Research on Self-Efficacy and Academic Achievements among College Students

Study on Students Self-Efficacy and Academic Achievements

Abstract

This study is a review of ten quantitative studies that have been conducted concerning the relationships between self-efficacy, academic achievement and college students. As the review was conducted, several themes emerged from them: self-efficacy as it correlates with performance, self-efficacy as a construct of parental influence, and direct college experience. The studies show that each of these factors in self-efficacy are important to college success. The study further recommends that future studies focus on distance learning and on developmental students who show some inhibition toward school and whose self-efficacy is not realistically related to performance. Further, this study is a review which can be used by educators concerned with the latest research and who want understand the students in their classes whose performance is not in line with their expectations.

Self-Efficacy and Academic Achievement in College Students

Introduction

Any study of self-efficacy begins with Albert Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory. Beginning with his seminal study in 1977, Bandura presented a theoretical framework stating that psychological procedures alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. When faced with situations requiring some personal efficacy, Bandura postulated that a person will then determine whether coping behavior is to be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained when obstacles make success difficult and the experience is negative. In his early model, Bandura determined that personal efficacy derives from four sources: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Factors that influence cognitive processing of efficacy information also have four sources: enactive, vicarious, exhortive and emotive. His study supported the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral change.

Bandura goes on to state in a later article (1993) that there are "diverse ways in which perceived self-efficacy contributes to cognitive development and functioning. Perceived self-efficacy exerts its influence through four major processes. They include cognitive, motivational, affective, and selection processes. There are three different levels at which perceived self-efficacy operates as an important contributor to academic development. Students' beliefs in their efficacy to regulate their own learning and to master academic activities determine their aspirations, level of motivation, and academic accomplishments." Bandura concludes with the notion that it is the self-regulatory functions of the person that determine development and adaptation, and that self-regulatory social,, motivational and affective factors play a crucial role in efficacy.

Zimmerman continued this line of thinking. Writing in Contemporary Educational Psychology in 2000, Zimmerman spoke about self-efficacy as a measure of perceived capability, and that it differs conceptually from outcome expectations and self-concept. Self-efficacy beliefs, Zimmerman says, "have been found to be sensitive to subtle changes in students' performance context, to interact with self-regulated learning processes, and to mediate students' academic achievement." The level of self-efficacy refers to its relationship to the perceived difficulty of a task. Generality refers to its transferability across tasks. Strength of self-efficacy is measured by the amount of certainty about performing a particular task.

Since Bandura's 1977 study, many others have been done to determine the relationship between self-efficacy and academic achievement. In study after study, a correlation has been found between the two. Generally, college students who have high expectations about themselves and their abilities do better on almost all measures of success than do those who do not. This is important for several reasons: as counselors and other education personnel focus on self-esteem, they are missing many opportunities for developing something more important. Self-esteem is clearly conceptually different that self-efficacy. In the former, it is about self-concept, and does not derive particularly from perceived self-ability. Self-efficacy, on the other hand, is exclusively derived from factors relating to ability in given situations.

Another reason for its importance is that self-efficacy is directly correlative with academic achievement. Young and Ley (2002) cited a study by Menec, Hechter and Perry (1995) which showed that high self-efficacy was correlated to achievement as measured by grades, and that a student's confidence to solve mathematical problems was the most powerful predictor of success.

In this study, self-efficacy is examined as it regards college students. Motivational factors such as prior experience, goal setting, and self-system are discussed as they appear in the articles chosen. Students entering college come with a wealth of experience, some positive and some negative. Some have been successful academically from an early age, some later, and some not so much. Each has with him- or herself a perception of their own abilities, and an expectation of their work that generally corresponds to that perception. Assuming that academic skill is in place with which to accomplish an academic task, it appears that self-efficacy is the single most important aspect of academic achievement and the single most important predictor of success or failure.

This study addresses these studies for the purpose of determining their worth as contributions to the field of research and as a way of determining future studies that will make the concepts and truths more clear.

Objective

The objective of this study is to review pertinent studies concerned with self-efficacy and academic achievement in college students. It is also important to point out who this study will benefit and in what ways. Criteria from all of the studies will be explained, as well as discussed in a separate section. The focus will be on the major themes of the studies collectively.

Rationale

It is important in a study such as this to identify themes which emerge from other studies. The great bulk of studies concerning self-efficacy and academic achievement sometimes make it difficult to classify them according to focus. In order to conduct further studies that are unique but related, one must have a sense of what has been done so that one will know what direction to take with further studies.

Additionally, a person who is not a researcher but is interested in the latest research would benefit from a review of previous research that delineates the themes present in them so that one can find the appropriate studies for decision-making. This would include educators who are concerned with any number of issues that present themselves in their classes.

Methodology

Young and Ley examined regular admission and developmental students from student populations at an urban community college and at a rural residential university in the southeast. Both schools assign students to developmental classes based on the results of the ACT exam and a departmental examination. Participants were asked to complete a verbal comprehension and mathematical problem solving measure used with middle school students. Participants were asked to assign a percentage to show the degree of sureness that he or she knew the definition of a word or could solve a mathematical problem.

