Equity in Academia

The case of Melinda Wilkerson and Ron Agua is an interesting study of contrasting expectations, motivations, personalities, and ultimately, satisfaction with the jobs which they both hold. Each is a first-year assistant instructor at the college level-each has the same general responsibilities, but the ways in which these responsibilities has transformed the perception of the job has changed the ways in which the job is carried out, including a now second-semester difference in pay. There are two basic theories that can account for this difference-one, a motivation-hygiene theory put forward by Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1993), based on Herzberg's original work of 1959, discusses motivation in terms of positive motivations and negative motivations, akin to Maslow's (1943) theory of hierarchical needs. These theories would be content theories, in which all individuals posses the same set of needs (security, belonging, etc) and how these needs ought to be present in the work situation, and any differences arising in motivation would be traceable to a lack in one of these needs. The other theory applicable in this case is Adam's Equity Theory, which refers to the differences in perception (referents) between workers as a basis of determining what is fair. This is also a theory of motivation, and utilizes informal benchmarks of what is appropriate, expected, and generated. Input comes from a variety of sources-friends, colleagues, family, and other sources of facts and opinions. Motivation, in this case, is exerted when there is a perception of fairness, while motivation decreases when the outputs (salary, bonuses, different treatment, etc) are not equitable.

Maslow (1943) believed that human beings are motivated by needs which represent a lack of some kind, and that humans are not motivated by the needs higher on the list (the more abstract until the physiological, security, and social needs are met. Once these needs have been met, however, the healthy individual becomes motivated b the so-called higher order needs, such as recognition, belief in the self, and the realization of full potential as a human being. In the Wilkerson and Agua case, we assume that their basic physiological needs (food, shelter and clothing) have been met. There appears, however, to be a disconnect where security is concerned. It is noted that Wilkerson is making less money than she thought she would, and has longer hours. Agua, on the other hand, has managed to reduce his workload and has, in fact, performed more work in a different capacity (working on the library committee, speaking to various groups, publishing studies) than Wilkerson was aware that she could also do. From her perspective, there is no time for such activities, and the only thing she can do is to continue to slog through the work that she has, foregoing more pleasant and important social obligations which would help her out and help her to meet her security needs.

Herzberg suggested that there are six factors associated with job performance and attitude, essentially related to job satisfaction. Herzberg posits that those factors relating to job dissatisfaction are company policy, supervision, relationship with the boss, work conditions, salary, and relationships with peers. Positive factors relating to job satisfaction are achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth. It is easy enough to se how these relate in a Maslovian way-the first six are essentially lower-order needs dependent on others for realization, while the factors related to job satisfaction are of a higher order, having to do with more intrinsic motivation and realization of the work self.

We see some of these in the case with Wilkerson and Agua. Wilkerson, by inference, is constrained by a "company" policy of which she is unaware, and does not know that she can do differently than she has been given. Thus, her work conditions and her salary are adversely affected, and she has several motivators that, because the work environment is now more negative than it was in the first semester, are causing a potential job dissatisfaction. Agua, on the other hand, has apparently successfully negotiated the lower-order needs, has had them met, and is now motivated in an entirely different way than is Wilkerson. He seems happier, he has more job variety, has some recognition for what he has done, and has more positive work conditions and a higher salary than does Wilkerson.

Adams' Equity Theory appears to fit most precisely with this specific case. Equity theory, as mentioned, is an explanation of relational theory in terms of the perceptions of the employees and whether their work environments and/or relations with others in the organization are fair or unfair. Suppose that all of the work of an organization is quantifiable, and that that finite amount of work is distributed over the organization as fairly as possible, depending on the employees' skills and interests and capabilities. As long as the work distribution is perceived as fair (in this case, as long as Wilkerson's and Agua's work is similar and equitable), the employees feel no discomfort or anxiety about what they are doing. But when there are significant differences that develop (Agua has more free time, is getting a reputation for himself, has more opportunities for more challenging and engaging work that matches his core self-evaluation, and Wilkerson seem more frozen in place without the opportunities that Agua has), the workload seems unfairly distributed, and a sense of anxiety develops with regard to the work, as was clearly the case with Wilkerson.

Tellingly, however, was the last paragraph when the note slid out of a student journal, and Wilkerson realized that her work was satisfying, and the implication was that the differences no longer mattered. Here we see another factor at work, that of personality. It is mentioned that Agua sees his work with students as interfering with what he perceives to be his work-"With all those students around all the time, I just never had a chance to get my work done." Wilkerson, on the other hand, perceives her work to be what she does with her students, and so now there is a differentiation in the job itself, and whether the work is fairly distributed or not is now irrelevant. What made it fair in the first place was the perceived fact that they had the same jobs. Now, owing to personality differences, it isn't the same job at all.

Judge, Bono, and Locke posit that what they term core self-evaluation is where the personality influences the relationship between job characteristics and job satisfaction, which includes the motivation to do it. The relationship, the authors say, is purely a perceptual process. As they state: "individuals with positive self-evaluations may see their jobs as more challenging simply because they are predisposed to perceive all aspects of their jobs positively. According to this explanation, there would not be a link between core self-evaluations and the actual characteristics of jobs held (i.e., positive individuals do not really have jobs that are more challenging, they simply view their jobs as more challenging). Thus, it is critical to understanding the role of core self-evaluations in job satisfaction to begin to sort out differences

in perceptions from differences in actual jobs held." (p 237-238).

A graphic illustrates this relationship perfectly. Each of the nodes of the graphic assume that there is a one-way positive relationship between core self-evaluation, perceived job characteristics, job complexity, and job satisfaction. It is the core self-evaluation (the personalities of the employees and their beliefs about themselves as workers in that environment) that drives the perception of fairness or unfairness in the workplace, and these perceptions are really the ultimate determiners of job satisfaction in the end.



(Judge, Bono, and Locke, 2000)

Equity Theory, then, explains the case of Wilkerson and Agua quite clearly. The case primarily detailed Wilkerson's reasons for her distress. Adams refers to this distress as the result of a perception of inequity in the relationship between Wilkerson and Agua. Distress is uncomfortable, and the distressed party or parties will try to do something to bring equity back into the relationship. Wilkerson is more distressed than Agua, it seems, since he has more positives. Wilkerson's response to the inequity, her way of removing her distress, is top realize that her personality is more responsive to students' needs than it is to the work that Agua is doing, and here she realizes that, because of that, the expectations for them both are now different, at least from their own self-perceptions. With the realization that she is indeed doing hat she does best, her distress over the perceived unfairness of the situation has eased. Her inputs now (time, effort, loyalty, hard work, commitment, ability, tolerance, determination, and personal sacrifice) are commensurate with her outputs (security, reputation, responsibility, sense of achievement, and thanks), and she can now perceive her work as fair.

References

Adams, J. Stacey. "Towards an Understanding of Inequity." The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol 67(5), Nov 1963, 422-436.

Herzberg, Frederick, Mausner, Bernard, and Snyderman, Barbara Bloch. The Motivation to Work. Transaction Publishers.

Judge, Timothy A., Bono, Joyce E., and Locke, Edwin A. "Personality and Job Satisfaction: The Mediating Role of Job Characteristics." Journal of Applied Psychology, 2000, Vol. 85, No. 2, 237-249.

Maslow, A.H. "A Theory of Human Motivation." Psychological Review, 50(4) (1943), 370-96.

Introduction

Like most other institutions universities are not immune to the security vulnerabilities and potential information compromising that is rampant throughout the world. These universities maintain large accessible networks that harbor enormous amounts of sensitive data pertaining to both students and faculty. Such databases are treasure troves of valuable information for hackers who may seek to leverage this data for their own personal gain or, possibly, steal someone else's identity. Therefore, it is imperative that proper security measures are implemented to ensure that this data is carefully safeguarded. There have been several attempts, both successful and otherwise, to infiltrate security of university networks and the security staff must remain vigilant in its resistance to such tactics. With a variety of security measures available and many of the tactics employed by hackers know to security firms, university officials can implement programs that keep their data safe from any potential harm.

University Security

Near the end of 2010, three American universities were the victims of network security breaches that left the information of either students, employees, or both vulnerable to hackers. The largest breach at the Ohio State University affected a total of 760,000 people. In this case, the intrusion was caught during a routine security review, meaning that the breach could have gone undetected for months since the last routine inspection, leaving names, addresses and social security numbers vulnerable to exposure (Schaffhauser, 2011). Though the breaches at these institutions seem to have been caught in time to prevent any significant security breach from occurring, if it happened once at these venerable universities, there is no reason to conclude that it could not happen again.

There are two different paths a university can take to provide adequate network security for both staff and students. The first and simplest route is to hire a network security firm to manage all aspects of the network, freeing up university staff for other tasks and eliminating the need for a very large IT department. Iona College in New York opted for this approach when they hired IdentityForce to manage their network security. The company helped the college to set up training programs for their staff to reduce the threat of security breaches, while also ensuring compliance with all federal and state laws. The company also provided identity theft protection for students, faculty and staff (Case Studies, 2012).

There are several advantages to this type of arrangement, including the ability to focus the college workforce on other projects without worrying about security as much. However, the added level of security provided by a third-party contractor comes with a cost. For instance, many universities may opt to employ identity tokens for computers accessing a network, possibly with a USB dongle or a type of software that identifies the computer individually. The cost of implementing such technology for a large network with 10,000 users can run from a low of just over $100,000 to over $1 million (Strong Authentication at a Fraction of the Price, 2012). This type of program does virtually ensure that no unauthorized user can access the network, unless a computer or dongle is physically stolen and then, if reported it can be instantly deactivated, making this a very secure option for many universities.

Many institutions of higher learning may theorize that, since they train the young men and women who will be providing network security for the rest of the world, it only makes sense that they should be able to protect themselves with limited outside influence. For many of these universities, a preferable solution can be provided by purchasing hardware from a security firm and then operating and maintaining it themselves. One such institution that chose this route was John Carroll University of Ohio, which implemented Cisco's Network Admission Control. This system deployed Cisco routers and switches on campus that enforced policy compliance for all users and devices accessing the network and also includes additional firewall security (University Improves Network Security and IT Efficiency, 2009).

This approach comes with its own cost limitations, however. The equipment involved can be quite costly. The university employed two Cisco switches, two wireless access points, and the necessary software to control it all (University Improves Network Security and IT Efficiency, 2009). The total cost of the hardware alone for this type of setup would be well over $100,000, but at least that cost would be limited to the initial purchase of equipment and would not continue long-term (PEPPM Pricelist Template Form, 2012). Of course, a university employing another service to manage their technology would also need to purchase equipment for their network anyway, so this outlay of funds is inevitable. Given that, the idea of purchasing the right equipment for securing the network through a company like Cisco probably makes more sense than hiring an outside company since current IT employees can be trained to monitor the equipment. Also, this gives the university greater control over their security than they would have with a third party running everything. Maintaining proper training for IT employees will be crucial however.

Laws and Government Agencies

There are many different regulations that deal both directly and indirectly with cybercrime in the United States on both the federal and local levels. These laws seek to protect individuals and institutional entities from harm that may be caused by those who actively seek to retrieve personal or institutional information from computers without proper authorization. On the federal level the Department of Justice is primarily responsible for investigating and prosecuting computer crimes (The United States Department of Justice, 2012). The DOJ also seeks to protect intellectual property of U.S. citizens and prosecutes those who attempt to steal copyrighted material (The United States Department of Justice, 2012). The DOJ works with other government agencies as well as private sector and academic institutions in order to achieve these ends while the department's lawyers attempt to strengthen the domestic and international legal structure to improve the prosecution of network criminals.

Many laws currently exist at the federal level to combat cybercrime. The main law that is used to capture cybercriminals is the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, which was originally passed in 1984 and amended in 1994 to include malicious code such as viruses (May, 2004, p.2). While this was sufficient for dealing with those who might distribute malicious programs to access personal computers without authorization, the law had to be amended yet again with the National Information Infrastructure Act of 1996, which made it illegal to view information on a private computer even if there was no commercial gain gleaned from it (May, 2004, p.3). Along with the Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986, this law formed the basis of prosecutors' cases against cyber criminals.

There were still loopholes that could be exploited without fear of repercussion and the Cyber Security Enhancement Act, passed as an amendment to the Homeland Security Act in 2002, sought to curb those. With this law's passage law enforcement agencies were granted sweeping authority and handed more severe penalties that that which were available earlier. This law compelled Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to hand over personal information about their customers to a government agent if there was any suspicion of wrongdoing (May, 2004, p.6). The need for a warrant to intercept Internet communications was also abolished and harsher sentences for individuals who violated the law were put in place (May, 2004, p.6). The Digital Millennium Copyright Act was enacted in 1998 to help curb the distribution of copyrighted material (May, 2004, p.6). The Economic Espionage Act and National Stolen Property Act have also been used to combat the explosive growth of cybercrime (May, 2004, p.7).

Many states have sought to help bolster federal laws by implementing their own to complement the federal cybercrime programs. In Pennsylvania regional task forces were started to join with federal, state, county and municipal law enforcement agencies to fight everything from fraud to child pornography (Pennsylvania State Police Creates Regional Computer Crime Task Force, 2002). This law allowed local municipalities to benefit from the technology available to the state police and to receive up-to-date training for fighting cybercrime.

Forensic Techniques

Once it has been determined that a network has been compromised, it is imperative that an investigation commence to determine the extent of the damage. This can involve anything from personally examining the computer that was believed to be used in the hacking attack to performing an investigation of suspicious network activity. If the computer in question is under investigators' authority, the process becomes a bit more manageable. In this case, the particular hard drive from that computer becomes the main focus of the investigators' efforts.

A complete digital copy of the original evidence must be made and only the copy may be used for investigative purposes to avoid damaging the original evidence. The copy of this evidence must then be authenticated to verify it is the same as the original and the digital copy must then be analyzed. This can be accomplished by ensuring that crime scene is immediately secured and all available evidence properly documented, restricting all access to the site to only necessary investigators (Craiger, 2003, p.8).

For investigating computers that are not capable of being physically investigated for criminal activity, more extensive methods of investigation are necessary. In this case, computer logs are a valuable resource for determining from where the potentially devastating attacks emanated. Whenever a system is accessed, the firewall log should record a copy of the user's IP address and whatever information may have been transferred via File Transfer Protocol. Logs also record email activity, content posted on the Internet, or by many other computers along the network that record all activity.

In the case of cell phones, historical cell site analysis can provide evidence in regards to the whereabouts of a certain individual at a given time. Any completed cell phone calls or sent text messages can be reviewed to show a pattern of movement of the person's cell phone. The geographic locations of cell phones can be found by linking them to the cell phone towers at specific times and trying to map the radio frequency of the phone to that recorded by the tower. These signals can be tracked to determine if a person was in a given area in which a crime may have been committed.

Most of the technology used to glean such information is readily available to IT professionals. The logs will automatically be recorded by the software that has been installed to monitor the network and should only require modest research from the IT professionals. If the computer is available to the investigators, the hard drive can be removed and copied without much incident and would only require rudimentary tools that are readily available to most IT professionals. The hard drive can simply be inserted into another available computer if that is the only option, which would require no significant monetary outlay. For searching cell phone records, either the FBI would need to become involved, or the cell phone service provider would need to be compelled to reveal the necessary information needed to track the phone on the network. With this research technique as with many others, the need for significant expenditures is irrelevant. However, it is important to note that cell phone records should be requested as soon as possible since they may not be available for a very long period of time.

Conclusion

There are many different potential problems facing universities who allow access to their networks. However, there are also many techniques for safeguarding the data that is transmitted along these networks and, should they be attacked anyway, many other techniques and laws available for dealing with such situations. First and foremost, universities must make the necessary investments in network security to ensure that student and staff information is kept as private as possible and there are several possible ways to accomplish this, some more expensive than others. Should they fail to protect the information, though, they must act quickly to limit the damage that may be done to those who have entrusted their information to the school. Again, there are myriad tools at their disposal for such activity, varying in the degree of difficulty and the price of recovery. Regardless of which method is implemented however, it is impossible for universities to ignore the threat that cybercrime presents to their systems. Furthermore, the cost of implementing these programs is easily offset by the savings of any data loss.

References

Schaffhauser, D. 3 universities knocked by security breaches. Campus Technology.

Case Studies. Identity Force.

Strong Authentication at a Fraction of the Price. Entrust.

University Improves Network Security and IT Efficiency. (2009).

PEPPM Pricelist Template Form. (2012). PEPPM.

The United States Department of Justice. (2012). Computer crime and intellectual property section.

May, M. (2004). Federal computer crime laws. SANS Institute Infosec Reading Room.

Pennsylvania State Police Creates Regional Computer Crime Task Force. (2002). Government Technology.

Craiger, J.P. Computer Forensics Procedures and Methods. Retrieved from:
ncfs.org/craiger.forensics.methods.procedures.final.pdf.

Donovan, J. (Ed.). (2011). Obtaining and Admitting Electronic Evidence, 59(6).

Law Paper - Rights Versus Reasonable Suspicion

Public school law is not always easy to follow, especially when it comes to the rights of students versus the charge of educators and principals to maintain order. As the case of Safford v. Redding illustrates, one's legal responsibilities can be particularly hard to decipher in cases of searching students for drugs. Whether one's suspicions warrant a search and to what extent a search is warranted depend on situational aspects of the case rather than clearly prescribed procedures.

In Safford v. Redding, a girl Savana Redding was strip-searched by an educator after it was discovered that she had prescription drugs in her possession, and was allegedly distributing the drugs to other students. The drugs in this case were ibuprofen and naproxen, relatively harmless drugs. However, another student had alleged he had become sick from pills given to him by Savana and another girl. After the pills were found in her day planner, her outer clothes were searched, including her shoes, socks, and packet, before she was asked to strip to her underwear and lift her bra and underpants to prove she was not hiding any more drugs on her person.

Because student health was at risk and Savana was found to be in possession of drugs which, while not necessary illegal, were not allowed on school grounds without prior administrative approval, it was found in this case by the U.S. Supreme Court that the principal involved had reasonable suspicion to conduct a search of the student, including her "outer clothes." However, it was further decided that the more extensive strip search of the student was unconstitutional. While they ruled in favor of the defendant in this case due to the possibility that the principal might not have known that "the strip search of Savana Redding violated her established constitutional rights...the next principal who orders a strip search for pills without reasonable and specific suspicion...may not be so fortunate" (Stader et al., 2010, p. 112).

The principal's suspicion was not regarded as reasonable or specific in Safford v. Redding because, firstly, the drugs in question were not harmful enough to warrant such an extensive search. However this does point to the need for training for principals and educators regarding prescription drug use and abuse in schools, as the principal did hear that one student had became sick from pills provided to him by Savana, further complicating the question of how significant prescription-strength but relatively harmless pills should be viewed in the school setting. Secondly, there was no evidence suggesting that students were hiding drugs in their underwear. If witnesses had suggested otherwise or if students at the school had previously been found to hide drugs in their underwear, Savana's constitutional right to not undergo a strip search if harmful illegal drugs were suspected would have been more tenuous.

The case of Safford v. Redding reminds us that whether and to what extent searching students is reasonable for drugs, including prescription drugs, is not always easy to know. Students have an important right to dignity and from unwarranted searches in schools that principals and educators must be made aware of and provided training on, to prevent situations where students are humiliated or disrespected simply because they brought prescription-strength ibuprofen to school. On the other hand, principals and educators would be wise to develop systems and policies for handling such predicaments generally in order to avoid liability and legal entanglements. It is not always easy to know where students rights end and educators rights begin when drugs are involved.

