to multiculturalism, public schools with high degrees of student diversity, offer a place where a multicultural education and curriculum can thrive. Private schools, however, are often ideologically centered around a specific culture or religion. Namely, many private schools are Catholic institutions or other parochial schools. While these schools were created in response to a lack of representation in public curriculum, private schools have become a place where a multicultural perspective is hard to embrace. Private schools are chiefly attended by students with similar religious, economic, and cultural backgrounds. Similarly, the very existence of private institutions creates a marginalized class, which cannot afford an equal education.

Functionalist vs. Conflict Theory (This covers "philosophy of education")

There are many dilemmas, which face the American education system as a result of privatized education and socioeconomic stratification. Some theorists believe that a public school system offers the precise remedy for social stratification. The functionalists, for example, maintain that "Through schooling, a meritocracy in which social positions are awarded on merit, not class privilege, becomes possible and everyone benefits" (Levine & Gelles, 1999, p. 156). However if not all schooling is equal, as is the case in America, then the merit awarded by the institution is based on economic status. This is precisely what supporters of the conflict theory believe. Conflict theorists believe that a public school system cannot co-exist with a private school system, as the market competition creates socioeconomic and class divides. As psychologist Michael Commons elaborates, "The institutionalization of systems of informed consent in market economies has exaggerated rather than minimized the meritocractic effect of such economies" (Commons, 2008, p. 430). This means that an individual can effectively buy success through education within American society, however contrary this may seem to the entrepreneurial American spirit.

In order to end socioeconomic stratification and educational inequality in America, several steps and theories have been presented by different agencies and organizations. The government and other non-profit organizations for example offer scholarships and grants to students who could not otherwise afford a more expensive education. Scholarships based on need have been an incredibly important presence in higher education in the U.S., as the it is the only nation where higher education is not predominantly understood as public, rather than private, as it is in the U.S. (Marginson, 2007, p. 308). Some environmental determinists have argued that social stratification based on socioeconomic class can be eliminated if unlimited education is provided for all citizens. This would essentially mean either eliminating private schools or incorporating them into the public school system. However, this theory is supported by data that shows that education "raises the mean stage performance of a population" (Commons, 2008, p. 434). And yet, there are still other theorists who believe that equality both as a concept and with the context of education can never be achieved because of the inherent power held by those in the higher class. As Justice Brandeis famously commented, "you can have great wealth concentrated in the hands of a few, or democracy. But you cannot have both" (Billings, 2001, p. 56).

Conclusion

Multiculturalism and conflict theory remain prevalent and controversial issues in the fields of sociology and education, as they both address the threat of educational stratification and socioeconomic inequality within the American education system. In order to create educational environments in which all students, of all cultural, ethnic, religious, and sexualities can feel accepted within the framework of the institution, a multicultural approach to education must be adopted. This includes creating curriculums that incorporate varying viewpoints and cultural experiences. By incorporating multicultural material into a curriculum, theorists believe that educational institutions can help eliminate marginalization and help eliminate social stratification. Conflict theory is central to the debate over public and private education. Although the functionalists believe that the public school system combats social stratification, concept theorists claim that the existence of private education negates the positive effects of a public school system, due to the significance placed on socioeconomic status. Both of these educational and sociological issues address the negative impacts of educational stratification, however both also propose ways in which to eliminate or ease its impact on the American education system.

References

Banks, J. A. (2001). Approaches to Multicultural Curriculum Reform. In Multicultural
education: issues and perspectives (pp. 229-250). New York: Wiley.

Billings, G. L. (2001). New Directions in Multicultural Education. In J. A. Banks & C. A. Banks
(Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education (pp. 50-65). San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.

Commons, M. L. (2008). Implications of Hierarchical Complexity for Social Stratification,
Economics, and Education. World Futures, 64(5), 430-435. doi:
10.1080/02604020802301428

Levine, A., & Gelles, R. J. (1999). Sociology, an introduction (6th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-
Hill College.

Marginson, S. (2007). The public/private divide in higher education: A global revision. Higher
Education, 53(3), 307-333. doi: 10.1007/s10734-005-8230-y