The results of the study indicated that although the achievement scores between the groups differed significantly (as would be expected), the self-efficacy scores did not. This was an unexpected result. As an explanation for this, Young and Ley posit that academic skill is a requisite of success in any academic task, regardless of perceptions of self-efficacy. In order to be successful, a student must have confidence in his or her abilities but must also posses the requisite academic skill to complete the task.

Jakubowski and Dembo conducted a study whose purpose was to examine the relationship between academic self-regulation, self-efficacy and self-belief systems. Participants in the study were 210 private research university students. High scores on informational identity, contemplation stage and action stage and low scores on diffuse/avoidant identity scale were correlated with high self-regulation scores. The results showed that students who invest effort in establishing identity as a student and their willingness to improve their study skills increased the proportion of variance in self-regulation scores.

Lundberg, McIntire and Creasman examined the effects of social support on the self-efficacy and academic achievement of entry-level adult students and graduating adult students in a cross-sectional study. Participants were 196 undergraduates enrolled in an accelerated degree program at a midsize research institution. All participants were given questionnaires related to the support each student received from others. Self-efficacy was also measured with two instruments which have been found to be valid and reliable.

The results of the study indicated that adult students at the beginning of the program received more support from their families and discussed their school experiences with family more often than did those in the last course. There were no significant differences with other support groups) friends, other students employer, etc.). There were two differences in the study in areas of self-efficacy for self-regulated learning.. Adult students beginning scored significantly higher on measures of self-regulation (finishing homework by deadlines and using the library) than did those in the last course, but on measures of academic achievement, those in the last course scored higher on self-efficacy measures than did the beginners. The author s conclude that adult students entering the program had a greater sense of self-efficacy for self-regulation than did the last course students, but the last course students had a higher self-efficacy related to producing quality academic products.

Turner, Chandler and Heffer examined the influence of parenting styles on self-efficacy. Participants in the study included 264 undergraduate students in psychology courses at a major university in the southwest. Participants were given a series of instruments from demographic information to a Parental Authority Questionnaire, an academic motivation scale, and a Self-Efficacy and Study Skills questionnaire (SESS). Academic performance was measured using the students' self-reported GPA.

Results indicated that parental influence plays an important role in academic performance even when students are away from home. Previous experience with parents played a vital role in students success. Students who reported an authoritative style of parenting (encouragement of communication, autonomy and boundaries) also reported higher GPAs and scored higher on academic self-efficacy than those whose parents had a different style.

Ramos-Sanchez and Nichols examined the effect of self-efficacy on the adjustment of college students from first-generations and academic achievement. The participants were 192 college students who were given a self-efficacy measure relating to college courses, roommates, and social efficacy. These results were compared with those of students who were not first-generation students at college.

The results did not support their hypothesis, that self-efficacy would mediate generational status and GPA. The results support previous findings that non-first-generation students perform better academically than first-generations students do. The authors conclude that even when first-generation students have confidence in their academic abilities, their performance is still lower than those who are not first-generation.

Coutinho (2008) looked at the relationship between self-efficacy, metacognition and performance. The study comprised 173 undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory psychology class at a university in the Midwest. Students completed a self-efficacy questionnaire and a metacognition measure. Also used was the students' self-reported current GPAs.

The results indicated that self-efficacy is positively related to GPA and also to metacognition. Metacognition was an accurate predictor of GPA. The correlation between self-efficacy and performance was stronger than with metacognition, however, suggesting that students who are confident in their abilities tend to do well. There was also a modest correlation between metacognition and performance, suggesting that students who have good metacognition skills also have good performance.

Baldwin, Baldwin and Ewald (2006) conducted a study examining the relationships between shame, guilt and self-efficacy. There were 189 participants who were given a 92-itwem questionnaire that combined the TOSCA 3 and the General and Social Self-Efficacy Scales. The hypothesis of the study was that individuals who score high on the TOSCA3 scale measuring shame would have a lower self-efficacy score. The results supported the study's hypothesis. Shame and guilt are significantly related, as one might expect, but guilt and self-efficacy showed no significant correlation.

Cruce, Kinzie, Williams, Morelon and Yu (2005), in a conference presentation at Indiana University, examine the relationship between self-efficacy and first-generation college students. As mentioned before, the weight of the evidence suggests that these students are generally less prepared for college experiences and academics than their non -first-generation peers. Even after controlling for academic preparation and prior achievement, first-generation students are less likely to be successful. The study utilized a pilot instrument for a student engagement survey. The results suggest that academic self-efficacy differs by parent education attainment, and that the difference persists even with prior academic experience and achievement.

Ergul (2004) conducted a study relating to distance education, which requires a high level of motivation to complete and to do successfully. In a study of 124 freshmen students enrolled in Anadolu University distance learning programs, she examined demographic variables, self-efficacy, self-regulation and achievement.

The results indicated that motivation was the single most important factor in distance learning success. Academic achievement and self-efficacy were again highly correlated.