References

Stader, D. L., Greicar, M. B., Stevens, D. W., & Dowdy, R. (2010). Drugs, strip searches, and educator liability: Implications of Safford v. Redding. The Clearing House, 83(3), 109-113.

Distributed Leadership and School Leaders

"Distributed leadership" is an orientation toward leadership rather than a prescriptive guide for leadership. While distributed leadership theory fails to provide immediate answers to how school leaders should work alongside others to achieve learning, it can nonetheless help equip school leaders to better understand what leadership entails in practice, and what leaders' role should and can be. By conceptualizing knowledge as distributed and a leader as practically "responsible" rather than as traditionally "authoritative" (or "expert"), the distributed leadership framework can help future school leaders to improve schools and student performance.

As Timperley writes, leadership theory has traditionally focused on the individual leader rather than other important aspects of leadership practice, evaluating personal characteristics of successful leaders, for example, rather than other important elements which lead to achievement in school settings (p. 395). Yet such scholarship cannot be seen as completely adequate to the task of understanding school leadership, as leadership does not take place merely in the principal's office, by the principal. For this reason understanding how leadership is distributed among the principal and other educators can be helpful. The conceptualization of both knowledge and the leader embedded in distributed leadership formulations can help school leaders to work with others in a more productive and supportive way to achieve school goals.

Knowledge, like leadership, is understood as distributed within distributed leadership theory. That is, no one, not even the principal, knows everything, and each of us have had different experiences which inform our actions and provide us with insights on various situations. By understanding knowledge as distributed, principals and other school leaders do not need to overburden themselves and can appropriately delegate tasks to others, such as head teachers, without fear of doing their work incorrectly. Principals cannot be expected to know everything that is going on in their schools, and they therefore must rely upon others, understanding knowledge as distributed rather than individual in the school setting.

By understanding knowledge as distributed, principals can also recruit educators as head teachers, literacy leaders, or into other leadership roles, taking advantage of the knowledge of others working around them. Indeed, not all principals are or ever were expert school teachers themselves, and none know all that there is know about teaching in every subject or grade level. On the other hand, teachers should be expected to know more about the daily lives and lifestyles of the members of the student body, and can thus best support one another, when possible, in helping individual students to achieve more. Thus, by understanding knowledge, including that knowledge of how to improve a school, as distributed throughout the school faculty, school leaders can utilize the expertise of their coworkers without fear or shame that they do not know everything.

In relation, a second important way that school leaders and schools can benefit from distributed leadership is by understanding a leader not as a traditional "authority" but more pragmatically, as a responsible party. While distributed leadership theory clearly moves away from the interpretation of leadership as individual personality traits such as strength of character or charisma, emphasizing that "leadership practice takes form in the interactions between leaders and followers, rather than as a function of one or more leaders' actions" (Spillane, p. 406), the leader is undeniably responsible and accountable, and his or her actions are therefore important. Thus there is a paradox in this understanding, as it implies a role for the leader, but one of inner strength rather than of outer strength, or brute force. As Rolph (2010) argues, the leader must be confident to delegate some of his or her traditional or structural authority to others, but he or she must at the same time not be too strong as a leader, in order to effectively delegate authority to others in the practical sense.

In other words, the leader must see it as valuable to share power and authority with others, rather than to attempt to make decisions and act autonomously in the school setting, to enhance the use of distributed leadership in his or her school. Knowing how and where to share authority and power is not something that distributed leadership theory can prescribe, unfortunately, and delegating tasks and responsibilities is determinant upon school contexts which are always interactive, changing, and dynamic. Nonetheless, no individual can effect a school positively by him or herself, and thus leading as a responsible colleague rather than as the authority can help school leaders and followers to change schools for the better by leading in different ways in different situations.

Paradoxically, distributed leadership ultimately depends in part on what leaders do, though distributed leadership theory denies that leaders' actions are all that constitutes leadership. As a framework for understanding how leadership operates through people, places, and artifacts, distributed leadership can help school leaders to expand their understandings of how knowledge is distributed in their workplaces and how leaders need not be expert authorities, though they remain responsible for the overall direction of their schools. By using these revised conceptions of knowledge and leadership, school leaders can make better use of the talents in their midst by engaging in collaborative and constructive relationships, in which all parties knowledge is viewed as valuable, and tasks can be delegated by a leader who has the confidence to lead through relating to others rather than depending exclusively upon his or her own charisma, charm, strength, or knowledge. Though nontraditional, distributed leadership paves the way toward successfully action by teams by viewing knowledge and leadership as distributed.

References

Rolph, C. D. (2010). The paradoxes of distributed leadership in schools. iNet.

Spillane, J. P. Distributed leadership. The Educational Forum, 69, 143-150.

Timperley, H. S. Distributed leadership: developing theory from practice. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37(4), 395-420.

Analysis of Job in Public and Non-Profit Organizations

Table of Contents

BACKGROUND
TURNOVER, SERVICE ISSUES, AND JOB QUALITY
TURNOVER
SERVICE
JOB QUALITY
ESTABLISHING FIT AND DEVELOPING JOB DEFINITION AND REQUIREMENTS
FIT
DEVELOPING JOB DEFINITIONS
ESTABLISHING JOB REQUIREMENTS
JOB ANALYSIS
IMPLICATIONS AND FINDINGS
CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY
REFERENCES

Job Analysis in Public or Non-Profits: Implications in Human Resources Management

This paper addresses the process and importance of job analysis in public or non-profit organizations and the implications for public or non-profit human resources management. In today's very tight economy, both public agencies and non-profits must run in as efficient and cost-effective manner as possible. The danger of budget cuts looms in every venue, and organizations which have an adequate and accurate understanding of the job process are more likely to succeed budget cuts and public scrutiny. This project investigates not only the process of job analysis in public or non-profit organizations, but also the implications for public and/or non-profit human resources management.

Background

Before beginning a discussion of job analysis, it is helpful to define what job analysis is, and why it is important. Understanding what employees do and why they do it is critical to understanding how the organization operates and whether or not it could be operating more effectively. Understand these levels of operation are critical to meeting the organization's strategic goals. Employees who do not have a clear understanding of their jobs and what is expected of their performance are more likely to fail to meet job requirements, resulting in voluntary or involuntary turnover.

Organizations today can ill afford the massive financial cost associated with employee turnover. Turnover is high, both in public employment and in private organizations. In addition, service issues that can result from a combination of poor training or job understanding, combined with high turnover, can cost an organization both money and clientele. This is particularly critical in non-profit organizations, who depend on having clientele to get funding and in government organizations, who are typically subject to some type of citizen oversight.

In the next section, the research relating to turnover and service issues is reviewed, and the link is made to turnover, service issues, and the need for job analysis.

Turnover, Service Issues, and Job Quality

Trevor and Nyberg stated that "...turnover-related financial costs, which include employee replacement, training, and outplacement are quite high, with per-leaver estimates often doubling leaver salary" (p. 261). The authors also pointed out that "recent research indicates that turnover rates are negatively associated with business unit and organizational success (Glebbeek & Bax, 2004; Kacmar, Andrews, Rooy, Steilberg, & Cerrone, 2006; McElroy, Morrow, & Rude, 2001; Shaw, Gupta, & Delery, 2005)" (Trevor & Nyberg, 2008, p. 262).

Turnover

The Georgia Budget and Policy Institute reported that turnover cost the state of Georgia $475 million for the fiscal year of 2005. The combination of staffing costs, costs of having vacancies that result in lowered productivity by other employees, and training costs for new employees can be prohibitive. Even the most highly qualified applicants will have a learning curve in the new employment situation, and costs associated with overtime and allocation of resources will mount up during the transition time (Georgia Budget and Policy Institute, 2006). The state estimates that for every percentage point decrease in turnover, Georgia state taxpayers save over $28 million. This level of savings would be a boon for any organization, public or private.

Ramlall (2004) pointed out that all companies today face retention problems. The situation described by the Georgia Budget and Policy Institute is multiplied many times over throughout public and private agencies. Ross (2005) reported that in 2004, the turnover rate total across the United States exceeded 23%. Complicating the issue is a lack of well-trained potential hires; the US Department of Labor projected labor shortages until 2012 (Ross 2005). There are clearly two issues involved: first, employees must be retained, and second, employees hired to fill openings must be carefully selected. Although the steps of hiring take time and represent added expense, it is only by careful matching of employee to job that an employer, public or private, can ensure that the employee is qualified to do the job and is interested in doing the job.

Each step of the hiring process takes money. It is expensive to do a background check; drug testing costs money; references must be checked. The company or organization has expectations that employees will remain with their company, but as the statistics show it is all too often that the process simply begins again. The key may be to determine why they leave.

Herzberg's (2003) work suggested that there were a number of specific conditions that led to job dissatisfaction. He was able to establish seven principles that contribute to job satisfaction:

- Developing a system that allowed the employee to work without supervision, yet remain accountable
- Increasing the necessity for personal accountability, for people to act as their own quality control and supervision
- Assigning entire portions of work to accomplish rather than small sections
- Allowing employees the authority to make job decisions
- Having reports go directly to the employee rather than to the supervisor first
- Increasing the level of challenge in the work
- Assigning individuals the task of becoming a "local expert" on their work.

Herzberg (2003) suggested that giving the employee responsibility and recognition were very important in the development of motivation and the desire to remain on the job. One of the big challenges is how to give the employee responsibility while establishing job requirements.

A great deal of research has been accomplished which suggests that turnover is an even greater issue in tight economic times, when marginal employees may have already been downsized. There is a tendency in organizations to release marginal employees, employees with a great deal of sick time, or disciplinary issues. The organizational goal is to keep the best employees. It becomes even more critical to the organization if a "good" employee leaves, because the remaining employees may be doing the workload of more than one personal already.

Trevor and Nyberg's (2008) study suggested that the best way to mitigate loss of employees was to determine and strengthen "embeddedness." Embeddedness was defined, in part, as consisting of the fit of the employee to the organization to the job. Thus developing robust job descriptions can assist human resources managers in hiring the appropriate individuals. An accurate job description helps the employer know what type of employee to look for, and helps the prospective employee know if they can do the job the employer expects. Further, an accurate job description can help evaluate the employee's performance and make annual review process much easier.

Service

In 2003, Blanchard and Bowles (pg. 11) stated that today, service in some organization has gotten so bad that customers or clients simply expect to be abused. Collins suggests that the inability of employees to take responsibility for things that go wrong contributes to this negative expectation of customer service. Collins (2001) suggested that one of the greatest issues in business today is the inability to accept responsibility for things that go wrong. Companies must establish a series of mechanisms that will draw the attention of management in order to examine situations within the organization that may lead to detrimental reactions from clients or the public.

Job Quality

The organization's "brand" can suffer in a number of ways but by establishing a mechanism for oversight and review, brand failure can be limited. Companies with low turnover and high knowledge have established a clear pattern of flow throughout the organization so that employees know what to, when to do it, and how to do it. Judge and Ferris (1992) pointed out that companies who wish to have this type of flow must begin with the assurance that employees who are being hired will fit into the company. Fit must be based on rational staffing and deliberate hiring.

Establishing Fit and Developing Job Definition and Requirements

The process of job analysis answers the question so of who, what, where, when, why, and how. While there is more than one method of analysis, there is typically only one goal: to define the job, match it to the organization's needs, and define the requirements for the conduction of the job. A job description is the result of the analysis. The description is a step by step list of what the job requirements are. The job description is very important from a legal standpoint because it defines what the employer expects for any given job.

Fit

The job analysis, and subsequent description, can be utilized in conducting the employee's job review and for hiring new employees. According to Aswathapa (2002), the description identifies a title for the job, establishes the duties, sets the conditions, lists any hazards, and suggests a relationship to other jobs within the organization, thus establishing a path for promotion or advancement. Most importantly, the analysis and description establish the initial fit between the candidate and the company, or the candidate and the job.

Developing Job Definitions

The description, or definition, of the job evolves from the job analysis. The description itself defines the job, the work, and the context of the job within the organization. The clarified description is utilized in establishing fit, in maintaining consistency of job, defining promotion requirements, and establishing training and recruitment needs. Job descriptions can be used to establish legal requirements and to negotiate with collective bargaining.

Establishing Job Requirements

Gatewood, Field, and Barrick suggested that there are three primary methods of job analysis: interviews, questionnaires and inventories, and job expert evaluations. The job analysis interview collects data gathered from interviewing employees who are in the position. Core competencies for the jobs are established. In 1998, Olesen, Tse, and West suggested that there were certain stable areas within the organization, referred to as core competencies, which should be utilized in developing the job analysis:

- The types of contact between employees and customers
- The type of information that is exchanged between the employee and the customers
- The way that employees and customers communicate
- The behaviors that employees have when working with customers
- The amount of time that employees spend with customers
- The level of input the customer has in product development (or service development)
- The trust levels that the employees establish with customers
- The methods of feedback that are set up
- The level of employee autonomy in dealing with problems
- The level of personalization required in any interaction with customers or clients
- The customers' needs to be recognized, and
- The intensity and degree of labor required (p. 182).

These items, the contact, information, communication, behaviors, time, level of input, trust levels, methods of feedback, employee autonomy, personalization, customers' needs, and intensity and degree of labor impact the organization's "bottom line" whether the organization is a for-profit organization or a public or non-profit. If having the correct employee in a position is critical to the operation of the organization, then establishing an accurate job specification is critical because it is the basis for the selection of that employee.

Job Analysis

Gatewood et al. pointed out that a job analysis interview should be conducted by someone experienced in the task. The analyst asks questions about the job duties and responsibilities and the worker's experiences in the job. The knowledge, skills, and aptitudes (KSAs) that are required for the job are explored, and any equipment needed for the job is noted. The information is collected for the job and for jobs within the same class (for instance, administrative jobs, or janitorial jobs). Experienced employees should be interviewed, because they have done the job and understand who it should be conducted. The interview itself can be strictly structured, or it can be unstructured. However, the structured interview is likely to net information that will be more likely to stand up to legal challenge.

Gatewood et al. suggest that a job analysis interview should investigate the major tasks of the job, the KSAs required in the job, the level of physical activities required and the nature of the activities, the environmental conditions that the job is conducted in, and frequencies and degrees to which work tasks are conducted. The employee may be asked what records and reports they use to do the job, or what reports they prepare on the job. The employee should be asked where they got (or get) the information to do their job, and how many people they supervise. Finally, they should be allowed to provide any additional information they feel appropriate.

Gatewood et al. provide the example of the US Civil Service Commission, who have developed a method of analyzing employee statements and narratives. Each statement is broken into four parts:

- What action happens
- To whom or to what does it happen?
- What is produced?
- Using what tools, equipments, aids, and processes? (Gatewood et al., 2008 p. 269).

Although the interview itself is an excellent tool for conducting the analysis, there are situations where it will either not be appropriate or should be supplemented. Job analysis questionnaires should be utilized at these points. The questionnaires may be considered less personal or less invasive by some employees and may result in answers that are more honest. Although the company's HR representative can develop questionnaires appropriate to the investigation, there are so many off-the-shelf questionnaires available that the company may well find an off the shelf package that is adequate.

According to Gatewood et al., the task analysis inventory comes in an off-the-shelf iteration that can be readily adapted for use by organizations. It asks the incumbent in the position to respond in great detail, sometimes using a Likert-style scale, to define essential activities of the job. Employees are asked to define what they do, how often they do it, and the importance of the task. The answers can be ranked and compared against other workers in similar job positions to get an accurate description of the position.

The Positional Analysis Questionnaire is an additional off the shelf package that is commonly in use with HR departments. This tool reviews how the worker gets the input for the job, the decision making process the employee uses to do the job, what the work output looks like, the relationships with others that are necessary to do the job, the social and physical context of the job, and any other information or job characteristics of the job.

The third method of job analysis is the Subject Matter Expert (SME) workshop. In this form of analysis, a group or panel familiar with the job gets together with a leader and analyze the job(s). In general, the tasks of the job are identified, and the KSAs established. The relevance of the content of the job to the job can also be addressed. Finally, work logs, diaries, and observations can be conducted. In every case, the materials are considered systematically and the final report is produced.

Implications and Findings

Cohen and Golan stated that turnover has a direct correlation to job satisfaction and commitment to the organization. With rates of turnover soaring, organizations must take steps to ensure that they can stay afloat during economic crises. An interesting application of this idea was explored by ChanLin. In this study, faculty members conducted a jobs analysis of their jobs to determine the professional skills that would be needed by student graduates in the field. A minimum competency was developed from this analysis (ChanLin, 2009).

Jackson suggested in his dissertation research that the job analysis might also be useful for assisting injured workers to return to work. He postulated that injured workers might be kept form permanent injury by carefully analyzing the job and matching the needs to that of the injured worker. This possibility is one worth exploring by organizations in the public and non-profit sectors as a way of putting people back to work rather than keeping them on injured status, when at all possible. This would allow the use of the employee's experience while protecting their health (Jackson, 2008).

Bharijoo suggests that by conducting a careful job analysis, enough detail can be obtained on the operation of a particular job that the requirements can be utilized in modifying behavior of the employees. Miller and Desmarais (2007) suggest that defining jobs through job analysis, combined with other human resources techniques, can help retain employees in an era of high turnover rates.

Rodwell and Teo (2004) investigated the use of strategic management of human resources in both profit and non-profit organizations in Australian and were able to link strategic management or organizational performance in both types of organizations. They suggested that by linking the combination of customer demands and employee commitments, both types of organizations were able to improve HR practices and enhance human capital within the organization. Lengnick-Hall, C. Lengnick-Hall, Andrade, and Drake, (2009) suggested that some of this input was to provide feedback that could be utilized in developing comprehensive job analysis information.

Conclusion and Summary

The research led the way to the conclusion that job analysis is a powerful tool of human resources management suitable for use in both private corporations and in public and not for profit organizations. When combined as part of an overall package of human resources practices, the job analysis can be used to define positions that need filled, and assist the organization in determining potential employees who will have the best fit for the organization and the specific job. In addition, a good job analysis provides information that can be used to guide the employee in achieving a high level of achievement on the job. By providing the employee with exacting information on what is expected and how to achieve it, it is expected that public organizations and non-profits would decrease turnover and increase job satisfaction, resulting in an improved bottom line.

References

Aswathapa K. Human resource management personal management, 4th edition New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.

Bharijoo, S. (2008) Behaviour modification: An efficacious tool of shaping individual behaviour productive and supportive to organizational goal attainment. The Journal of Nepalese Business Studies V(1) 50-61.

Blanchard, K., & Bowles, S. (2003) Raving fans: A revolutionary approach to customer service. New York: William Morrow and Company.

ChanLin, L. (2009) Development of a competency questionnaires for LIS undergraduates at Fu-Jen Catholic University. Journal of Educational Media & Library Sciences 47(1) p 5-17).

Cohen, A., & Golan, R. (2007) Predicting absenteeism and turnover intentions by past absenteeism and work attitudes: An empirical examination of female employees in long term nursing care facilities. Career Development International, 12(5), pp.416 - 432.

Collins, J. (2001) Good to great: Why some companies leap...and others don't. New York: Harper Collins.

Gatewood, R., Field, H., & Barrick, M. (2008) Human resource selection. Mason, OH: Thompson.

Georgia Budget and Policy Institute (2006). State employment: the cost of turnover. Georgia Budget Analysis.

Herzberg, F. (2003) One more time: How do you motivate employees? Harvard Business Review (January): 87-96.

Jackson, D. (2008) Facilitating injured workers return to work: Using job analyses and other select variables to prevent prolonged disability. Unpublished dissertation, Graduate School of the University of Florida.

