Roan Writer 3 | - Freelance Writer
Nov 10, 2014 | #1
1. Describe the concept of learning.
2. Distinguish between learning and performance.
3. Compare and contrast the conceptual approaches to the study of learning.
------SAMPLE RESEARCH PAPER ------
The psychology of learning draws from both scientific disciplines such as biology, which attempt to explain how our minds work, and the discipline of philosophy, which attempts to explain why human beings behave as they do. An understanding of how and why human beings learn is a crucial component of many different disciplines; for example, educators benefit greatly from concepts of learning because these enable them to design the most effective educational programs possible; similarly, psychologists can use concepts of learning to help their patients not only in the realm of the traditional classroom but also as they encounter challenges in their working life and social interactions. It is important to remember that although learning can be simply defined as gaining knowledge, there are many types of knowledge and ways in which learning can be experienced and expressed.
As Terry points out, "knowledge must be broadly defined to include not just verbal knowledge, but also habits and skills, attitudes, and knowledge or behavior outside conscious awareness" (p. 5). When studying learning, psychologists look not only at the external and conscious behaviors of human beings, but at the conscious and subconscious behaviors of both humans and animals in order to evaluate "events as diverse as the acquisition of an isolated muscle twitch, a prejudice, a symbolic concept, or a neurotic symptom" (Terry, p. 6). Thus, the manner in which an individual acquires new knowledge or makes use of existing knowledge can tell us a great deal not only about the subject in question, but also helps psychologists to draw broader conclusions about social patterns, cultural groups, and the role that learning plays in specific sociocultural contexts (Brownlee et al.).
One of the difficulties that is encountered by psychologists who study learning arises when we try to determine when and how learning occurs. As Terry (2009) notes, the process of learning occurs within the brain and beyond direct observation, requiring us to infer that learning has occurred using behavioral measures despite the fact that "there is not always a one-to-one correspondence between what the organism knows and what the organism does" (p. 10). The distinction between learning and performance means that learning can sometimes occur even when we do not immediately observe a behavioral change, as in the case of the latent learning which occurred during Tolman and Honzik's study of rats in a maze (Terry). Research conducted by Kantak and Winstein (2012) into the short and long-term development of motor skills illustrates that while the practice of certain skills can lead to immediate changes in performance which indicate that learning has occurred, there are more challenging learning situations wherein the evidence of learning is not immediately apparent even though study participants have gained new knowledge or skill sets. There are also instances where an individual's acquisition of knowledge is negatively impacted by the environment in which he or she is expected to demonstrate said knowledge acquisition, as in the case of students who are anxious about test-taking or with individuals who are inaccurately judged based on the stereotypes associated with the group to which they belong.
There are several conceptual approaches which have shaped our understanding of learning, including the functional, behavioral, cognitive, and neuropsychological approaches. A functional approach looks at how learning and memory help a species to survive and evolve, whereas a behavioral approach evaluates the relationship between our actions and their consequences (Terry). In the cognitive approach to learning, the emphasis is on the ways in which human beings acquire, store, and retrieve information; similarly, the neuroscience approach seeks to find biological explanations for our learning processes (Terry). While each of these approaches brings something new to our understanding of learning and memory, most researchers typically incorporate a combination of approaches into their work so as to have a broad and comprehensive way to evaluate learning processes.
For example, in their study of the learning styles and personal beliefs about learning in first-year university students, Brownlee and colleagues use both the functional and behavioral approaches to explain how university students adapt to their environment and develop techniques intended to ensure success. They suggest that new students are highly motivated to 'survive' in their new educational environment and will thus develop learning strategies such as emulating their more successful peers so as to successfully adapt into the realm of higher education (Brownlee et al.). However, although survival and adaptation are facets of a functional approach to learning, their research indicates that a behavioral approach needs to be taken into account as well, especially given that many of the behaviors assumed by these first-year students (such as imitating peers) are adopted and continued based on their consequences.
Although it is generally agreed upon that our experiences lead to permanent or semi-permanent changes in behavior which constitute evidence of learning, there is less consensus among researchers about the ways in which we can achieve successful learning outcomes in a variety of situations, especially given the broad range of learning styles that have been documented by researchers in the field of learning (Terry, 2009). The debates about learning which were begun with philosophers like Descartes and Locke will likely continue into the foreseeable future, as there is still no true way to determine whether our acquisition of knowledge is driven by nativism, rationalism, or empiricism (Terry). The practical applications for future work in the psychology of learning will continue to expand, especially as the means by which we acquire knowledge shifts from the traditional classroom environment to the flexible and borderless environment of the global Internet. This will result in changes regarding how we think about the process of learning and where we look for new knowledge and experiences, and will also alter the power dynamics that are associated with the possession of knowledge (Liaw). The Internet, online classrooms, and other emerging technologies will help to effectively level the educational playing field, presenting an opportunity for all learners to also become teachers, and forcing us to reconsider what it means to both learn and teach in the 21st Century.
References
Brownlee, J., Walker, S., Lennox, S., Exley, B., & Pearce, S. (2009). The first year university experience: Using personal epistemology to understand effective learning and teaching in higher education. Higher Education. doi: 10.1007/s10734- 009-9212-2
Kantak, S.S. & Winstein, C.J. (2012). Learning-performance distinction and memory processes for motor skills: A focused review and perspective. Behavioral Brain Research, 228: 219-231. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.11.028
Liaw, S.S. (2008). Investigating students' perceived satisfaction, behavioral intention, and effectiveness of e-learning: A case study of the Blackboard system. Computers & Education, 51: 864-873.
Terry, W.S. (2009). Learning and memory: Basic principles, processes, and procedures (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.