Results

There are several common themes in these studies which bear mentioning. One is the effect of self-efficacy in performance. Of all factors related to academic success, self-efficacy seems to be the most crucial. However, self-efficacy alone is not sufficient for academic success. Prior preparation and skill acquirement also play a part in academic success. Students who overestimate their efficacy with certain tasks do not perform well, however well they may have thought they would. Developmental students and first-generation students tend to overestimate their abilities and have high efficacy scores.

Another theme that emerges from these studies is the relationship between parental influence and self-efficacy. Those students who report structured parental support and parent experience with education also tend to score highest on self-efficacy measures, and also report the highest achievement scores. Students whose parents have not performed as highly on both factors tend to do less well than their peers.

Another theme is the result of direct college experience. This is related to the first-generational studies, but focuses on those who are entering college as opposed to those graduating. Students who are beginners have higher self-regulation scores than their more experienced peers, while those with college experience have higher self-efficacy scores and perform better on school productivity tasks.

Discussion

Self-efficacy is a measure of one's confidence in task performance. Generally, prior successful experience with a task is a strong predictor of subsequent success on the same type of task. In individuals who are highly skilled, there may be some cross-effect to other areas-for example, a student who performs well in algebra may also have a high self-efficacy for statistics. This is, however, a different concept from self-esteem or self-concept. One gains self-esteem from successful completion of tasks, but this construct does not always carry over to subsequent tasks, as it also involves self-perceptions such as "I am not a good student," or "I don't like school work. I'd rather have a real job." Self-concept comes into play as a result of a larger body of perceptions, and these sometimes interfere with success In school.

Students who perform well in school have an expectation of performing well in school. This expectation is reinforced by parental expectation and also by parental achievement in school and also in their jobs. Students see and learn that success is rewarded and perform with the expectation that they will also be rewarded for good performance. Though the rewards are not always tangible, the mere act of successful performance is rewarding and reinforcing.

Self-efficacy, identity style, support and cognition are all correlated highly. Bandura's theory holds for these factors. Cognition in schooling is a social activity in most cases, beginning with the very young. As a student progresses through the years of mandated schooling, he or she acquires a set of skills and social attributes that directly affect cognitive performance. Students who are outside the pale socially often have difficulty with school, inclusion college students. The norm of expectation in college is high, and everyone knows that it is difficult and challenging. Those equipped for the challenge, who know they are equipped for the challenge, are those most likely to succeed.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The concept of self-efficacy has been studied many times in relationship with academic success. In the great preponderance of such studies, self-efficacy is determined to be the most crucial factor in student success. However, self-efficacy without the requisite skill set does not result in performance success. One can be falsely confident in one's abilities, and this does not translate to high performance.

On the other hand, skill without high self-efficacy is not a guarantee of success, either. There are students who are quite skilled, but without motivation show no inclination to perform well. In the case of distance learning, this shows most readily. Like one who is self-employed, a distance-learning student must be able to independently budget time, work when there are distractions not ordinarily present in a traditional setting, and must complete assignments by a deadline. This requires a high degree of motivation, which includes self-efficacy. If one did not think he or she could complete the assignments, the work would be inferior and deadlines would be missed.

The concept of self-regulation comes into play as well. Knowing that a homework assignment is due (often, in college, an assignment is made the first day of class via syllabus, and isn't mentioned again until it is due six weeks later) requires a degree of self-regulation, but self-regulation in some ways interferes with self-efficacy. It seems a minor difference, but the self-efficacious student will complete the work as a matter of course, while the self-regulated student will do it because it was assigned. It is similar to the difference between being an amateur and a professional.

Recommendations for further study include focusing on the factors that inhibit self-efficacy in students, with the possibility of therapeutic involvement as a treatment option. This would be a longer-term study, perhaps over a two year period. Selecting a population of developmental students for therapeutic treatment might show how inhibitors might be ameliorated with supports in the home and/or with peers.

Another recommendation would be further studies of distance learning. As more and more students turn to online sources for their education, it is important to know the kinds of situations that are best for a student's identity style and motivational level. If the traditional classroom setting is inhibiting a student's self-efficacy, it may be that a setting in which there is no competition or face-to-face emotional scenarios would enhance a student's self-efficacy by allowing him or her to self-pace, gaining the important experiences with success that build high self-efficacy.

References

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Bandura, A. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, v84, 2, p 191-215.

Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist. Volume: 28. Issue: 2. 1993. 117.

Coutinho, S. (2008). Self-efficacy, metacognition and performance. North American Journal of Psychology. Volume: 10. Issue: 1. 2008. 165.

Cruce, T.M., Kinzie, J.L., Williams, J.M., Morelon, C.L., and Yu, X. (2005). First-generation academic self-efficacy: the relationship between first-generation status and academic self-efficacy among entering college students. Conference presentation, Indiana University. Accessed Dec. 18, 2009.

Ergul, H. (2004). Relationship between student characteristics and academic achievement in distance education and application on students of Anadolu University. Turkish Online

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Turner, E.A., Chandler, M., and Heffer, R.W. (2009). The influence of parenting styles, achievement motivation and self-efficacy on academic performance in college students.

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