Judge, T., & Ferris, G. (2007) The elusive criterion of fit in human resources staffing decisions. Human Resource Planning 14(4) 47-67.

Lengnick-Hall, M., Lengnick-Hall, C., Andrade, L., & Drake, B. (2009) Strategic human resource management: The evolution of the field. Human Resource Management Review 19, p. 64-85.

Miller, D., & Desmarais, S. (2007) Developing your talent to the next level: Five best practices for leadership development. Organizational Development Journal, 25(3) 37-43.

Olesen, M., Tse, E., & West, J. (1998) Strategic management in the hospitality industry, 2nd edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Ramlall, S. (2004). A review of employee motivation theories and their implications for employee retention within organizations. The Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge, 5(2) 52-63.

Trevor, C. & Nyberg, A. Keeping your headcount when all about you are losing theirs: Downsizing, voluntary turnover rates, and the moderating role of HR practices. Academy of Management 51(2) 259-276.

The Indian Nepotism Research

The benefits and disadvantages to Indian nepotism are evident. To start, Indian nepotism enables the children of employees to work for the company despite the existence of other more qualified candidates. As the reading suggests, in tough economic conditions, Indian nepotism may seem favorable and may be responsible for providing families with assurance that their loved ones will be successful. However, the other side of the argument must be examined, as well. Is it fair to exclude other more qualified individuals who apply for the job simply because of family ties?

First, as a manager, I would react negatively to Indian nepotism. It seems entirely unfair to provide favoritism toward family members of employees regardless of the person's skill level. As a manager, my main goal would be to see the company I work for thrive regardless of economic conditions. In order for a company to thrive, the best candidates must be chosen. It is responsible to choose a candidate based on education, prior work experience, and skill. When a child is hired only because he/she is related to a current employee, the skill level of the entire company can diminish. It is very important that the company employs only the best employees, but knowingly hiring unqualified individuals does not speak well on the company's behalf. With that said, if I were a manger I would be against Indian nepotism because of the pride I would invest into the company's success.

Next, I would not refuse to accept Indian companies as partners or suppliers if they do not cease the practice of Indian nepotism. If I were a manager of the company, my primary focus would be the well-being of said company. Therefore, I would attempt various methods of locating partners and suppliers. As long as the company practicing Indian nepotism remains in accordance with other laws, it would be my hope that the company would be successful despite the questionable practices they follow. I understand the parents of these children only want the best for their child's future. The reasoning behind companies not hiring these other applicants does not stem from hate. Regardless, nepotism is not a practice I would implement in my business. However, as long as the company adheres to the various other laws governing businesses and does not act out of hatred toward other applicants, I would not be opposed to accepting these companies as partners or suppliers.

Finally, the link between ethics and cultural differences is present in many parts of the world. It is possible for companies to run into challenges when trying to mix culture and ethics. For example, if a business' headquarters is located in the United States, but the company's facilities are present in other parts of the world, questions concerning ethics could develop (Gan). The differing laws between two countries are often based on ethics and morals and when the two conflict, an ethical dilemma may manifest itself. Situations can prove dangerous when a US business has operations in a third world country where the same ethics US businesses follow are not adhered to. For example, in India a chemical plant exploded because the United State's based business, Union Carbide, was not forced to follow the same US regulations regarding the upkeep of chemical plants. As a result, thousands of lives were lost. With that said, companies need to practice extra care when ethics and cultural differences may clash. It is important that companies investigate the ethical laws of other countries before entering a business arrangement. The evidence shows that the link between different cultures and ethics could result in tarnishing the reputation of a company if the differences are not managed properly.

Works Cited

Gan, Jacob. "Business Ethics: Ethical Dilemma Reason 4 - Cultural Differences in Global Settings."

Abstract

This paper explores the relevant issues internationally in the area of bilingual education. It is noted that language education and policies can promote languages. There has recently been an alarming trend toward a reduction in the number of languages spoken worldwide. If this trend continues the 6000 languages which now exist will be reduced to 600 by the end of the 21st century. Latin America is used as an example of how education, language, and politics can interact. A number of different types of bilingual education exist. Several of these are explored in this paper. The intercultural bilingual education of Latin America is explored, and it is noted that this type of education increases cultural awareness. Two-way immersion studies for bilingual education were begun in the 1960s but create problems for students at the lower grade levels who may not grasp the language sufficiently to understand other subjects that are being taught. Studies on transitional bilingual education and structured immersion indicate that students who are native Spanish speakers can learn English with both strategies at approximately the same rate. One of the most promising bilingual education methods is known as the speech community model. It is important for educators to understand that there is a difference between the basic interpersonal communication skills of students attempting to learn a new language and their academic language level (Cummins, 2003). Bilingual education is important for learning in general as it increases a variety of cognitive skills (Sanz, 2000). The increasing trend toward worldwide recognition of the importance regarding language rights is discussed. The speech community model is an effective method of bilingual education, which would benefit from further research.

Throughout the world, there are immigrants and indigenous languages, which are under political, economic, and social pressures, to reduce their usage (Hornberger, 1998). Recent research indicates that language education and policy can promote the stability of these languages. The education and government policies which exist in a country regarding languages can have significant effects on the continued use of these forms of communication. There are scholars who believe that each language should be viewed as a resource which must be protected (Hornberger, 1998).

The phenomenon of languages disappearing is occurring throughout the world (Hornberger, 1998). It has been estimated that there are now approximately 6000 languages on earth and with the current level of loss, only 600 will remain into the next century. There are roughly 175 indigenous languages, which still exist in the United States. However, only 20 of these are being taught to children in an active fashion. In California, there were 100 Native American languages spoken when Europeans first arrived. This has been reduced to 50 in the 21st century with none of them being taught to children (Hornberger, 1998).

The United States is not alone in losing languages (Hornberger, 1998). This is a worldwide concern. There are now at least 16 languages in Ethiopia, which are in danger of extinction. The native languages in South Africa have not completely disappeared and 11 official languages exist. However, South African English and the Dutch derived Afrikaans are the predominant languages throughout the country (Hornberger, 1998).

Latin America

Latin America can be seen as an example of how language, politics, and education interact. Globally there are approximately 300 million people who are indigenous to the country in which they reside. More than 40 million of these individuals reside in Latin America. All of these countries, except possibly Uruguay, have indigenous residents. In Guatemala and Bolivia at least half of the population consists of natives.

The Latin American community is diverse and has more than 700 indigenous languages. While some of these languages are spoken by millions, others are spoken by only a few. Examples of languages which are commonly spoken in Latin America are Aymara and Quechua (Lopez & Sichra, 2008).

During the 1970s and continuing into the 21st century, there have been attempts by groups in Latin America to revitalize the indigenous culture. This has included pushing the government to enact reforms of their constitution, which acknowledge the multilingual nature of Latin American societies. Laws have been passed in many countries, which give the indigenous people the right to teach and learn in their native tongue.

The events in Latin America reveal how literacy, language, rights, and self determination can interact in a complex fashion. Several Latin American governments have enacted bilingual education reforms which respect native languages. These reforms have increased public awareness of language issues, which has led to further requests from groups interested in maintaining native languages.

Types of Bilingual Education

There are many different types of bilingual education. One type of bilingual education involves using two languages in teaching, which encourages knowledge in both tongues. Another type of education which is considered bilingual is primarily monolingual and presented to bilingual children who are attempting to learn a new language. The bilingual education can also be transitional or maintenance (Baker, 2006). When the education is transitional the primary goal is to alter the child's use of a minority language and help them learn the dominant language in the community. Maintenance education has the aim of helping a child maintain their original minority language while living in a society which uses a different language. The main purpose of this type of education is to help the child maintain their cultural identity. This type of education is seen as a way of increasing linguistic diversity and promoting the child's native culture (Baker, 2006).

There are different types of learning within most of the bilingual education methods (Baker, 2006). For example, monolingual education for bilinguals can consist of submersion or structured immersion. The submersion method introduces the minority language student to the majority language by placing them in a classroom with both minority and majority language students (Baker, 2006). Instruction only takes place in the majority language. Structured immersion is a similar. However, the classes consist entirely of minority language students. All instructions are done in the majority language, and the students are expected to use that language exclusively. There are numerous other types of bilingual education and several of these will be discussed in this paper.

Intercultural Bilingual Education

In Latin America, there is an interesting form of learning known as indigenous bilingual education. This consists of teaching two languages to classrooms composed of students from different cultural backgrounds. This type of education is used today and began in the early 20th century in Ecuador, Peru, and Mexico. During the 1930s in Mexico the Summer Institute of Linguistics, based in the United States, contracted with several organizations to provide Bible translations. This group also helped incorporate indigenous people in the Amazon basin into mainstream society by encouraging language development.

The initial goal of intercultural bilingual education was assimilation of the native culture by the majority (Lopez & Sichra, 2008). In 1977 there was a meeting held in Barbados in which intellectuals interested in linguistics formed methods for helping indigenous organizations influence governmental policies. This resulted in a shift of the education goal from assimilation to that of the maintenance model which encourages the retention of the original language and culture.

Intercultural bilingual education has helped researchers understand how the use of language maintenance, combined with the learning of a new language, encourages students to have increased cultural awareness. This education has gradually become more common with students from indigenous populations. The focus is on combining the learning of a new language along with its culture, while maintaining respect for the student's native language and culture.

Two-Way Immersion

The two-way immersion programs were first used in the 1960s. This type of teaching involves having classrooms, which consist of both language majority and minority students. The teaching of language and other subjects is done in both the minority and majority language. The goals of this type of learning include bilingualism, academic achievement, cross-cultural competence, and the development of biliteracy. These programs include students from different ethnic, language, racial, and socioeconomic backgrounds. The education of all students is enriched by understanding others. The two-way immersion prevents a stigma of remediation and segregation being assigned to the users of the minority language.

While the two-way immersion program represents an improvement over the traditional minority language model which treats learning of the majority language as remediation, the learning opportunities may not be equally distributed among students. This can be a considerable drawback to the method. This is particularly true for lower grade levels when instruction is being done in the majority language and the children may not have necessary language skills in the other language to learn the information being presented. It is important that the students have sufficient understanding of the other language so that they are able to assimilate information in other subject areas. More research needs to be done on accomplishing this goal before two-way immersion presents a complete solution.

Transitional Bilingual Education versus Structured Immersion

A study done on the success of five years of bilingual education, focused on the success of transitional bilingual education versus structured English immersion (Slavin, Madden, Calderon, Chamberlain & Hennessy, 2010). The study was longitudinal and involved following three successive years of kindergarten students until they completed grade 4. The students were randomly assigned to English only or bilingual conditions. The longitudinal nature of the study was required due to the length of time involved for successful bilingual education. During the initial education process, the English language students will temporarily outperform the non-native speaking students when courses are offered in English.

The study found slight differences in the bilingual versus the immersion classes. In order to measure the students' knowledge the Spanish and English versions of the Woodcock Reading Scales were used. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test was also used as well as its Spanish equivalent. The kindergarten and first grade students who were in the transitional bilingual courses had slightly higher scores in Spanish and slightly reduced scores in English when compared to students who were in the immersion classes. In grades 2 through 4 the transitional bilingual children scored slightly lower than the immersion students on receptive vocabulary. However, the transitional bilingual children scored slightly higher in reading. The findings of this study were not entirely conclusive and suggest that students who are needed Spanish speaking individuals can learn English in both types of learning situations.

The Speech Community Model

The case study of a high school in Washington Heights, New York suggests that a speech community model may be a successful way of approaching bilingual education. Gregorio Luperon School is located in a Dominican neighborhood in New York City. This school is composed of immigrants who are newly arrived in the United States and have poor English reading and writing skills. The school has successfully helped the majority of these students pass standardized exams in history, science, math, and English. The dropout rate of this high school is significantly lower than similar schools. The school also has a high attendance record with excellent rates of college acceptance.

The high school is using a completely different type of language acquisition, which can be conceptualized as going beyond psycholinguistic learning processes and helping students build on the speech community. This involves a social process. The high school segregates students into groups who have similar skills in English so that they experience a learning environment in a community of peers. The education goes beyond the learning of the language and there is an explanation of the sociocultural factors involved. The majority of these students have Spanish as their native language. This is the indigenous language of the teachers as well. Spanish maintains a high status while there is recognition of the need to master English.

Academic Language and Interpersonal Communication Skills

There is an important difference between academic language and interpersonal communication skills (Cummins, 2003). The distinction must be made due to the difference in learning time required. Many students moving to a new country acquire fluency in the predominant language necessary for conversation in approximately two years. However, it frequently takes the student five years or more in order to reach the same academic proficiency level as individuals that are native speakers.

The difference in learning time between academic and conversational fluency can have significant effects on a student. The student who is attempting to learn a new majority language may appear quite fluent during a conversation after only a couple of years. It is assumed by teachers and other individuals at the school that the child has similar competency in regard to the language necessary for academic pursuits. This can lead to psychological assessments, which are done in English and yield inaccurate results. Furthermore, many bilingual students are discontinued prematurely from a language support program due to the misconception that they are fully fluent in the new tongue. This can result in a child being placed in mainstream classes in which they are unable to understand the material being presented.

Bilingual Education and Third Language Acquisition

In addition to the social and occupational advantage provided by learning the majority language, bilingual education can help students learn a 3rd language more quickly and with better comprehension (Sanz, 2000). A number of research studies have indicated that bilingualism increases cognitive flexibility, linguistic awareness, and the ability to process new information. It has even been associated with an increased tendency toward a democratic disposition. With all of these factors in mind it should come as no surprise that individuals that are already fluent in two languages can learn a 3rd more easily.

A study was done on students attempting to learn English, who were monolingual Spanish speakers or were fluent in both Spanish and Catalan. The study was done on 201 high school students who were in an immersive English language program. The study used hierarchical multiple regression analysis to remove any extraneous effects and was designed well. The study found that the students who were fluent in both Spanish and Catalan learned English more quickly and with better comprehension than the monolingual Spanish students. These researchers conclude that bilingualism increases cognitive efficiency in general.

Language Rights

Bilingual education and language rights are related to one another and important factors for all children. Many areas of the world have regional and international legal provisions, which provide for bilingual education. In 1989 the United Nations put forth the Convention on The Rights of the Child. Article 30 of this convention stipulates that when the indigenous population is a minority it is especially important to ensure that the minority children be allowed to learn their native language and culture. They should also be allowed to practice the associated customs of the culture.

While the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and many regional laws, help increase bilingual education this is not a universal trend. Both Denmark and France have contemplated the adoption of laws, which would prevent parents from speaking their native language to infants even in a private residence. However, these situations appear to be exceptions rather than the general trend.

Conclusion

There are a number of different types of bilingual education. The intercultural bilingual education which is present in Latin America has the advantage of increasing the students' cultural awareness. This type of education has been used in Latin America for more than 70 years. While it was originally meant as a method of assimilation, it has been transformed into a model of language maintenance, which encourages intercultural awareness.

One of the most promising models of bilingual education is provided by the case study of Gregorio Luperon School in New York City (Garcia & Bartlett, 2007). The majority of this school's immigrant children pass standardized tests in math, science, history, and English. The school has a low dropout rate, a high attendance record, and excellent acceptance rate for college. The school uses a speech community model in which students attend classes with pupils that have similar language skills to their own. There is recognition of the importance of their native language and culture, while stressing the necessity of learning the predominant language (Garcia & Bartlett, 2007). Further research needs to be done into this successful method of approaching bilingual learning.

References

Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. (4th ed.). New York: Multilingual Matters, Ltd.

Cummins, J. (2003). Basic interpersonal communicative skills and cognitive academic language proficiency.

DeJong, E., & Howard, E. (2009). Integration in two-way immersion education: equalising linguistic benefits for all students. The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 12(1), 1-21.

Garcia, O., & Bartlett, L. (2007). A speech community model of bilingual education: Educating Latino newcomers in the USA. The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 10(1), 1-25.

Hornberger, N. (1998). Language policy, language education, language rights: Indigenous, immigrant, and international perspectives. Language in Society, 27(4), 439-458.

Lopez, L. E. & Sichra, I. (2008). Intercultural bilingual education among indigenous peoples in Latin America. In J. Cummins, N. HornbergerEncyclopedia of language and education, volume 5 (pp. 295-310). New York: Springer.

Lorenzo, F., Casal, S., & Moore, P. (2009). The effects of content and language integrated learning in European education: Key findings from the Andalusian bilingual sections evaluation project. Applied Linguistics, 1-25.

Sanz, C. (2000). Bilingual education enhances 3rd language acquisition: Evidence from Catalonia. Applied Psycholinguistic, 21, 23-44.

Skutnabb-kangas, T. (2008). Language rights and bilingual education. In J. Cummins, N. Hornberger Encyclopedia of language and education(pp. 117-131). New York: Springer.

Slavin, R. E., Madden, N., Calderon, M., Chamberlain, A. , & Hennessy, M. (2010).Reading and language outcome of a five-year randomized evaluation of transitional bilingual education. Baltimore, Maryland: Success for All Foundation.

College Students and their Professional Work's Effect on their Academic Grades

In today's economy many college students are required to work in order to pay tuition, buy books and pay for their living expenses. However; trying to juggle a job and academics can be daunting for some students. If a student does not have strong time management skills and the ability to restrict how many hours per week they work, their grades may suffer as a result. This can have wide ranging consequences including, loss of financial aid, being put on academic probation, or stress related illness resulting from a student's struggle to balance the demands of work and school. While working can help students to gather work experience for their lives after college, and can provide much needed financial stability, college can also have a negative effect on grades if a student overdoes things.

Literature Review

Applegate and Daly (2002) suggest that it is not whether a student works that has an impact on their grades, it is the amount of hours they work, and the amount of time they invest in study outside the classroom the impacts their grade point average. They hypothesized that students who worked may show slight increases in grades due to better organizational skills however, students that worked more than part time were likely to show lower grades than students that worked part time jobs. A study of 460 University of Canberra students revealed that work in and of itself was not damaging to a student's grades. In fact, certain types of work improved student's grades slightly because they helped students improve their organizational skills. Studying more frequently and receiving private tutoring had a positive impact on grades and work only affected a student's grades negatively if the student worked more than 22 hours per week.

This article indicates that a certain amount of work in the form of internships or part time work may benefit students and help them to develop stronger study skills, organizational skills and time management skills. The National Institute of Labor Studies (2010), argues that one of the main reasons that more than 300,000 university students in Australia currently work 20 hours or more per week is that the financial aid available to college and university students does not adequately cover their needs.

The National Institute of Labor Studies (2010) study revealed that more than 57 % of Australian students receive little or no government financial aid. This means that these students must work a minimum of 15 hours per week in order to cover tuition, books and living expenses. This article also argues that working outside of student internship and practicum experiences can have a negative effect on the overall quality of a student's university experience. Finally, the demands that work places on a student's available time outside of class may conflict with time needed for studying.

Coleburn suggests that students should not work more than 20 hours per week. According to Coleburn, studies have shown that working between 10 and 20 hours per week has little effect on student's academic performance. In some cases, Coleburn suggests that working can help improve a student's grades because a job encourages students to develop better time management skills. Time management and organizational skills are critical in helping students to maintain strong grades. Coleburn's research demonstrates that despite the furor over student's holding part time jobs it is not necessarily harmful to a college or university student's grades to work at least part time.

Dundes and Marx suggest that students who work between 10 and 19 hours per week outside of classes and other college activities are more likely to have high academic performance than students who work more than 19 hours per week, or students that do not work at all. They hypothesized that the reason that students holding part time jobs had higher grades that unemployed students or students employed full time, was that they were forced to develop strong organizational time management and study skills in order balance the demands of work school and an active college social life.