2. Distinguish between learning and performance.
3. Compare and contrast the conceptual approaches to the study of learning.
------SAMPLE RESEARCH PAPER ------
The Concept of Learning
The psychology of learning draws from both scientific disciplines such as biology, which attempt to explain how our minds work, and the discipline of philosophy, which attempts to explain why human beings behave as they do. An understanding of how and why human beings learn is a crucial component of many different disciplines; for example, educators benefit greatly from concepts of learning because these enable them to design the most effective educational programs possible; similarly, psychologists can use concepts of learning to help their patients not only in the realm of the traditional classroom but also as they encounter challenges in their working life and social interactions. It is important to remember that although learning can be simply defined as gaining knowledge, there are many types of knowledge and ways in which learning can be experienced and expressed.As Terry points out, "knowledge must be broadly defined to include not just verbal knowledge, but also habits and skills, attitudes, and knowledge or behavior outside conscious awareness" (p. 5). When studying learning, psychologists look not only at the external and conscious behaviors of human beings, but at the conscious and subconscious behaviors of both humans and animals in order to evaluate "events as diverse as the acquisition of an isolated muscle twitch, a prejudice, a symbolic concept, or a neurotic symptom" (Terry, p. 6). Thus, the manner in which an individual acquires new knowledge or makes use of existing knowledge can tell us a great deal not only about the subject in question, but also helps psychologists to draw broader conclusions about social patterns, cultural groups, and the role that learning plays in specific sociocultural contexts (Brownlee et al.).
Learning and Performance
One of the difficulties that is encountered by psychologists who study learning arises when we try to determine when and how learning occurs. As Terry (2009) notes, the process of learning occurs within the brain and beyond direct observation, requiring us to infer that learning has occurred using behavioral measures despite the fact that "there is not always a one-to-one correspondence between what the organism knows and what the organism does" (p. 10). The distinction between learning and performance means that learning can sometimes occur even when we do not immediately observe a behavioral change, as in the case of the latent learning which occurred during Tolman and Honzik's study of rats in a maze (Terry). Research conducted by Kantak and Winstein (2012) into the short and long-term development of motor skills illustrates that while the practice of certain skills can lead to immediate changes in performance which indicate that learning has occurred, there are more challenging learning situations wherein the evidence of learning is not immediately apparent even though study participants have gained new knowledge or skill sets. There are also instances where an individual's acquisition of knowledge is negatively impacted by the environment in which he or she is expected to demonstrate said knowledge acquisition, as in the case of students who are anxious about test-taking or with individuals who are inaccurately judged based on the stereotypes associated with the group to which they belong.
Conceptual Approaches to the Study of Learning
There are several conceptual approaches which have shaped our understanding of learning, including the functional, behavioral, cognitive, and neuropsychological approaches. A functional approach looks at how learning and memory help a species to survive and evolve, whereas a behavioral approach evaluates the relationship between our actions and their consequences (Terry). In the cognitive approach to learning, the emphasis is on the ways in which human beings acquire, store, and retrieve information; similarly, the neuroscience approach seeks to find biological explanations for our learning processes (Terry). While each of these approaches brings something new to our understanding of learning and memory, most researchers typically incorporate a combination of approaches into their work so as to have a broad and comprehensive way to evaluate learning processes.
For example, in their study of the learning styles and personal beliefs about learning in first-year university students, Brownlee and colleagues use both the functional and behavioral approaches to explain how university students adapt to their environment and develop techniques intended to ensure success. They suggest that new students are highly motivated to 'survive' in their new educational environment and will thus develop learning strategies such as emulating their more successful peers so as to successfully adapt into the realm of higher education (Brownlee et al.). However, although survival and adaptation are facets of a functional approach to learning, their research indicates that a behavioral approach needs to be taken into account as well, especially given that many of the behaviors assumed by these first-year students (such as imitating peers) are adopted and continued based on their consequences.
Conclusion: The Future of Learning
Although it is generally agreed upon that our experiences lead to permanent or semi-permanent changes in behavior which constitute evidence of learning, there is less consensus among researchers about the ways in which we can achieve successful learning outcomes in a variety of situations, especially given the broad range of learning styles that have been documented by researchers in the field of learning (Terry, 2009). The debates about learning which were begun with philosophers like Descartes and Locke will likely continue into the foreseeable future, as there is still no true way to determine whether our acquisition of knowledge is driven by nativism, rationalism, or empiricism (Terry). The practical applications for future work in the psychology of learning will continue to expand, especially as the means by which we acquire knowledge shifts from the traditional classroom environment to the flexible and borderless environment of the global Internet. This will result in changes regarding how we think about the process of learning and where we look for new knowledge and experiences, and will also alter the power dynamics that are associated with the possession of knowledge (Liaw). The Internet, online classrooms, and other emerging technologies will help to effectively level the educational playing field, presenting an opportunity for all learners to also become teachers, and forcing us to reconsider what it means to both learn and teach in the 21st Century.
References
Brownlee, J., Walker, S., Lennox, S., Exley, B., & Pearce, S. (2009). The first year university experience: Using personal epistemology to understand effective learning and teaching in higher education. Higher Education. doi: 10.1007/s10734- 009-9212-2
Kantak, S.S. & Winstein, C.J. (2012). Learning-performance distinction and memory processes for motor skills: A focused review and perspective. Behavioral Brain Research, 228: 219-231. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.11.028
Liaw, S.S. (2008). Investigating students' perceived satisfaction, behavioral intention, and effectiveness of e-learning: A case study of the Blackboard system. Computers & Education, 51: 864-873.
Terry, W.S. (2009). Learning and memory: Basic principles, processes, and procedures (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.