A study of 256 students at revealed that students that worked between 10 and 19 hours per week had grades that were as good as, or better than the grades of students that did not work. The study also found that students who worked between 10 and 19 hours per week had stronger time management skills organizational skills and study skills which helped them to focus more on their studies. Finally, Dundes and Marx (2006-2007) suggest that the moderate stress experienced by working college students may have a positive influence on their academic performance since it encourages students to work harder.

Curtis (2007) has also studied the effects of work on the academic performance of college students. The primary focus of her study was how college students thought that working at least part time impacted their academic performance. She hypothesized that students who worked under 20 hours a week would not see a problem with their academic performance and might in fact; rate their academic performance as being higher as the result of working. A study of 336 college and university students in the United Kingdom indicated that students who worked at least part time felt that working had some advantages when it came to their grades. Students did however; indicate that balancing work and studying had a negative effect on their ability to participate fully in the social aspects of university life. They attended fewer parties and were less involved with on campus extracurricular activities than students who did not work.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that working less than 20 hours per week has few if any negative effects on student academic performance. In fact, the majority of researchers argue that working part time may force students to develop stronger time management, organizational and study skills in order to balance work and school and combat the extra stress that develops out of the need to balance work and school. Students who worked more than 20 hours per week were found to have lower grades while students who did not work at all did not experience in noticeable academic effects.

The research also indicates that students often do not receive enough financial aid to cover the cost of attending college and that in the current economy many students are receiving little help from family members. This has made it necessary for students to work in order to make ends meet financially. This is not a new condition for college students. As has been pointed out by several of the articles, historically students have had to work to support themselves as government stipends and scholarships are a fairly recent development in the world of advanced academia. Overall these studies have demonstrated that working is neither harmful nor damaging to the academic performance of college students under certain conditions such as, working limited hours and working at low stress jobs. Finally, research indicates that students who work under 20 hours per week at a moderate stress job may have higher academic performance than unemployed students or students who work full time.

References

Applegate Craig, and Daly Anne. (2006). The impact of paid work on academic performance of students: A case study from the University of Canberra . Australian Journal of Education, 50 (2) , 155-166.

Coleburn, R. Education: Clearing 2000: All work and no play: How much paid work can you afford to do while studying? The Guardian, p. 16.

Curtis, S. Students' perceptions of the effects of term-time paid employment. Education and Training , 360-390.

Dundes, Lauren and Marx, Jeff. Balancing work and academics: Why do students who work 10 to 19 hours per week excel? Journal of College Student Retention, 8(1) , 107-120.

National Institute of Labor Studies. University Students and Employment. Sydney, Australia : National Institute of Labor Studies.

The Federation of Students in Canada

Introductory Concepts

The Canadian Federation of Students (CFS) has a well known program known as Drop Fees, which seeks to reverse currently legislative practices that provide a conducive environment for increased tuition fees that directly influence accessibility to higher education for students in Ontario. Though considered a student movement, decreased access to higher education under programs like Reaching Higher, is holistically a matter of inequality in social justice. According to J.C. Wakefield, "Economic goods are not the only kind of goods that are subject to considerations of justice; a minimal amount of a wide variety of social and psychological goods is also owed to each member of society as a matter of justice" (as cited by Hardcastle & Power). Building from the issue of social justice, the the four cornerstones of social work can be designated as indignation, inquiry, compassion/caring and social justice. As an agent of change in the form of a newly hired social worker seeking to revitalize the Drop Fees campaign, all four cornerstones of social work are present in the Drop Fees paradigm. Organized students have expressed indignation over the current practices, inquiry has revealed less that efficacious dynamics associated with the practice, compassion/caring has motivated the CFS to action and social justice is not being met under the current legislative conditions. Despite the present cornerstones and righteousness of the Drop Fees movement, not all students have the same needs and greater attention to these individualized needs in the organization process will be congruent with increased efficacy in a new revitalized Drop Fees campaign.

The Current Conditions

The Drop Fees campaign is essentially an answer to the government program known as Reaching Higher. Under Reaching Higher, allowance for "Tuition fees to increase at a higher rate than did the polices of the government of Premier Ernie Eves" (CFS, 2009). The inconsistent annual increases have come between four and eight percent, which has allowed for Ontario to be home to the second highest undergraduate and highest graduate tuition fees in the country (CFS, 2009, p. 2). Rationalization of the fees generally comes within the concept that increased fees are equitable to better education. This however, has been proven by advocates and the CFS to not be the case (CFS, 2009). In some instances, it has been noted that students are paying as much as 1000 dollars more than students from a different cohort in the same program (CFS, 2009). While some students have simply taken time off from school or moved back in with parents to pay off debts (Bottom, 2010), an organized campaign has formed to clearly reflect the student sentiment for the current practices. According to the CFS (2009):

Students in Ontario have spoken clearly about how polices of Reaching Higher have affected their experience in higher education. From the frustration and lost class time that has marked labour disputes triggered by lack of adequate funding, to the more than ten thousand students who marched for lower tuition fees on November 5, 2008 in greater numbers than since the days of Mike Harris, the desire for change has never been greater.

The organizing principles behind a new CFS Drop Fees campaign necessitate the most efficacious organization modalities possible for achieving the aims eliminating the attributes of Reaching Higher, which has been demonstrated to be nothing more than a catchy political slogan that actually does the opposite socially of what its name would suggest.

Public Health and Vitality Paradigms

Access to post secondary education is congruent to strong public health. In a conventional sense, public is generally considered to be medically related. According to Rapheal (2009) public policies for health most not only encompass getting health care when its needed but it must also implement policies for keeping people well. Wellness, however, is important on the individual and on the social level. Reducing access to post secondary education is creating paradigms that do not allow for a level playing field for socially approved means of economic prosperity. The equation in its present form can be put into this perspective, restricted access to post secondary education keeps individuals from becoming educated and advancing themselves economically. Lack of economic advancement is generally related to criminal activity and diminished capacity for individual wellness. According to the CST (2009), "Access to post secondary education is more important than ever to enhancing Ontario's competitiveness, increasing standard of living, and reducing socio-economic inequalities" (p. 2). At the present time, the world economy can be classified as being "uncertain." (CST, 2009, p. 2). The age of globalization and the global recession have taken their toll to varying degrees on the entire vitality of the market. Shifts in labor patterns are the norm and a "highly educated population is key to a healthy economy" (CST, 2009, p. 2). Undermining this potential, however, is high unregulated tuition fees.

A Theoretical Framework

The Drop Fees campaign can be summed up as follows, it calls for changes to be made to current governmental post secondary policies to policies that will positively benefit students (CST, 2009). It is not a removal from government from the process in a conservative small government manner, put a regulatory push to keep actions like Reaching Higher from decreasing post secondary education access to cross sections of the population. In its present form, those who are affected adversely by the Reaching Higher program are those of limited economic means to pay for the tuition fee increases. The necessary theoretical framework for accomplishing these goals requires, moving from the right of politics to the left, synergy of goals, cooperation, recruitment and community participation (Fraser, 2005). The move from right wing type political frameworks to more left leaning social policy requires some clarification. Many of the early community organizing frameworks in the United States and Canada has strong connectivity to New Left and/or Marxist paradigms (Shragge, 2007). There were significant theoretical and practical flaws in this early trend. While they believed in the movement as a fundamental agent of change, they also believed that "The processes of self critical reflection on the use of self would slow down the process and lead to mainstreaming organizers and co-optation of their practice by a hidden force of clinicians" (Shragge, 2007, p. 159).

Self reflection is a necessary component for individuals participating in the Drop Fees program on all levels. On the most important level, it requires self reflection of the entire program itself. The exploration of related literature has revealed that the current scope of the Drop Fees program is not most efficaciously mobilizing its human recourses by acknowledging individualized needs for social justice. The revitalized Drop Fees program does not have to be Marxist or non Marxist, it only has to have a singular unified characteristic of getting the fee increase mechanism to stop while lobbying for legislation that keeps such programs from returning thereby increasing accessibility to post secondary education. While social welfare is generally a left leaning phenomenon, the desire for getting quality post secondary education for a fair price is truly a bipartisan mechanism. Regardless of political affiliation, a more educated populous is advantageous to the nation and the province. The new vitalized program should walk the ideological line between both schools of political thought under a common goal of accessible education. With a common goal and synergy of political thought, maximization of the movement can occur without being hindered as being related to Marxism or the New Left but at the same time not excluding those types of organizing movement members.

According to Hardina (2002), "The implementation of strategies and tactics takes place in the context of interpersonal interaction among individuals and groups" and this makes it "critical that the organizer be able to use practice models, analytical frameworks and research data to choose situation specific strategies and tactics that will facilitate social chance" (p. 225). Hardina's (2002) analysis marks the bridge between theory and practice. Theoretically, the new Drop Fees paradigm will (1) pay attention to specific needs of movement members in practice and recruitment, (2) commit to a common goal in the most bipartisan manner possible to accomplish that goal and (3) have the necessary vitality to be both a grassroots campaign that still has the sophistication to become a formidable lobbying entity in the political arena. In case of theoretical paradigm (3), it is not enough to simply be noticed and acknowledged as being in opposition to Reaching Higher, efficacious and directed action must also be utilized.

Practical Action

The fundamental practical action related goal proposed by the CFS (2009) is still holistically applicable to the situation. In this regard, the CFS (2009) suggests " A new funding framework should immediately freeze tuition fees and outline progressive reductions for each year of a new multi-year framework to allow students to plan for the full cost of their education" (p. 2). The outlined recommendations also look at the needs of international students as it additionally suggests that, "international student fees must be re-regulated and progressively reduced. A new framework must halt the arbitrary difference in fee level charged to students based on year" (CFS, 2009, p. 2). Social organizing for change is a process that can and has worked. The most practical guides for efficacious action against policy and foes of higher resources can be seen through unionization and general workers movements. Workers and students, as a group looking for recognition in a paradigm that puts their needs second, share a lot of similarities. Like students, workers are unified under a single title but they individual needs based on distinctions within the same occupation (like majors), different types of workers (gender, race, religion) and variance in social standing (poor to middle class). In regards to variance in social standing, generally workers and students who would be affected by the tuition rate increases would be middle to low economic standing. It is possible, however, that though they are not effected to the same degree, that more affluent students would equally be dissatisfied with tuition rate increases based on the social justice paradigm. As a result, potential synergy with more affluent CFS members and groups should not be ruled out based on unnecessary adherence to Marxist paradigms.

In a case study presented by La Rose (2009), members of the CUPE Local 2190 "took a stand against fundamental changes to their work processes resulting in standardization of practice and the introduction of neo-conservative/neo-liberal values" (p. 223). Their practical methods included using their collective bargaining agreement, collaboration with the labor movement and skills and techniques of community practice (La Rose, 2009). The result was a unified challenge from inside and outside the system (La Rose, 2009). The Drop Fees campaign should be a similar inside and outside the system movement. Outside the system activities should include recruitment and public awareness campaigns. This would be the recognition phase of the struggle. The more people that are aware of the injustice increase the propensity for more people to take action and form public opinion on something in which they may have been unaware or ambivalent toward. The old Drop Fees paradigm had been focused on this level with limited results. With attention to individualized student needs and the limited bipartisan political focus, more students and community members can be organized. It is also possible to move beyond Ontario and get other students and Canadians angry at the social injustice occurring. Having more people even beyond those affected putting pressure on policy makers is potentially more efficacious than a singular special interest group perception.

The inside of the system paradigms would be the recruitment of politicians and political contributors who side with the aims of Drop Fees. Through effective organization and the proper presentation of variables related to the situation, getting people on the inside to support the movement is of the utmost importance. What the revitalized drop fee program cannot do is to allow itself to be perceived as simply a student radical group. Amongst insiders, student radicals are characterized as being spirited but misguided and uninformed in a practical sense. By having key liaisons between organizers and insiders that can articulate the negative dimensions of the current situation and the overall benefits of stopping the fee increase process, it is far more likely to be perceived as a legitimate social movement rather than simply sign waving radicals. Though there is a time for demonstrations the conduct at those demonstrations can either undermine or increase the efficacy of the organizing liaisons to pivotal insiders.

The final component of the revitalization campaign would be the evaluative portion. At this phase, evaluating the results and the progress that has been made can provide key information for determining which methods should continue and which ones should cease or be modified. According to Hardina (Outcome, 2002), "Evaluation is an inherently political process rather than a method that is entirely scientific or value free" (p. 327). As a result, there will be a certain degree of value and perceptions present in the revitalized Drop Fees social movement campaign. The fundamental evaluation will be the degree to which the campaign is helping to move toward the goal of stopping fees from continuing to rise. This will also necessitate a comparison and contrast of the new revitalized campaign verses its original incarnation.

Conclusions

In the revitalization of the Drop Fees program, it is important to note the fundamental concepts and actions of the original campaign were not wrong, however, they were limiting the potential degree of success that can be channeled by the new organizational paradigm. Attention to the diversity of the current and potential movement members with connected synergy toward a common goal that will reduce oppression and marginalization is of the utmost importance. In addition, conduct on the internal and external level can diminish the tendency for student based movements to be considered spirited and radical rather than well thought out and organized. While the conduct is one component of reducing stereotypes, liaisons with other community members in Ontario and beyond, as well as organizations and like minded policy makers are also central to accomplishing this goal. By following proven theoretical and practical models, there is sufficient promise in the Drop Fees movement to be able to accomplish all of the goals related to making higher education more attainable to all members of the community.

References

Canadian Federation of Students (2009). Drop Fees: Moving beyond Reaching Higher.

Four different approaches to community practice. Community Development Journal 40 (3), 286-300. Hardcastle, D. & Power, P. (2004). Using the advocacy spectrum. Community Practices: Theories and Skills for Social Workers, 2nd Edition. Toronto: Oxford University Press. Hardina, D. (2002).

Intervention planning: using strategies and tactics. Analytical Skills for Community Organization Practice. New York: Columbia University Press. Hardina, D. (2002).

Outcome and process evaluation. Analytical Skills for Community Organization Practice. New York: Columbia University LaRose, Tara. (2009).

One small revolution: Unionization, community practice and workload in child welfare. Journal of Community Practice 17 (1), 223 - 246. Ontario Student Assistance Program (2010). Retrieved May 1, 2010 from osap.gov.on.ca

Rapheal, D. (2009). Social determinants of health: An overview of key issues and themes. Toronto: Canadian Scholar's Press. Shragge, Eric. (2007).

"In and Against" The community: Use of self in community organizing. Deena Mandell (ed.) Revising The Use of Self: Questioning Professional Identities.

Toronto: Canadian Scholar Press Inc. Till debt us do part: The Bottom Dwellers (2010). Slice.

The Reasons of High College Dropout Rates

Many students all across the country dream of being accepted into college. For some, college is a start toward success that will carry on throughout the rest of their life. With the importance of education being stressed by many parents and teachers alike, one may be confused as to why the college dropout rate is high. Since college is largely responsible for providing an education in a career that will last a lifetime, it is paramount that students remain in college. Some students may dropout because of the major financial burden the costs of college can cause. However, two reasons in particular stand out as to why the college dropout rate is increasing: the cost of college is high and students are not prepared to face the challenges associated with a higher education. If students are able to afford college and are better prepared for it, the college dropout rate would be less.

First, in 2000 the U.S. Census Bureau reported that one out of every three Americans will drop out of college. This statistic is overwhelming as in 1960, only one in five students did not finish college upon starting. Many studies suggest that a large majority of the college dropouts are members of low-income families. It was found by the U.S. Department of Education that only 41 percent of college students considered to be low-income graduated within five years from a four-year school. Conversely, the number of college graduates who have a higher income is 66 percent. Fortunately, 47 percent of the low income students who did not return to school did not leave without having an acceptable academic standing (Martindale). The financial difficulties associated with college can be difficult for many to handle and play a large role in students discontinuing their college enrollment.

Furthermore, many students are forced to work to pay for college. When trying to juggle a full-time job with succeeding in school, it can be entirely too much for a student to take. Granted, it would be much easier for a college student to do well in school if he/she did not have to work. However, it is understood that having an income is a vital component to being able to pay off students loans generated from a high tuition. The costs associated with college extend deeper than just paying for the classes. Almost all classes require a costly textbook and sometimes additional material such as calculators and software is mandatory, as well. With that said, it is very difficult for students to be completely dedicated to college due to the work required in paying for classes and materials. In fact, as many as 60 percent of students believe the combined cost of textbooks and paying for the classes is too much to handle (Geller).

Next, many students drop out of college because they enter college unprepared. Reports indicate that some high school seniors do not have what it takes to be successful in college. Many people place the blame on the students for not taking more challenging courses, as well as on teachers who are trained poorly. In 2005, only 51 percent of high school seniors could be considered prepared to tackle a collegiate level of reading based on the ACT college admissions test (Beiser). That is a shocking figure and indicates that high schools need to provide students with more reading education so the students will be prepared to tackle a higher level of reading once they enter college.

Moreover, the education system can make more of an effort in providing students with the skills required for college. It has been discovered that a link to success is attributed to students challenging themselves in high school by taking advanced high school courses. It has been suggested that colleges should provide students with samples of what an acceptable college freshmen level of writing should be at. If colleges set a standard and demonstrated what type of coursework is acceptable, teachers and students would be able to tell whether or not they are taking steps in the right direction (Beiser).

Furthermore, changes must be made in order to better prepare students for college and decrease the dropout rate. Many high schools make courses easier for students while inflating grades. It is common that students do not view homework as important and some parents even allow their children to carry that attitude. Similarly, some states do not have high academic standards so when it comes time for students to enter college, they are not ready for the difficultly of work (Our view on Education: Not ready for college - Opinion - USATODAY).

With that said, it is very important that students are prepared for college. As the college dropout rate is increased, educators must question what they can do to curb this unpopular trend. As previously mentioned, the cost of college can be extraordinarily high. Students can buckle under the pressure of trying to work many hours in an effort to pay back student loans, bills, and live their daily life. In today's economy, it is very difficult to find a job, which is why many people are enrolling in college. However, when college is too difficult to pay for, too many students do not make it to their graduation. Similarly, some students drop out of college simply because they were not equipped with skills and knowledge necessary to survive in a college environment. Because of high schools allowing students to enroll in courses that are not challenging, students are not forced to experience the same level of curriculum that they will in college. Therefore, when students enter college they feel overwhelmed and unprepared. With that said, students must find ways to alleviate college's financial burdens while being better prepared to face the challenges associated with college. If those two areas are tackled, it can be hoped that the college dropout rate will decrease.

Works Cited

Beiser, H. "USA TODAY - Not ready for college." News, Travel, Weather, Entertainment, Sports, Technology, U.S. & World.

Geller, Juliette. "The college dropout: Why students leave school - College news." College News - The Voice Of The College Student.

Martindale, Gayla. "College Drop Out Rates - Who's to Blame? - State University Blog." Online University Degree Search - U.S. University Directory - State Universities and College Rankings.

Our view on Education: Not ready for college - Opinion - USATODAY.

Student Depression

Marcel Lebrun's book, Student Depression: A Silent Crisis in Our Schools and Communities, is an informative guide to assist educators in becoming more aware of childhood and adolescent depression, and help them employ strategies for dealing with it. The author recognizes that depression is a serious problem in young people today-one which may often go unnoticed and untreated. He brings his decades of teaching experience and observations about how to help students who suffer from depression together in a concise volume of pertinent information on this critical topic.

The book is divided into twenty chapters which explore the problem of student depression in language that is easy to understand and accessible to educators who may not have an intensive background in the subject area. While it contains important statistics on the subject matter, it does not overwhelm the reader with numbers. Rather, the book provides an overview of the various sub-topics contained in each chapter, explains how they impact student depression, and gives practical suggestions for dealing with this problem in the classroom and at home.

Chapter One defines depression and makes the important distinction between psychological depression and clinical depression. The author points out that depression is "widely misunderstood" (Lebrun, 2007, p. 1). It can manifest differently than typically expected in children, making it difficult to recognize. Specific examples are given which will aid educators in spotting students who are depressed: irritability and aggression, physical symptoms such as headaches and gastrointestinal pain, mysterious injuries, lack of motivation, behavior changes. These detailed descriptions will be immensely useful to educators who may make the common mistake of believing that depression only manifests as sadness. The point the author stresses here and throughout the book is that children and adolescents do not necessarily express the same symptoms of depression as adults, which can lead to misdiagnosis or missed diagnosis.

In the following chapter, the author goes into more specific detail about the criteria for recognizing a depressive state in a child. Not only are the behaviors described, but the thinking that may lie behind them is also presented. This will aid educators in not only recognizing depression, but being more sensitive to what the student is going through. For example, a child who manifests his depression through withdrawal may think that no one understands him, or that if he talks about his feelings "I will be in more trouble" (Lebrun, 2007, p. 5). A child who is obviously suffering but refuses to talk about it can be very frustrating to an adult who is trying to help. The author's advice that letting a child know "withdrawing from life is not an option" may be counterintuitive for some adults; they may encounter such resistance that it seems easier to say "it's just a phase" and let it go. In cases of serious depression, however, this could prove fatal. Giving parents and educators permission to press on helps them deal with the resistance they may encounter.

A useful addition to the text is the inclusion of checklists, such as those found in Chapter Four. The checklists for recognizing depression and bipolar disorder in children and adolescents were adapted from those developed by the National Institute of Mental Health. Because the symptoms of these disorders can vary a great deal, especially among young people, these checklists could prove invaluable to educators needing to confirm or rule out these conditions in the students they work with.

The statistics presented in Chapter Five help to pinpoint the extent of the difficulties encountered by those seeking to determine whether a student is depressed. As the author cautions, consistency is lacking in the findings reported through various surveys and studies. However, what can be gleaned is that "at any one time between 10 and 15 percent of the child and adolescent population" will experience the symptoms of depression. An interesting statistic that is included is the difference in depression rates between children in single-parent and two-parent households. While two-parent and father-only families come in at the same rate for children with emotional or behavioral difficulties (four percent), children from mother-only families experience a much higher rate of seven percent. In homes where children are with neither parent, this jumps up to nine percent of children with "definite or severe difficulties." This is potentially very useful information for educators to have, as it lets them know to be particularly on the lookout for problems with children from these types of family situations. On the other hand, the description in Chapter Six of the different ways depression can be measured and reported points out the harm that can come from rushing a diagnosis. While it may seem like common sense to point out that harm can result from a misdiagnosis that puts a child on the wrong medication, many educators are perhaps not aware that so many different kinds of testing are available. This information is an important inclusion in the book.

Chapter Seven's discussion of the various factors that may influence the youth of today which can lead to problems with depression is a good example of the thoroughness with which the author treats the subject. He discusses the four key factors that play a role in children's lives: biology, psychology, society, and family, going in-depth into each for better understanding. The biological link of genetic factors is one that has made the news in the last few years, but many people may not realize, as the author points out, that the applicability of some of the research to all students is somewhat questionable because it has mostly been done on mental-health clinic patients and those with more severe depression. In addition, the author notes that it is not clear from the evidence whether the relationship between parent and childhood depression is genetic or derives from an environment of depression created by the parents. While this may not be directly relevant to the issue of educators recognizing depression in their students, it is nonetheless good information to have. A better understanding of the general topic of depression will lead to more easily coping with it when it appears in a young person under one's care.

The discussion of cognitive factors which may contribute to depression in children provides very interesting food for thought. A negative mind-set resulting from pessimistic attribution bias can lead to poor self-esteem and other problems which increase the likelihood of a child attempting suicide. Knowing this can help an adult be vigilant about a student's chances of becoming dangerously depressed, as a student's tendency for self-blame and negativity will probably be apparent in his or her social interactions at school.

The chapter on sexual orientation and depression brings up a critically important topic. Gay, lesbian, transgendered and bisexual students must deal with the judgment of their peers and the world at large, facing a hostile environment on a daily basis. This takes a great toll. As the author points out, many times, school faculty and administration are ill-equipped to deal with the concerns of these students. The consequences can be very grave indeed. Not only depression, but drug and alcohol abuse, running away and the resulting homelessness, self-destructive behavior and suicide are all found to a larger degree in young people who struggle with their sexual identity. To compound the problem, this all occurs in an information void where much more comprehensive research needs to be done. The author correctly points out the need for such research, but does not suggest specific avenues for how to obtain it.

One beneficial aspect to the text that will be especially appreciated by those who use it is the specific suggestions it makes to both teachers and parents. While both sets of adults deal with youth on a daily basis, their specific needs are not identical. Teachers, for example, face the additional possibility of bullying in the classroom (and other areas in and around school). They must walk the fine line between requiring that assignments be done properly and on time, and understanding how overwhelming school work may be to a depressed student. Parents, who have their own sets of problems to deal with, must strive to maintain a positive attitude and avoid self-defeating punitive measures, no matter how difficult their child is. An important point brought up by the author is the need for adequate sleep. Depression often brings sleep disorders, and it is important for parents to be aware and take steps to ensure that their child does not have to function in a constant state of sleep-deprivation, or waste his life sleeping it way, due to depression. This often-overlooked issue is one which perhaps merited a more in-depth examination in the text.

Chapter Fifteen's listing and explanations of medications and therapies will prove immeasurably valuable to adults for whom the huge array of available medications may prove daunting. Chapter Seventeen's guidelines for dealing with suicidal youth are very useful and could even save lives, if followed. It is important for adults to know that bringing up the topic of suicide with an adolescent who shows warnings signs will not drive him or her to attempt it. Open communication can be the beginning of helping young people overcome their suicidal tendencies.

The thirteen guidelines to success presented by the author in Chapter Eighteen provide a wealth of constructive strategies. They demonstrate the most positive attribute of Student Depression: the practical applications included along with the informative content. It is not enough to simply explain what depression is and how to identify it, if no strategies are presented for coping. Here, there are specific suggestions, from "emphasizing the connection among events, thought and feelings" (Lebrun, 2007, p. 131) to increasing a child's level of physical activity (p. 134). Content like this elevates Student Depression from an informative text to an indispensable guide.

Case studies presented at the end lend a personal aspect to the book. Almost fifty pages of state mental-health resources are a welcome addition. It might have been helpful if the resources, cited at the end, had also been cited in-text or in footnotes for reference purposes, but this is, after all, a guide for educators, rather than an academic exercise. Overall, Marcel Lebrun's Student Depression: A Silent Crisis in Our Schools and Communities, is an invaluable tool for anyone needing help with the emotional problems of children and adolescents.

References

Lebrun, M. Student depression: A silent crisis in our schools and communities. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Academic Use of Google Tools for Research in the Collegiate Setting

Abstract

The development of increasingly sophisticated search tools has allowed students to have access to a broadening range of research tools. Tools such as the general-purpose Google search engine have become increasingly common, and special-purpose tools, such as Google Books (which indexes full-text or partial-text books in all subjects) and Google Scholar (which indexes scholarly articles and books as well as monographs, dissertations, and patents) have proliferated. This paper discusses how students use Google and related tools in academic research settings. Some of the advantages identified for these tools include ease of use and simple interface, which reduces the learning curve and allows students to use existing research skills. This is seen in particular contrast to traditional database search tools, which have varied and complex search interfaces A major disadvantage of these search tools is that they do not differentiate search results based on academic rigor or quality, which means that students cannot rely on findings to produce reliable sources. While this is a skill that is expected to be learned during the educational process, it still represents a challenge for students, particularly those that are just learning the research process. This report discusses the use of Google tools, advantages and disadvantages, comparison of Google tools and traditional library gateway search, and ways to improve user capability for Google and Google Scholar use.

Academic Use of Google Tools for Research in the Collegiate Setting

There are an increasingly broad range of tools available online for students to use in their research efforts. Some of the most commonly used tools include the Google academic research toolkit, including the general-purpose Google search engine as well as specialist tools Google Books and Google Scholar. The Google search tools are part of a growing category of free abstracting and indexing tools that offer access to scholarly and other materials via the Web, in direct competition with proprietary databases such as Informaworld or Ebscohost. This category of free tools includes tools such as Cat.inist, CiNii, ERIC, and PubMed, which each has specific language and coverage specifications. There are also a growing number of proprietary services, such as JSTOR and CSA Illumina, which offer bibliographic information to searchers through Google Scholar or other sites even for searchers that do not have subscription access. Google Books has a somewhat more limited coverage area, due to the nature of book digitization and copyright issues, but still provides a range of books for online search.

The three Google tools profiled in this essay offer a number of advantages over more rigid database search engines that have traditionally been used, including flexible plain-text search and a ranking that indicates general importance. These tools also have the advantage of being previously known to students because of their common interface and ubiquity, which makes learning effective use significantly easier. Students tend to use these tools as an initial screening mechanism as well as a source of deep searching. However, this does not mean that these tools are free of challenges for the academic user. Some of the particular challenges that may be faced include differentiation of source quality and, especially with Google Books, the availability of the materials online. However, the tools generally compare favorably with the more complex academic databases, and students may not face significantly greater challenges in discernment of good resources than in other databases. This essay discusses the use of Google and related specialist academic tools in the undergraduate academic environment, focusing on recent research that has addressed the problem of search and access in the university population. It also discusses ways that students can be taught to use Google and related tools more effectively.

About the Tools

The three main tools that will be examined in this research include the general-purpose Google Search Engine, Google Books, and Google Scholar. Although the front ends of these tools are actually very similar (a property that is likely to improve the user experience due to reduction in cognitive load), there are several important differences in indexing as well as in material searched that affect how they may be used. There are also as will be discussed in more detail, significant differences in indexing, coverage, and quality of metadata between these three databases, which may change the utility of the specialist databases.

Google Search Engine

The Google search engine is the core of the Google toolkit. The Google search engine is a ranked, indexed search engine that uses constant web traversal processes to generate an index of available sites. These sites are then ranked according to the number of inward links in order to determine which are most likely to be relevant given a specific search term. The search engine's main qualities include relevance, freshness, and speed, all of which help it maintain an updated view of the Web environment. The Google search terms are flexible, and can include a plain-text WYSYWIG search as well as a field-based ("advanced") search (Google, 2011). The basic search functionality and front end is used in the specialist academic search engines, which prioritize specific types of information.

Google Books

Google Books is a specialist search engine that focuses on digitized print books and e-books. Google Books indexes book content, allowing users to search by exact phrase, keyword, or other ways detailed above. All books entered into Google Books include a reference page detailing information such as author, publisher and title, as well as identified reviews, related books, and other information about the book. Additionally, depending on the copyright status of the book and publisher or author permission, the Google Books search may include a snippet view (which displays selected phrases relevant to the search key); a limited preview (which makes available some number of pages of the book); or a full view of the book.

Google Scholar

Google Scholar uses the same search functionality and search front end as the generalist Google database and Google books, but it covers different types of resources. The main focus of Google Scholar is on academic or scholarly sources, including scholarly journals and dissertations, books, court opinions, conference proceedings, agency and organizational reports, as well as other types of sources that are relevant to the academic search environment. In addition to other ranking techniques, Google Scholar uses criteria including the frequency and recentness of citations in order to determine relevance to the search term. Google Scholar can also be used in a library setting to cross-link references to full-text document repositories and databases, offering a means for searching multiple databases with a user interface students and other database users are already familiar with (Google Scholar, 2011).

Use of Google Search Tools in the Academic Setting

The tools profiled above have obvious advantages for use in an academic setting, given that they were designed for this use and are technically very well supported. However, this does not answer the question of how (and how well) students actually make use of the Google toolkit, or how effective these tools are in comparison to other academic databases. Major topics of discussion include frequency and patterns of use among students; comparison of Google search tools to more traditional library databases and search tools; and challenges to the use of Google search tools. It also compares the use profile of a traditional library gateway with a simplified portal using a Google-like federated search, in order to identify differences in usability between these types of sites. Finally, the research has been studied to determine what practices librarians and educators can use to help students search effectively.

Frequency and Patterns of Use Among Students

The tools that are profiled are very commonly used among students, although Google general search is far more commonly used than Google Scholar or Google Books. Google and Google Scholar are two of the most commonly used research and information seeking tools logged in a five-year study of undergraduate biomedical students that took place from 2005 to 2009. The other three most commonly used information-seeking sites included Wikipedia, the university library site, and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) site. (The frequency of NIH site usage can be attributed to the demographic of the student population studied, as the NIH site indexes biomedical and biological research). The frequency of information seeking sites has risen over time; students in 2005 used information-seeking sites in approximately 65% of their sessions, while by 2009 they were using information-seeking sites in approximately 85% of browsing sessions. The most commonly used information-seeking tool was the Google general search site (just over 30% of sessions in 2009), while Google Scholar was one of the least-used sites (totaling only about 2% of sessions). In contrast, the library search site was accessed in just fewer than 10% of sessions during this period (Judd & Kennedy, 2010). Thus, the use of both Google and Google Scholar are common in the undergraduate setting, although Google is far more common than Google Scholar. (The authors of this study did not consider the use of Google Books.)

While Google and Google Scholar have been shown to be common in university settings, the use of e-books, including Google Books, is also increasingly important. Shelburne's (2009) study of library users and their perceptions of e-books has shown increasing acceptance of e-books including Google Books. Users view e-books as a way to reduce cost for textbooks, increase convenience and availability, and improve access to popular resources (Shelburne, 2009). Google Books was seen as particularly advantageous in this study because of the search facility, which allowed users to easily identify books that are potentially related to their search topics. One participant in Shelburne's study said, "Internet access, I can still return to that source. Some e-books I've looked at on Google books have been quite amazing for other reasons though-they allow me to do a full-text search for key terms and they bring me precisely to the location where that information is (Shelburne, 2009, p. 63)." However, it should be noted that this student was a graduate student with a focus in 19th century literature; thus, the copyright restrictions would not be relevant to this particular student's area of focus). However, this was not seen as a complete advantage; in particular, the limited preview feature of Google Books was seen as a deterrent to use, because students could not extract the needed information from the online preview. Thus, although the use of Google Books was useful, it was perhaps not as useful as other types of e-books, which allow for full display.

There can be a number of patterns derived in the use of Google search tools, some of which are positive and some of which are negative. One of the main detrimental patterns of use for Google generally, including Google Scholar, is the presentation of results. In particular, the relevance ranking of results mean that users become conditioned to finding their desired results on the first few pages, and the majority of results followed come from the top ten listing. This lends a certain shallowness to the search patterns, in which potentially more important results are overlooked because of the mechanistic search process. However, there are also positive indicators in the use of Google and related Web sites. A recent study indicated that students do tend to use these search engine tools before library searches, which would seem to confirm that students select their search methods for convenience rather than for reliability (Biddix, Chung, & Park, 2011). However, further study in this area demonstrates that this is not the case. Instead, students that use search engines generally indicate that they understand the complications of research through online search engine. Furthermore, the process of online search serves as a pre-research process rather than the final search phase, with students using online research tools to identify potential directions for inquiry and resources related to resources they already have knowledge of. For example, students may search for works related to the works assigned for a course in order to expand their available resources, or identify resources they could then seek out from the library. Importantly, the issue of credibility was noted in this research; Google Scholar was seen as valuable because of its citation counts, which allowed students to determine overall acceptability of a given resource in a way that is not commonly facilitated by library catalogues or other academic sources. Thus, the use of Google Scholar and related Web sites is more complex than it seems at first glance; students do not use the tools uncritically, but instead as a gateway for future research.

Advantages of Google Search Tools

There are a number of advantages of Google search tools for academic research over other academic search sites. One of the major advantages is the speed of informational access and ability to find information that is desired. One research project compared the search functionality of Google with two academic Web sites developed for use by undergraduate students (including the Australian Monash University site and the Omani Dhofar University site. This research compared the search sites based on benchmark criteria for search functionality and ease of use, such as the availability of a search navigation bar, page descriptions, and indexes and site maps. This research showed that Google met all criteria for effective searching (with the exception of A-Z searching, which is not used due to the richness of other sources) and that the coordinating, hierarchal site design, site index, and global navigation of the site improved the navigability and utility of the site. Overall, this research indicated that the Google search site was a more effective search tool than either of the custom search tools designed for the university Web sites; this was considered to be important because of the importance of search to the user experience. Given these findings, it is clear that one of the major benefits of the Google site (including both the main site and the academic specialist sites, which use the same site structure and hierarchal layout) is the ease of use of the site and the ease of navigation and finding the results the user wants.

Another major benefit of Google search tools is the depth and breadth of coverage offered. A study of Google Scholar conducted in 2010 showed that the database covered 98% to 100% of scholarly journals currently available (Chen, 2010b). This coverage included open indexed journals as well as journals from proprietary publisher databases such as Emerald, JSTOR, and other such databases. This coverage was gained by Google entering into partnerships with the proprietary database owners, who have made available their sites for search (although if users do not have subscription or other access they will still be directed to the single-copy purchase functionality most databases have) (Chen, 2010b). The study also found that the Google Scholar search collapses results and performs de-duplication, which reduces the irrelevant results load; this is not a described feature of the search engine and so the precise algorithm it uses is uncertain, but Chen (2010b) observed that available free full-text results were commonly given the priority position in de-duplicated results, although these results were dynamic and changed frequently. This represents a significant improvement over the tool's functionality in 2005, which Chen (2010b) compared current results to; improvements included increased indexing rates (from as low as 30% in 2005), increased speed, and improved relevance indexing. Google Scholar is also almost infallible in retrieving articles when given the title of the article, a significant benefit particularly for cross-service searching. However, despite this increased coverage there is still a significant portion of the Web that is not indexed by Google (either the general or specialist sites); these sites remain out of sight of Google search users.

It is a common assumption that the use of Google and Google Scholar does not offer context for returned citations that would allow users to determine the relative value of the research. However, this is not necessarily the case, because of the citation count facility (Kousha, Thelwall, & Rezaie, 2010). Analysis has shown that online citation counts can be a reliable impact factor. The impact factor, a metric that allows for comparison of the frequency of citations of a given article (or author), can be used as a relatively reliable indicator of how well accepted a given article or other piece of research is. However, in terms of impact factor analysis, Google Scholar does not necessarily perform better than competitors. Although there are a large number of sources that are indexed in Google Scholar that are not indexed in competitors Scopus or Web of Science (WoS), this does not result in significantly increased accuracy in impact ratings. Interestingly, impact factors from books have been increasing steadily since the introduction of Google Books, which indicates that this may have increased the scholarly use of books due to increased accessibility and ease of use (Kousha, Thelwall, & Rezaie, 2010). As with any other impact factor, interpreting these figures does take some degree of skill, and it is not immediately obvious to a novice user, but this is one way in which experienced users can infer relative importance of sources.

Disadvantages of Use of Google Search Tools

Although the Google search toolkit has a number of advantages, there are also some disadvantages that can be seen in the research. One known issue is the problem of coverage. Although coverage has been considerably better in recent periods (Chen, 2010b), there are some areas of coverage and time periods where Google Scholar coverage is less good than that of specialist databases. There are also some other problems with the indexing on the site, including a limitation of 60 characters in the advanced search option for publication name; limitation of the search results (for example, some journals withheld their most recent publications) and reduction of journals from the number of total journals indexed by the general Google search engine.

While Google Scholar is generally highly refined, Google Books is much less so, and there are still some significant flaws in the indexing and searching facilities. One of the most obvious issues is the problem of copyright, which limits the amount of text available to the online searcher (regardless of whether or not the institution offering the search owns a copy of the book). In particular, the scanning and metadata entry project, primarily driven by library participants, was undertaken without the permission of copyright holders. This is still an issue that is working its way through the courts, and a settlement has not yet been achieved that would allow for the digitizing of orphaned works or appropriate recompense to rights holders. However, there are other problems with the tool, including misclassification, scanning and OCR processing, incorrect dating, and assorted other metadata errors that reduce the searchability of the database (Dougherty, 2010). Dougherty (2010) indicated that some of these errors are likely to be related to Google's commercial orientation and existing classifications of books in existing search databases. These errors require, in most cases, manual correction in order to fix misclassification and other metadata errors; there is no current organized project ongoing to make these improvements. Thus, although Google Books is a useful tool that is under technological development, it is not as advanced in terms of its usefulness to academic researchers as is Google Scholar.

Traditional Gateway or Google?

Site usability studies have called into question whether the Google model of search is inherently better than other search models for student use. One such study compared the Moraine Valley Community College Library gateway site to a site that included a Google-like search box as its central component. The authors found that there was mixed evidence on the effectiveness of Google-style federated search, with some previous research finding that it was highly effective and others finding that it was not effective at all. Some of the disadvantages of Google sites in terms of usability included a large amount of information (which was likely to cause cognitive overload particularly in inexperienced users) and the lack of guidance for search (as the site structure presumes that users have existing search skills) However, simplicity, clarity, and ease of use, as well as having a single user interface, were seen as possible improvements of Google over traditional databases. However, a usability study comparing a traditional gateway site with a Google-style centralized search site found advantages and disadvantages to both. While the users generally had success in searching with the traditional gateway site, they also had difficulty distinguishing between resources (for example, telling the difference between on-site library holdings and WorldCat records), determining which resources they should select for search, and interpreting search results effectively (Swanson & Green, 2011). In contrast, while few users had difficulty using the centralized search site, they continued to have problems with interpretation of sources (Swanson & Green, 2011).

Helping Students Search Effectively

The research on Google as well as other search tools has a number of recommendations for helping students search effectively using Google tools as well as other tools. A site usability study demonstrated that users, particularly newer college students, need guidance on what type of research resources should be selected; they also found that users were unlikely to consult FAQs, tutorials, or other informational pages in order to learn this information. Given these limitations, the effectiveness of either a traditional portal site or a Google-based search site is likely to be reduced. One approach to overcoming this problem is using external training for students in order to develop research skills. For example, Chong (2010) described a project in which blogging was used as a tool to introduce students to academic research and sourcing, providing access to skills and knowledge about specific sources that students could utilize in their own research. This project relied on students describing their research process, which was then critiqued by professors and fellow students. The use of tools such as blogging allows students to cooperatively learn the use of tools including Google as well as traditional academic search tools in ways that are not inherent to the tools themselves. This overcomes one of the major problems with the use of Google tools, the assumption of critical knowledge regarding the reliability of sources and ability to reduce search sets effectively. The use of external search training is also a trending recommendation from other authors. For example, researchers studying the use of Google by students recommended several means of instructing students on how to use Google and Google Scholar, such as a drop-in training module for WebCT or other CMS and in-class training devoted to critical use of Google and related tools. Another study has found that students are willing to play learning games that teach library and research skills, even in cases where there is no other motivation for these games (Markey, et al., 2009). Thus, there are a variety of approaches that can be used to help students learn more effective use of online search as well as library resources.

There are clearly a number of ways to teach students how to use Google and Google Scholar more effectively, along with other methods of online search. However, there is also room for simplification of other search tools offered by libraries in order to improve the usability of these tools (Biddix, Chung, & Park, 2011). In particular, simplifying the search structure and interface of databases such as JSTOR and providing a centralized search facility is likely to increase student willingness to use these tools as well as Google.

Conclusion

Google search tools are among some of the fastest-growing online databases of academic research and information available. These tools have a number of advantages over traditional tools, including advanced indexing as well as user interface advantages. Overall, these databases see a higher level of use as compared to other academic research tools also available to students, possibly due to the students' existing familiarity with the tools as well as other factors such as indexing completeness. However, there are still a number of challenges that need to be overcome in the academic use of Google tools, particularly in identifying appropriate sources. Analysis of the Google academic search tools indicates that these tools are well designed for academic research and, with some training in how to generate appropriate results and critically screen results for academic rigor, these tools can provide a valuable support for student research practices.

References

Alkindi, S., & Bouazza, A. (2010). An evaluation study of the navigation and search systems on two academic websites and Google. The International Information & Library Review, 42, 50-61. doi: 10.1016/j.iilr.2009.12.002.

Biddix, J. P., Chung, C. J., & Park, H. W. (2011). Convenience or credibility? A study of college student online research behaviors. Internet and Higher Education, (In Press).

Chen, X. (2010b). Google Scholar's dramatic coverage improvement five years after debut. Serials Review, 36 (4), 221-226. doi:10.1016/j.serrev.2010.08.002.

Chen, X. (2010a). The declining value of subscription-based abstracting and indexing services in the new knowledge dissemination era. Serials Review, 36 (2), 79-85.

Chong, E. K. (2010). Using blogging to enhance the initiation of students into academic research. Computers & Education, 55, 798-807. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.03.012.

Dougherty, W. C. (2010). The Google Books project; Will it make libraries obsolete? the Journal of Academic Librarianship, 36 (1), 86-89.

Google Books. (2011). About Google Books. Retrieved from books.google.com/intl/en/googlebooks/about.html

Google Scholar. (2011). About Google Scholar. Retrieved from scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/about.html

Google. (2011). Technology Overview. Retrieved from google.com/corporate/tech.html

Judd, T., & Kennedy, G. A five-year study of on-campus Internet use by undergraduate biomedical students. Computers & Education, 55, 1564-1571.

Kousha, K., Thelwall, M., & Rezaie, S. (2010). Using the Web for research evaluation: The Integrated Online Impact indicator. Journal of Infometrics, 4, 124-135.

Markey, K., Swanson, F., Jenkins, A., Jennings, B., St. Jean, B., Rosenberg, V., et al. (2009). Will undergraduate students play games to learn how to conduct library research? The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 35 (4), 303-313.

Shelburne, W. A. (2009). E-book usage in an academic library: User attitudes and behaviors. Library Collections, Acquisitions, and Technical Services, 33, 59-72.

Swanson, T. A., & Green, J. (2011). Why we are not Google: Lessons from a library web site usability study. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 37 (3), 222-229.

A Youth Empowerment Research Program

A youth empowerment program, known as Youth ECHO, began in the fall of 2007 in the Red Hook public housing community of Brooklyn, New York. The program was designed to reduce the positive perceptions among youth of crime and to empower them to become involved in their communities to reduce youth crime and improve their community. Research was conducted to determine the impact of the program on the youth who were involved. Because of the applied nature of the research that was conducted and the involvement of teenagers in the research, ethical, political, and procedure issues arose in the methodology that was used to conduct the investigation. The purpose of this brief analysis is to examine five ethical, political, or procedures challenges that were faced, and whether they were addressed in a way that would make them effective in improving the research design for the second year of the investigation.

Procedural Challenges Faced in the Research

One of the first issues that was faced by the researchers was in the recruitment of teenagers who would be actively engaged in the program, as well as actively engaged in the interviews to explain what they had learned and how their perceptions of youth crime had changed. The researchers noted that they did not adequately plan for how to recruit participants beyond seeking out teenagers who wanted to take part in the program. Unfortunately, the researchers do not provide specific information about how they addressed this program. Based on the information provided, it seemed as though they planned to place limits on the teenagers who would be involved based on learning disabilities and maturity level. The problem, however, is that no specific information was provided about how such criteria would be determined, such as using grades in school, giving a preliminary assessment, or through interviews. More specific guidelines for determining eligibility should have been discussed.

Next, the researchers stated that the interview process that was initially used further added to the lack of participation by some of the participants because the interviews were often conducted after group interactions and classes occurred. The researchers stated that in the second cohort of the program, they planned to conduct the interviews or group discussions immediately after the classes or interactions. This change is likely to be effective because the outcomes of those classes and interactions will be fresh in their minds. In addition, the researchers will be able to better measure what it is that they are attempting to measure, which is the effect of the various elements of the program.

A third important change to the program was the timeframe in which the sessions would be conducted. In the first cohort, the sessions ran from March through the summer months. The program that arose was that once school was no longer in session for the summer, most of the participants had jobs that prevented them from showing up to the sessions. For the second cohort, the sessions were going to be conducted inline with the school calendar. Because the participants are students, conducting the program in relation to the school calendar is likely to result in greater participation because they will be available and will also have the mindset to be involved with their peers as opposed to solely focusing on their personal lives and their jobs.

The forth issue that was found during the first cohort was that many of the important classes related to the program, such as marketing, were conducting near the end of the experience. Because of conducting the classes near the end of the program, the participants were not able to use the knowledge they gained for the program activities. In the second cohort, the researchers planned to conduct the classes and training sessions at the beginning of the program so that the knowledge that was gained could be used in actual practice. This change is likely to be effective because the participants can gain information about marketing, team building, and leadership, and then actually use that information as part of the program. Furthermore, from a research standpoint, this change will also mean that the researchers will be measuring the outcomes of such learning, which will increase the validity of the findings.

Finally, the first cohort was asked to identify peers to take part in a survey as a way of assessing the influence of the participants. While there were initially many peers of the participants that completed surveys, the involvement of those peers dropped off significantly for subsequent surveys. In this regard, the researches hypothesized that peer influence was actually not that great, and was often changing. The researchers stated that they would not conduct the peer influence measure of the research for the second cohort, and would investigate other ways in which to measure this for the third cohort. Until a valid means of measuring peer influence can be found, ending this part of the investigation is appropriate because any findings from the peer surveys would lack validity and reliability.

Conclusion

The ethical, political, and procedural challenges that have been identified in relation to the Youth ECHO program are important because for the first cohort, they impacted the validity and reliability of the findings. The changes that have been made by the researchers in relation to the challenges that have been identified seemed appropriate in order to continue the research in a way that would provide meaningful results about the impact of the program. However, more consideration is needed about how participants will be recruited and how the issue of peer influence will be measured.

References

Remler, D. K. & Van Ryzin, G. G. Research Methods in Practice: Strategies for Description and Causation. London: Sage.

Swaner, R. & White, E. A Pilot Program on Youth Engagement. New York: Center for Court Intervention.

MULTICULTURALISM & EDUCATIONAL STRATIFICATION

Introduction

Since the 1960's, in response to the Civil Rights Movement, social issues of equality and inclusion have infiltrated the fields of sociology and education and effectively sparked the creation of the combination discipline of the sociology of education. The sociology of education is the study of how the social structure of schools and other educational institutions, both public and private, can affect a student's education and social experience. The closer examination of the American school system revealed that public and private schools may in fact perpetuate class discrimination, ultimately furthering social stratification within American society. This lead to the formation of the ideology of functionalism, which glorifies the creation of public schools and the sees the public education system in America as a way to maintain equality, and in contrast, the formation of the ideology of conflict theory, which maintains that the American school system perpetuates class distinctions. Both multiculturalism and conflict theory are similar in that both approaches to education wish to call attention to the inherent inequalities in the American school system and work to improve these inequalities through ideological and structural changes, in an effort to prevent and eliminate social stratification as a result of the educational system. Social stratification remains a constant threat to education in America, as indicated by current issues in educational sociology, such as multiculturalism and diversity in schools, and public versus private schools in relation to conflict theory.

Multicultural Education (this covers "student diversity" and "Multicultural history and education")

With diversity in the American school system consistently growing, the need for a multicultural curriculum and education grows steadily. Multiculturalism is an ideology and movement that seeks to include cultural perspectives from minority or counter-culture groups, within the larger mainstream culture. Primarily, multiculturalism is concerned with the dichotomy of a western ideology versus an eastern ideology. Western history and culture, that is, that of U.S. and European origin, has reigned as the primary scholarly approach to history and the arts. A multicultural perspective argues that the west should receive a pronounced prevalence in society, however it should be re-envisioned to include the perspectives of other cultures within the society (Banks, 2001, p. 231). This means including perspectives from minority ethnicities, such as African Americans and those of Latin decent, in American history and the humanities and arts.

Despite the concern over racial and ethnic equality, "culture" in the term multiculturalism, is somewhat of a misnomer, as multiculturalism champions the perspectives and experiences of all minorities and marginalized groups, such as those grouped based on religion, class, gender, and, sexuality (Billings, 2001, p. 51). As theorist Gloria Ladson-Billings points out, "Although multicultural education began as a challenge to the inequalities that students of color experienced in school and society, it soon became an umbrella movement for a variety of forms of difference" (Billings, 2001, p. 55). Multiculturalists wish to include the perspectives of all people within the collective mainstream culture. The mainstream or predominant culture in America is currently one that embraces and empowers White Anglo-Saxon Protestants as a dominant cultural group (Banks, 2001, p. 229). Multiculturalism is then not concerned with striping the dominant cultural group of power so much as it is concerned with equal inclusion within the power structure for minority groups, based on tolerance, understanding, and knowledge.

The need for a multicultural curriculum is of major concern within the fields of sociology and education, due to the implications of a mainstream-centric curriculum on a school, and ultimately a society. The most glaring problem of a mainstream-centric curriculum is that it "marginalizes the experiences" and does not reflect the perspectives of the minority population and underrepresented groups (Banks, 2001, p. 229). For the disenfranchised students, this can create a negative connotation to school and even their own ethnic or cultural group, as the two seem in extreme opposition. Similarly, the under-representation of a group in a curriculum can lead the students of that under-represented group to experience a negative self-image or a warped contextual understanding of themselves within the social structure of the institution.

In addition to the marginalized groups, members of the culturally dominant group may also experience negative sociological impacts due to a mainstream-centric and not multicultural curriculum. As sociology theorist James A. Banks explains, "A mainstream-centric curriculum has negative consequences for mainstream students because it reinforces their false sense of superiority, gives them a misleading conception of their relationship with other racial and ethnic groups, and denies them the opportunity to benefit from the knowledge, perspective, and frames of reference that can be gained from studying other cultures and groups" (Banks, 2001, p. 229). When students do not receive a well-rounded and multicultural education, in which varying viewpoint and experiences are discussed, incidents of prejudice are more likely to occur (billings, 2001, p. 54). Similarly, if schools promote a mainstream-centric curriculum, than the social group holding a position of power, will remain in a position of power without any competition. This not only creates social stratification within the schools, but it ultimately creates social stratification within the larger society. The viewpoints of the minority are overlooked and art, dance, music, and literature originating from minority groups or counter-cultures will only become legitimized, once it is adopted by the mainstream culture (Banks, 2001, p. 230). This means that positions of power are perpetuated, and this is precisely why many people do not wish to integrate a multicultural approach into school curriculums (Banks, 2001, p. 231). Political concern over the perpetuation of power structures is the major factor in why more schools have not adopted a multicultural approach to teaching and education.

Creating Multicultural Curriculums (This covers "the pedagogical cycle")

Creating a multicultural curriculum and integrating a multicultural approach to teaching is an effective way to combat marginalization and eliminate social stratification in the education system. Education which adopts a multicultural approach can often help bridge the social gap between a student's school environment and the student's family or home environment. As Banks explains, "The school can help students of color mediate between their home and school cultures by implementing a curriculum that reflects the culture of their ethnic groups and communities" (Banks, 2001, p. 230). Since the 1960's and the Civil Rights Movements many teachers and theorists have attempted to integrate multiculturalism and differing viewpoints into the curriculum. These attempts have resulted in the four main approaches used by teachers to adopt a multicultural curriculum. The first approach is the contribution approach, where teachers continue to highlight mainstream heroes and artifacts in history discussions, but ethnic heroes and cultural elements are slowly inserted into the course structure (Banks, 2001, p. 232). The second approach is the additive approach, in which cultural content and themes are added to existing content without changing the structure of the lesson. The transformation approach is where the structure of the lesson is changed to enable students to understand issues through the lens of another culture. And finally, the social action approach, occurs when a teacher allows the students to decide what is historically significant by facilitating independent research (Banks, 2001, p. 233). Many theorists claim that the final, social action approach is the most effective way to improve multiculturalism and student reception in schools.

Educational Stratification (this covers "curriculum standards and testing" and "different ways of learning")

The institutional source of an individual's education has become a heated issue in the fields of sociology and education over the past several decades as institutions and education has taken on more complex roles, normally associated with the family. For example, in recent years schools and teachers have become increasingly prominent in a students understanding of discipline and human sexuality. With such a predominant role in the upbringing of a child, many parents are choosing to forgo accessible and non-excludable public education in exchange for sending their child to a private school. In addition, as governments face economic difficulties, many public schools face low testing scores and graduation rates. Along with increasing school violence, private schools have become something of a necessity for the education of children in most families. However, not all families can afford a private education, which means that not everyone has access to an equal education, due to economic factors. This has created socioeconomic stratification within our society. As Psychologist Michael Commons, "A common definition of what it means to stratify something, including a society, is to divide or arrange it into classes, castes, or social strata. Social strata are distinctly different socioeconomic levels within society, to which groups of persons are classified when their education, culture, and/or other qualities are similar" (Commons, 2008, p. 430). Studies have shown that students enrolled in private school often outperform students enrolled in public school. This means that an individual's socioeconomic status can affect the level of education they have access to. This in turn, determines one's ability to obtain educational and occupational success (Marginso, 2007, p. 309). For example, student from wealthy families will receive the best education and thus the most high paying jobs, ensuring that they remain within their given socioeconomic status. Essentially, this means that there is a cyclical nature of inequality occurring, in which an individual cannot deviate from their respective socioeconomic class.

In relation to multiculturalism, public schools with high degrees of student diversity, offer a place where a multicultural education and curriculum can thrive. Private schools, however, are often ideologically centered around a specific culture or religion. Namely, many private schools are Catholic institutions or other parochial schools. While these schools were created in response to a lack of representation in public curriculum, private schools have become a place where a multicultural perspective is hard to embrace. Private schools are chiefly attended by students with similar religious, economic, and cultural backgrounds. Similarly, the very existence of private institutions creates a marginalized class, which cannot afford an equal education.

Functionalist vs. Conflict Theory (This covers "philosophy of education")

There are many dilemmas, which face the American education system as a result of privatized education and socioeconomic stratification. Some theorists believe that a public school system offers the precise remedy for social stratification. The functionalists, for example, maintain that "Through schooling, a meritocracy in which social positions are awarded on merit, not class privilege, becomes possible and everyone benefits" (Levine & Gelles, 1999, p. 156). However if not all schooling is equal, as is the case in America, then the merit awarded by the institution is based on economic status. This is precisely what supporters of the conflict theory believe. Conflict theorists believe that a public school system cannot co-exist with a private school system, as the market competition creates socioeconomic and class divides. As psychologist Michael Commons elaborates, "The institutionalization of systems of informed consent in market economies has exaggerated rather than minimized the meritocractic effect of such economies" (Commons, 2008, p. 430). This means that an individual can effectively buy success through education within American society, however contrary this may seem to the entrepreneurial American spirit.

In order to end socioeconomic stratification and educational inequality in America, several steps and theories have been presented by different agencies and organizations. The government and other non-profit organizations for example offer scholarships and grants to students who could not otherwise afford a more expensive education. Scholarships based on need have been an incredibly important presence in higher education in the U.S., as the it is the only nation where higher education is not predominantly understood as public, rather than private, as it is in the U.S. (Marginson, 2007, p. 308). Some environmental determinists have argued that social stratification based on socioeconomic class can be eliminated if unlimited education is provided for all citizens. This would essentially mean either eliminating private schools or incorporating them into the public school system. However, this theory is supported by data that shows that education "raises the mean stage performance of a population" (Commons, 2008, p. 434). And yet, there are still other theorists who believe that equality both as a concept and with the context of education can never be achieved because of the inherent power held by those in the higher class. As Justice Brandeis famously commented, "you can have great wealth concentrated in the hands of a few, or democracy. But you cannot have both" (Billings, 2001, p. 56).

Conclusion

Multiculturalism and conflict theory remain prevalent and controversial issues in the fields of sociology and education, as they both address the threat of educational stratification and socioeconomic inequality within the American education system. In order to create educational environments in which all students, of all cultural, ethnic, religious, and sexualities can feel accepted within the framework of the institution, a multicultural approach to education must be adopted. This includes creating curriculums that incorporate varying viewpoints and cultural experiences. By incorporating multicultural material into a curriculum, theorists believe that educational institutions can help eliminate marginalization and help eliminate social stratification. Conflict theory is central to the debate over public and private education. Although the functionalists believe that the public school system combats social stratification, concept theorists claim that the existence of private education negates the positive effects of a public school system, due to the significance placed on socioeconomic status. Both of these educational and sociological issues address the negative impacts of educational stratification, however both also propose ways in which to eliminate or ease its impact on the American education system.

References

Banks, J. A. (2001). Approaches to Multicultural Curriculum Reform. In Multicultural
education: issues and perspectives (pp. 229-250). New York: Wiley.

Billings, G. L. (2001). New Directions in Multicultural Education. In J. A. Banks & C. A. Banks
(Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education (pp. 50-65). San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.

Commons, M. L. (2008). Implications of Hierarchical Complexity for Social Stratification,
Economics, and Education. World Futures, 64(5), 430-435. doi:
10.1080/02604020802301428

Levine, A., & Gelles, R. J. (1999). Sociology, an introduction (6th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-
Hill College.

Marginson, S. (2007). The public/private divide in higher education: A global revision. Higher
Education, 53(3), 307-333. doi: 10.1007/s10734-005-8230-y

Doctor of Arts - Admissions Essay

When it comes time to analyze the differences between a teacher who is considered mediocre and a teacher who can be considered a strong asset, an in-depth look at the individual's experiences and ambitions needs to be evaluated. A good teacher cares about his/her students, but an outstanding teacher makes it his/her top priority to provide students with classroom experiences, memories, and an education that will last a lifetime. With that said, I am confident that if my numerous years of experience as a teacher are combined with the invaluable education the University of North Carolina provides, I will become an outstanding educator responsible for leaving a positive impression on students that will last a lifetime.

First, the plethora of ambitions I possess in regards to the passion I have for this career is directly related to my educational and professional experiences. In regards to education, I hold a graduate GPA of 3.65 in History and 3.55 in Library Science. The educational experiences I have are associated with more than just being a student. I firmly believe my strong background in teaching undergraduate history courses (Western Civilization, American and World History) has provided me with the knowledge and motivation required in my pursuit of admittance into the Doctor of Arts program.

Moreover, the satisfaction I have gained through teaching students serves as some of the most rewarding experiences of my life. After my first day as a teacher in a classroom, I became certain that the fire I have burning in my heart for teaching is undying. The fulfillment I have been fortunate enough to receive from seeing a smile on a student's face when he/she has learned something new fuels my drive for teaching. I hold a B.A. in History, which has assisted me in my efforts to share my history knowledge with students. Likewise, my M.A. in History, M.S. in Library and Information Science, and B.A. in Philosophy have rounded out my educational background and have provided me with areas of expertise.

Furthermore, being accepted into the University of North Carolina's Doctor of Arts program has been a personal goal of mine for a number of years. The seven years of teaching experience at the university level, as well as two years experience at the community college level, would greatly complement the education I hope to receive at the University of North Carolina. I have a strong understanding of what components are vital to becoming an outstanding teacher and I feel the Doctor of Arts program would greatly enhance me professionally.

Additionally, many years ago I made an important commitment to helping students. In 2002, I volunteered as a tutor for American corp. My time with American Corp marked the beginning of the journey to success I hope to reach. After I volunteered at American Corp, I became a library instructor and made progress toward taking my passion for teaching and turning it into a satisfying career. With that said, the next step in my journey is the pursuit of something even greater - eventually teaching at a four-year college.

Above all, I firmly believe the distinguished education the University of North Carolina can provide me with will be responsible for the many successes I aspire to achieve. It is not every day one is able to find a calling he is certain about. Years ago, I was met with the realization that teaching is my calling. The many years I have been a student in the classroom, as well as my years of teaching, have prepared me for my future as an educator. It is my hope that with the help of this great university, I will become an outstanding teacher that students will not forget.

Getting a College Paper Done

Abstract

Almost all college students have experienced the stress of having a paper due and not feeling they have enough time to accomplish it. While most students would pull an all-nighter and do whatever it takes to get the assignment finished, some will turn to online companies that advertise term paper writing. These students provide the topic to these companies and a paper is produced for a cost. This takes the responsibility away from the students and allows them to get through college without having ever truly learned the material.

Term Paper Companies

For some students, writing is extremely difficult. While some are blessed with excellent verbal skills and some with writing, there are others who have neither and can suffer while accomplishing school work when writing a paper is involved. Also, some students are lazy and do not want the added responsibility of having to write term or research papers. For these reasons, many students turn to companies who will write papers for them. It takes away the stress of a deadline and gives students the opportunity to focus on other things. However, there are many moral and ethical issues involved in the hiring of a term paper company to do school work.

The term paper debate can become heated because these companies do not feel as if they are doing anything wrong. They believe that they are providing a needed service to the public and they use legalese to attempt to work around any possible legal issues they may face by selling completed term papers. However, both the student and the companies are at fault. The student is using egoism because they are only considering their own wants and needs. They are not thinking of the moral issues of having someone else complete their work for them. The term paper companies are providing a way for students to shirk their moral duty of completing their assignments and sometimes the students do not walk away from the course learning anything.

Students who use term paper services may not possess the ability to write very well or may be international students who do not have a firm grasp of the English language. In these cases, hiring a term paper company may be their only recourse to pass their classes. Professors grade grammar and structure as well as the content of the paper. If someone who grasps the material fully but is not able to communicate well is unable to pass a class because of their writing ability, it becomes unfortunate for them. Custom term paper companies can assist these students with their writing in the classes that they may be struggling with and, although it may not be the right thing to do, it probably eases much stress from the student.

Students do not disclose where the papers come from, violating the principle of honesty and truth-telling. Since students are requesting that someone else complete their work, they are being unethical. If they tell anyone what they have done, they are admitting to plagiarism which can lead to very severe consequences. With the principle of justice, students are not being fair to the other students around them who have worked hard to ensure that their paper was finished in a timely manner. Students who use these companies have taken the easy way out while the other students have done the morally right thing and completed their own work.

When it comes to the principle of individual freedom, students may sometimes feel pressured about having to complete their work but they are never under any pressure to do the wrong thing. Professors do not encourage their students to buy term papers or do whatever it takes to pass the class. They expect students to do their own work and submit it in a timely manner. Roach (1998) wrote, "Some faculty and administrators believe that successfully dealing with the issue requires them to make sure that students clearly understand the underlying moral and academic issues" (p. 1).

The internet is a plethora of knowledge for college students performing research for papers. It is easy to tell the difference between a term paper for sale (or free) online and a legitimate academic source. The concern that students are not making the distinction between the two is not a legitimate concern. The principle of goodness and rightness is applicable here because buying a term paper is not the right thing to do for one's self and because of the other students in the class who have worked hard for their grades.

Technology has much to do with the influx of term paper companies. It is easy these days to search online and be bombarded by companies willing to sell students a premade essay or one that is custom made. Gallant (2008) wrote that, "the concern among post-secondary education campuses in connection with student conduct is that an excessive dependence on the Internet will produce a diminished caliber of professionals who are incapable of independent work" (p. 65).

The writers for these term paper companies should also be held morally accountable. While the may not be breaking any laws, especially with the legalese being used by term paper companies these days, they are enabling college students to cheat. They are violating the principle of justice and fairness because their actions do not benefit everyone. One person is receiving a benefit (albeit paid for) and another is left to stay up late working on their paper.

Websites that produce custom papers tout that their papers will pass plagiarism checks and have been written to specific requirements provided by the student. However, they may be of poor quality. In cases like this, it is really unfortunate because the student paid for a service and did not receive a paper of decent quality. If a student receives a poor grade and contests it, it does not mean they are right. If their work was produced by someone else, they do not have the right to demand a higher grade.

Most students understand that plagiarism can have severe effects but many students continue to pursue their papers through these companies. Embelton and Helfer (2007) wrote that, "universities really need to make it crystal clear to students that turning in any work that they did not create is plagiarism. The standard warning in a class syllabus may not be detailed enough to fully educate the students in exactly what constitutes plagiarism" (p. 1). If these students are briefed in advance of this, it may slow the increase of the purchase of term papers.

Broskoske (2005) explains that by performing certain actions, students are less likely to plagiarize (p. 1). He believes that by making the assignments unique, requiring portions of the paper to be turned in at different times and by using the Google search engine as a tool to check portions of the paper, students will be more likely to do their own work and less likely to use a term paper (Broskoske, 2005, p. 1). These are all wonderful suggestions and may turn students away from using a company like this, however, students are still thinking and feeling human beings and sometimes laziness wins out over any preventive method.

Having a term paper company accomplish your paper is never the most morally sound decision a student can make. Although some people, such as those experiencing a language barrier, have legitimate reasons for using these companies, it still does not make it right for students to use these companies. It decreases the integrity of the academic institution and turns out graduates, who may not have fully earned their degree, into the workplace. Term paper companies hurt the practice of academics and encourage laziness in students.

References

Black, R. (1998). High-tech cheating. Issues in Higher Education, 15(22), 1-5.

Broskoske, S. (2005). How to prevent paper recyling. The Teaching Professor, 19(10), 3-4.

Embleton, K., & Helfer, D. (2007). The plague of plagiarism and academic dishonesty. Searcher, 15(6), 1-5.

Gallant, T. (2008). Twenty-first century forces shaping academic integrity. ASHE Higher Education Report, 33(5), 65-78.

My College Enrollment

Abstract

Enrolling in college is one of the most important decisions that any person can make. Achieving higher education is not always for everyone, but most people agree that having a degree can serve you well in life and open up doors that without a degree would not have easily opened. College can be difficult and frustrating at times; however, for all of those frustrations that we can experience, we end up taking away many good memories and sometimes making friends for life. We also take away knowledge that we may not have previously gained and a different and more responsible outlook on life. This paper will discuss the specific reasons I enrolled and college and what I plan to do with my degree.

Enrolling in college was not a simple choice but for me it was a decision that I knew I had to say yes to. I enrolled specifically for the chance to earn a college degree. My career path of choice was in Information Technology with a minor in Network Security. I knew I wanted to do something within this career field so after some detailed research about it, I decided that this was the degree that would best suit me and my needs as well as bring in a decent income for my family. Also, with my minor, I know that I will be doing a service to any company I work for because I will be responsible for monitoring networks for any type of security threats and ensuring the continued safety of their systems ("KForce," 2010).

I also realize that college will teach me many of the skills that I need for this career field as well as enhancing ones I currently have. Fisher (2007) wrote about having skills that you probably do not realize you have and learning to utilize those to realize your fullest potential in the career that you want, in this case, specifically Information Technology (p. 72). I knew that by taking the time to attend and graduate college that I could gain a new career as well as earn an increase in my current income.

I hope to gain many things by enrolling and being successful in college. First, is the thing that everyone usually wants, the ability to gain an education and to be able to utilize it through life. I also wish to be able to gain a network of both friends and professional contacts that I can carry with me throughout the life span of my career. I also hope to meet professionals like myself that I can bounce ideas off of and also to take advice from when I may be struggling with work issues.

I believe that I am very well suited for academic study in technology. I possess the willingness to embrace any challenges that are thrown my way and will not balk at responsibility. I have no issues with staying focused on my studies, as well as allowing time for both personal and family pursuits. I believe that a well balanced person is able to handle issues and challenges without them becoming major life stressors. I also believe that I am self-motivated. I do not wait around for people to tell me what to do. I take it upon myself to seek out work or study and use it to further my education and knowledge base.

Of course, there are obstacles in life that will present unique challenges to me as I take the steps to earn my degree. My work schedule is sometimes hard to overcome but so far I have managed to keep up with my course work and other pursuits with no real hardship. I also struggle, as many people do, with procrastination. Time management can be difficult for many people and with the many demands of juggling a job, a family and academics, sometimes I procrastinate more than I really should.

However, in the end, I know how important all of these things are and make due time for each task so as not to get behind in any of them.

I also sometimes lack concentration. This I attribute to balancing the demands as a working woman with a family and so I have taken the necessary steps to correct this as well. I set aside time during the evenings where I know that I will not be disturbed. I do not have the television on and I make sure that my family knows that I am not to be disturbed except in the case of emergency. This ensures that I am able to have a specific time to know that I will be able to do my course work and not fall behind and it also lets my family know that I am pursuing something which will benefit everyone after its completion.

I know that enrolling in college is the very best decision that I could have made for myself and my family. It would have been a long road for me to learn the skills that I need for Information Technology and Network Security without the benefit of hands on training at a college. I was ready and continue to remain ready for the challenges that college will have for me. Although I have some things to work on, specifically my concentration and procrastination, I know that these challenges can be easily overcome with better time management and letting my family know that I need special time to finish my course work. College has been the best thing for me and I will continue to stay motivated and focused on any courses that I take so I can ensure my success in both college as well as any career path that I embark on. I will embrace any challenges I may face and will work around any obstacles that are presented to me. My end goal is to be a successful, highly educated professional in the work-force.

References

Fisher, I. How to start a career in information technology, 2nd Edition (2 ed.). Oakland: Ian K. Fisher.
Network security jobs after college. (n.d.). KForce.

Does a Distant Education Work?

There has been an increase in distance learning in the last few years. Distance learning involves taking a course through the use of online classrooms that use chat rooms bulletin boards and the posting of assignments and class material online in order to allow students to fit higher education into the demands of a busy life. Distance education has become a popular trend in the field of higher education however, some critics such as, Barszcz argue that distance learning is not as effective as a traditional college education.

In the article "Can You be Educated from a Distance" author James Barszcz argues that distance education is not all that it appears to be. His main argument centers around the idea that the dropout rates for students involved in distance learning courses are on average 15% higher than dropout rates in a traditional college setting. Barszcz also claims that students who participate in distance learning are at a disadvantage in comparison to traditional students because they do not interact with professors and fellow students face to face.

Barszcz states that there are several reasons why colleges and universities have begun to promote distance learning as a credible and valid form of higher education. First, colleges make more money off of distance college classes than they do from traditional college classes because, they do not have the expenses involved in running a traditional college program. Second, distance learning allows staff to put less time into meeting with students and supervising students because the work is done online. Finally, Barszcz argues that colleges and universities are heavily invested in promoting distance learning programs and will do whatever is necessary to encourage students to participate in distance learning. (Barszcz, p.17)

While Barszcz appears to present a valid argument there are several problems with his claims. First, Barszcz provides a great deal of evidence on why distance education programs are not what they appear to be. However, he does not present the other side of the argument completely. While sources are cited for his arguments against distance education, very few valid sources are cited for his minor mentions of the opposite claim that distance learning is a credible form of higher education. Second, he relies entirely upon statistical analysis and demographic data. While this type of information is important it is also critical to present information about those that have successfully graduated and gone on to successful careers after getting their degree through a distance learning program. Barszcz's argument is poorly set out because he does not fairly represent the argument for distance learning in higher education.

Barszcz also claims that schools that offer distance learning courses or degrees are little more than diploma mills that promote the idea that learning merely involved gaining new knowledge rather than learning how to use it. He argues that the claim that schools claim that education will be based on knowledge rather than connections because the focus will no longer be on what school a student went to. This may be true of some schools however; many reputable colleges and universities offer distance learning programs and these programs are not mentioned by Barszcz even in passing. Finally, Barszcz argues that students who participate in distance learning miss out on many aspects of college life including, building relationships with professors and interacting with their fellow students. (Barszcz, p.17-18) This argument may be true for students who are of traditional age and are more interested in the traditional college party scene but, for students who are more focused on academics distance learning may not put them at a disadvantage.

Barszcz's argument is weak in this respect as this is not actually the case. While distance learning may not be well suited to programs that require experiential learning, they are well suited to the liberal arts and humanities. Another fault is with Barszcz's claim that students miss out on the more traditional aspects of a college education. This is simply not the case as students in today's society are more likely to interact with each other and their professors on online sites like Facebook, than they are to meet their fellow students and professors at parties or meetings. They also do not particularly miss out on the ability to create a network within the academic and professional community as many of these communities are now located online. Barszcz seems to be stuck in a time prior to the blossoming of the online community that gave birth to distance learning and fails to recognize that many accredited schools now have online programs of study and that students are as efficient in building academic connections in an online community as they are in building these connections face to face.

While distance learning programs do appear to have some fairly significant disadvantages, Barszcz is solely relying upon data gathered from statistical sources rather than the personal experiences of people who have participated in these programs. He does not appear to have a strong grasp of how the academic community has changed in the last twenty years, specifically, in terms of the student population and how this has affected the popularity of distance learning. For instance, he seems to address issues surrounding online learning solely in terms of traditionally aged college students while failing to realize that while online may not work well for traditionally aged students other students who are non-traditional do very well in distance learning programs. While not all distance learning programs are good, others offer high quality education that is both affordable and time efficient. This allows students who may not have the ability to obtain a college education by other means the chance to get a college education. It can be concluded, that while Barszcz's arguments make sense in terms of mere statistical data he is not looking at the entire picture. While there are some students who do not do well in distance learning programs, others do quite well in these programs and go on to have successful careers.

The Consequences of Cheating Students

Raising critical questions of ethics and honesty, cheating has become an increasingly prevalent issue in contemporary society. Empirical evidence suggests that cheating is on the rise both inside academic institutions and within the broader context of the real world. Cheating is essentially the purposeful attempt, however successful, to deceive another person, and the manifestations of cheating in the realm of academia are considerable, constantly in flux with technological innovation. Moreover, the consequences of cheating are many and varied, with the greatest amount of harm being done to fellow students of cheaters. However, there is a fine line between cheating and garnering help on a project, and it is this line that often prevents professors and fellow students from reporting instances of cheating.

Cheating is indicative of a broader, ethical crisis in the United States. Practices that were once considered extremely immoral are now widely accepted; this is apparent in the Enron scandal and the more recent conduct of financial institutions whose behaviors directly catalyzed the global recession of 2008-2009. By extension, the ethical conduct of today's college students will ultimately affect the business world of the future.

Students cheat for a wide range of reasons, such as an overwhelming workload or perceived inability to complete an assignment. Cheating might be formed as plagiarism, or the direct attempt to pass off another's original work as one's own, discussing test-answers with another student before an exam is taken, receiving text messages during a test, or using an electronic device to garner test answers during an in-class or at-home test. Manifestations of student cheating are in flux in conjunction with technology, and professors did not need to be concerned with electronic cheating only ten years ago as much as they are at the conclusion of the twenty-first century's dawning decade.

Students cheat for the same reasons that corporate fraud occurs; the perceived benefits of cheating outweigh the perceived costs. A low probability of being caught combined with a genuine belief that one does not need to complete the work in order to succeed in the real world leads to cheating. In short, students who cheat believe that they will gain more from cheating than they will lose.

Cheating is, however, extremely costly for both students and institutions. Students who cheat on an exam, for example, are setting the bar unfairly high for students who are doing their own work, particularly if the test is graded on a curve. A trend of cheating in a single classroom, by extension, will lead to more students who cheat because they feel it necessary to meet the same false standards as the cheating students. Cheating students are not receiving their tuition's worth by presumably learning less than students who do not cheat, which undermines the entire institution of higher learning.

In the absence of modern, technological innovations, cheating was squelched by a visible disparity between the depth of a student's knowledge and that of his or her work. The advent of plagiarism-checking software and distance learning, however, has redefined the landscape of cheating-countering, as the physical distance and lack of interpersonal contact between a professor and distance-learning student can promote cheating. More positively, however, plagiarism software and online programs can ensure that students did not copy and paste internet content in an attempt to pass it off as their own work.

Critical is it to note, however, that students who may have challenged writing abilities may seek out help for their own work through an internal tutoring center or an external service, and such action is not necessarily cheating. Conversely, these students are attempting to better their own skills and receive direct advice from experts in order to learn. Not every student's writing skills are the same, and there is a drastic difference between plagiarism and seeking outside help for one's own work.

The fine line between cheating and seeking out help, in part, leads many grosser instances of cheating to go underreported. Prosecuting cheaters is expensive and time-consuming, demanding that university protocols be followed to the proverbial letter, lest the student be able to appeal the accusation. Moreover, the professor or other staff member who prosecutes the student needs irrefutable evidence that cheating has occurred, and, in most instances, this evidence is not readily available.

An optimum strategy for countering cheating is then to stop it before it occurs through the use of alternative assessments and strategic assignments that have a low likelihood of cheating. For example, instead of a standardized, mathematics exam, teachers may opt for the use of a homework portfolio for grading; this would be less easily copied and more accurately demonstrate learning. Generally, assignments that have a lower likelihood of cheating promote higher levels of student creativity, as they are personal and flexible. While such assignments may be more time-consuming to develop and grade, they are not nearly as costly as cheating.

Cheating is a major issue in modern universities. The link between cheating in college and similarly unethical behavior in the professional workplace is a strong one, and thus cheating students should be addressed before they can affect the whole of society. Professors and university staff should be mindful, however, of the fine line between seeking out help and cheating, and opt for assignments and assessments that present a lower likelihood that cheating will occur.

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The term "cheating" holds a multiplicity of connotations in modern society, none of which are positive. Cheating is a means of purposefully deceiving another into believing something is true when, in fact, it is false. Not limited to academia, cheating has a range of implications for the professional world and infiltrates nearly every professional context (Villano 24). Certified Nursing Assistants (CNAs) are affected by cheating in several ways, with manifestations of cheating including that committed by coworkers, administrators, and even patients.

Healthcare workers often engage in cheating by attempting to pass off others' conclusions or work as their own. Alternatively, cheating can occur when staff members call in sick or leave their shift early when they are perfectly healthy. Most drastically, cheating can also manifest when workers steal medications or supplies.

Nursing administrators might cheat in similar ways. However, the position of power leads cheating to occur through more damaging channels. For instance, a Director of Nurses (DON) might unfairly afford his or her friends preference during scheduling holiday shifts.

CNAs likely experience cheating committed by patients more frequently than that committed by coworkers and administrators. Patients might lie about their history, make fraudulent claims in order to be administered medication, or smuggle in food, drugs, or other things that should not be in the hospital.

Cheating is akin to strategic lying, and it can be inordinately harmful to all affected parties. In the healthcare setting, high standards of care are precluded by cheating, and patients suffer the consequences. By extension, attempting to counter cheating in the healthcare workplace is an urgent and necessary charge for policymakers and administrators alike. While professionals may hesitate to report instances of cheating out of fear of being deemed a tattle-tale, reporting of cheating is critical. Even when instances of cheating seem minor, such as when a coworker takes an unfairly lengthy break, the seemingly inconsequential choice to cheat has the potential to lead to more disastrous manifestations of cheating in the future.

Adult Students - Learning in an Academic Environment

In the days just preceding my first classes as an adult university student I experienced-as have surely almost all men and women in such circumstances-a spectrum of qualms and emotions. They extended from a nagging sense of inadequacy or lack of preparedness ('have I been away from school too long?'), to moments of uncertainty ('do I really want so much to change the trajectory of my life that I should undertake such an extensive and time-consuming effort?') to confidence ('my life experience to date has, on balance, better prepared me for the challenges of higher education than would have been the case years ago') to elation ('I am on my way'). Each of these considerations in its own way cropped up during my first college year. To explain them, and to put them in context, I have prepared a short vade mecum-a guide that includes my own insights. (I chose the locution vade mecum-Latin for 'go with me'-because it is properly understood as a written guide to both the physical and mental topography of some newly encountered country. And, for those encountering the landscape of distance higher education either for the first time or after a long absence, it can be strange and daunting topography indeed.)

If I had to pick one quality that I imbibed-or, perhaps better, the online classroom conveyed to me-during the course in independent guided study it would best be described as confidence. I do not refer specifically to confidence in my basic abilities-although that is surely included-but rather a certainty that my abilities would find expression in the academic rigor of the university environment. Higher education learning specialist Sherrie Brown (2002) touched on this aspect of the challenges facing the nontraditional student. Many such students, however objectively competent and talented they may be, recoil when faced with the initial academic workload, "if only because nontraditional students face so many more handicaps as they counteract the difficulties of inadequate role preparation and role overload [72]." Professor Brown is likely correct, as least as far as she goes. However, her assessment does not address one crucial, nontraditional, student strength-wisdom acquired through cumulative life experiences. That trait may be intangible, but it is nonetheless real. In my own case, it was key to success in my first academic year.

Conversely, if I had to pick one quality essential to university success (at least by my lights)-and one for me that remains 'a work in progress'-it would critical and creative thinking. In many respects, these associated factors are two sides of the same coin. Creative thinking allows for the new and the different and the promising. Critical thinking applies the accumulated wisdom of the past to provide context, organization and direction. While the methodology of critical thinking may implicate skepticism, at its core it grants to creative thinking a greater prospect of translation into reality. University professor and social media consultant Ellen Derwin (2008) addressed the issue of critical thinking and the university student.

"Online learners have responsibility to engage themselves in the learning process than students in face-to-face courses since a classroom instructor can literally pull them into a discussion." It is here, of course, that wisdom and maturity come to the fore. The returning adult student brings with himself or herself that accumulated wisdom and maturity that not only make online learning a reasonable prospect, they also-as described above-bring assets that make creative thinking a prospectively more rewarding process. Precisely because of the assets that returning adult students bring to classroom mix, it might well be of benefit to all that added emphasis be placed on creative thinking. Such an effort would draw on student assets that could benefit every member of the university family.

Applying my online learning experience to date to the nexus of creative and critical thinking, I suggest that products of creative thinking be posited for class posting/discussion. This would allow students to apply their own critical thinking skills to the matter at hand. (It would be interesting to see of Professor Derwin is on the mark and that returning adult students often display more critical thinking skills than their younger counterparts.) This process, in turn, could well prove to be learning tool in its own right.

Works consulted in the preparation of this vade mecum

Brown, S M (2002), Strategies that contribute to nontraditional/adult student development and persistence, PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning, 11:67-76

Derwin, E B (2008[?]), Critical thinking in online vs. face-to-face higher education, Media Psychology Review [not paginated]

Kasworm, C E (2010, February), The older student as an undergraduate, Adult Education Quarterly, 60:143-160

Kasworm, C E & Pike, G R (1994), Adult undergraduate students: Evaluating the appropriateness of a traditional model of academic performance, Research in Higher Education, 35:685-710

University of Wisconsin [at La Crosse]/Office of Student Life (2008), Returning adult student's handbook.

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Reasons People Over the Age of 21 Are Entering College

a. Economic necessity

i. Need new career because unemployed
ii. Use financial aid while getting education

b. Professional

i. Advance in current career
ii. Gain job security

c. Personal
i. Self-worth
ii. Role model

People over the age of twenty-one are entering college for personal, professional, and financial reasons. Several people enter college because of economic necessity. In today's economic climate, many are either underemployed, laid off or unemployed. By entering college, they can utilize financial aid to stay afloat while training for new careers.

Similarly, people who are already employed enter college to enhance their current positions. Education can earn them promotions at their current workplaces. Furthermore, education can secure their positions in the aforementioned unstable economy. Lastly, many people over the age of twenty-one enter college for personal reasons. Pursuing education can enhance their feelings of self-worth, and give them a feeling that they are moving ahead in the world. Additionally, older college students can serve as role models for their children or their younger siblings. Whether for personal, professional or economic reasons, many people over the age of twenty-one are entering college in order to fulfill their dreams and to achieve their goals.

Studying Abroad

The years students spend in college are some of the most influential years of their lives. During these years, students gain exposure to new ways of life that they have not experienced before. Research shows that students who study abroad benefit from the experience academically, mentally, and socially. The challenges of today's fast paced, culturally diverse world make it beneficial for students to study abroad.

Students who take advantage of the opportunity to study abroad are for more prepared for the challenges and demands facing them throughout their lives (National Association of International Educators). It is important that college programs prepare students to enter the workforce with international business exposure. There are courses at most schools that teach international business and customs, however, these textbook based courses are no substitute for the experience of living and studying abroad for a semester or two.

Globalization refers to the establishment of worldwide operations and the development and implementation of a standardized product or service. Companies choose to go global for different reasons; primarily, business expansion and keeping up with competitors in the market. International ventures are much more complex than domestic markets meaning that managers must place a stronger emphasis on strategic planning when expanding internationally.

When considering globalization, students entering the workforce must take into consideration the cultural differences and be prepared to be sensitive to those differences. This includes being sensitive to the needs of each culture in which a company plans to do business on a business, organizational, and people focused strategic level. Through studying abroad, students will become familiarized with other cultures and learn how to relate to those cultural norms in a professional, non-offensive manner. Gestures considered "normal" in the United States may be offensive in Japan, for example.

Students who study abroad often develop and demonstrate a new level of maturity on a personal level as well as intellectually. They gain exposure to different types of culture and language, different ways of living and different accepted norms, which each contribute to growth, independence, and the general knowledge and understanding that international cultures operate differently than here in the United States (Education Dynamics, LLC). This understanding facilitates the mindset of greater acceptance and insight into international business including but not limited to political issues, globalization, commerce, and trading.

In today's economy, it is further beneficial for students studying abroad to obtain the exposure to how economical systems work in other countries and how they may affect the United States' economical situation. Furthermore, studying abroad provides economic benefits to both the host country and the student's home country. The host country benefits by receiving tuition funds and monies associated with room and board while the home country benefits by the student gaining knowledge and hands-on expertise of international culture and then returning and applying that experience to the United States workforce.

Research shows that potential employers look favorably at applicants who have studied abroad at some point during their schooling. Research also shows that there are three desired criteria sought in potential employees by globalized companies (Orahood, Pearson and Kruze). These include intellectual ability, motivation, and interpersonal skills. Intellectual ability refers to the employee's ability to learn, apply what he or she has learned, and make educated decisions. Motivation is the ability to stay encouraged as well as encourage others to do a good job and work as a team. Thirdly, interpersonal skills include the ability to communicate effectively with clients and colleagues, resolve conflict, and show respect for others.

The majority of students, fifty-seven percent, that choose to study abroad do so in Europe (Marklein). Other countries include Asia, Africa, South Africa, China, Argentina, Ecuador, and India. "The most common fields of study include social sciences (21.4%), business and management (19.1%), and humanities (13.2%). Students studying foreign languages represented 7.2% of the total" (2008). These percentages demonstrate the fact that students are likely encouraged by academic advisors to study social sciences, business and management, and humanities in order to make their resume more marketable to future employers.

Some colleges, such as Goucher College in Maryland, require all new students to study abroad for some period during their college career. "The United States cannot conduct itself effectively in a competitive international environment when our most educated citizens lack minimal exposure to, and understanding of, the world beyond U.S. borders," reported The Christian Science Monitor. Again, this emphasizes the fact that students are entering into a workplace that requires culturally aware candidates that have firsthand experience of international studies.

Eastern University employs a study abroad program that includes airfare, tuition, room and board, spending money, passport and visa fees, which costs less than a semester at college. Available areas to travel to with their program include Australia, Cyprus, Denmark, Germany, Japan, South Korea, Sweden, or the United Kingdom (2010). Studying abroad allows students to experience social interaction that they would not get otherwise. The opportunity to meet foreigners that are actually living in their own country is an incredible experience. It's the adventure of it all," stated Josh Irons during a discussion with the media regarding their study abroad programs.

"President Obama announced plans last month to "dramatically expand" to 100,000 the number of U.S. students who study in China over the next four years, calling such exchanges "a clear commitment to build ties among our people in the steady pursuit of cooperation that will serve our nations, and the world" (Marklein, 2009). Studying abroad not only benefits students and employers, but also our country, as it creates a relationship with our allies and encourages cooperation between countries.

It is important to point out the fact that the United States also hosts study abroad programs for other countries and is benefited by the international students who come here to study, as well. In 2007, a record was broken as ten million students in China took a college entrace exam in hopes of studying abroad, in America. Many international students afford their college tuition in the United States through sports recruitment. Some colleges recruit international students for sports programs, primarily tennis and soccer. Soccer in the United States is often referred to as Europen Football as it originated in Europe. Here, the college benefits by accomodating the student into the sports and academic program, while the student benefits from a scholarship.

Aside from all of the obvious academic reasons for a student to study abroad, there are also the luxurious benefits to consider. Students who study abroad get the opportunity to travel overseas, some of whom have never even been out of their home state or on an airplane before. It provides the student the opportunity to learn a second language. It allows the opportunity to make friends with individuals from other rcultures and network, learning about their country while at the same time, teaching them about the United States. Lastly but not least, study abroad programs provide students with experiences that are far beyond what can ever be learned within the realm of a classroom or textbook, that will make them more well rounded and benefit them through their entire life.

Studying abroad is a wonderful opportunity for students who are able to participate. Tuition is usually able to be included in student loans or covered by scholarships and is often cheaper than a semester at the home college. Students sometimes are matched up with other students through what is called an exchange program, staying with a host family during the study period and then the new classmate returning home with them to study and be hosted as well for a semester. Studying abroad can take place in many different countries, and for different lengths of time depending on cost and need. It provides benefits to students, families, schools, and communities. Students gain an academic, mental, and social experience that prepares them for our culturally diverse world.

Works Cited

Bartolucci, Cassie. "Eastern's study abroad program benefits students." The Daily Eastern News.

Deresky, Helen. International management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Education Dynamics, LLC. Study Abroad.

Marklein, Mary Beth. "Chinese college students flocking to U.S. campuses ." USA Today

Marklein, Mary Beth. "Record number of U.S. students study abroad, in diverse locations." USA Today.

National Association of International Educators. Public Policy Benefits of Study Abroad.

Orahood, Tammy, Denise Pearson and Larisa Kruze. "The Impact of Study Abroad on Business Students' Career Goals." Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad (n.d.): 117-130.

Special Needs Students and Parent Involvement

Although school administrators and teachers have the best intentions in regard to the education of special needs students, the fact is that we only have limited control over the outcomes of the educational process. Because we are only with students for a limited amount of time, and because we only have limited resources during that time, we can only affect specific areas. In order to fill those gaps, we need the support of parents to make sure that children continue to have a supportive learning environment outside of school hours. At the same time, parents need our help as well, in order to understand the educational needs of their children and to be able to do their best in supporting these needs. This essay discusses the roles of parents and their involvement in the education of special needs students, especially focusing on issues of stress, positive communication between parents and teachers, and achievement of successful educational results.

According to the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), family life is a fundamental and integral part of the learning process for children. This process begins in early childhood, with the socialization and early learning process of infants and toddlers, and continues throughout the educational process. At the earliest stages, parental involvement will be focused on identifying needs and development of ways that the family and community resources can best be used to meet the needs of the child. Basic family, play, socialization, and other routines can be used to encourage the learning process of young children. At this stage, it is likely that the parents are the primary educators of the child, as well as other family members, like siblings and grandparents, and other caregivers like babysitters (CEC, 2009). After the child enters school, communication between parent and school (including administration as well as communication with individual teachers and staff members involved in the educational process) comes to the fore in terms of importance of parental involvement. The construction of an individual education plan (IEP) that encourages collaboration between parents and teachers and spells out what sort of involvement will be required is a fundamental element in encouraging continuing involvement in the educational process of special needs children.

Communication is a fundamental part of the relationship between parents and educators. How can that communication be assured? Preparing an IEP for the child that encourages and emphasizes the role of parental involvement and education is one step in improving communications. However, this is only one step in a process that begins with identification of specific needs by parents and continues through involvement in formal education and finally through the transition to work. In order for communication to be effective, educators need to make sure that their communication can be understood by the child's parents (Rous, Hallam, Grove, Robinson, & Machara, 2003). Like children, parents will have different needs in terms of the level of communication desired and required, and using the wrong level of communication may reduce its effectiveness. Using a formal communication model, or a formal communication set of best practices as identified by the school, will help to ensure that the parent-educator communication can be effective.

There are a number of problems that can potentially emerge in the process of parental involvement. One such problem is differences in cultural expectations and norms that arise between the parent and the educator - parents may simply have a different idea about what level of involvement in education is appropriate for parents to have than educators would like them to hold. A basic problem of communication is also stress (Rous, Hallam, Grove, Robinson, & Machara, 2003). Parents of special needs children experience significant stressors related to the everyday needs of their children, which can eclipse the importance of communication with the educators and school. One way to reduce this difficulty is providing information about why the educational process and communication can reduce the level of stress in the home.

The needs of children and parental involvement change as the child becomes older, which introduces another difficulty in the process, as children's needs may change at different rates. At the early childhood level, socialization, family, and community skills are the focus. However, near the end of the formal educational process, there is an increased need for family involvement as the child begins to transition to the work environment. The level of involvement that parents and children will require varies depending on characteristics like the level of needs for the child, whether there will be a formal transition service, and other variables (Lankard, 2000). However, this is likely to be an area of significant difference. If these difficulties can be overcome, strong parental involvement is key to improving the educational outcomes of special needs children.

Parental involvement is key for the education of special needs children at all stages, from infancy an early childhood through to the transition to adulthood and the work environment. Using communication between parents and teachers is the most fundamental path to making sure parental involvement is strong and effective. There are specific difficulties that will be experienced, including stress, difficulties in communicating, and keeping up with the changing needs of the child. Overcoming these challenges by both parents and educators is key to effective educational outcomes for special needs children.

Bibliography

CEC. (2009). Improving family involvement in special education: Opportunities and solutions for improving family involvement.

Lankard, B. A. (2000, April 20). Parents and the school-to-work transition of special needs youth.

Rous, B., Hallam, R., Grove, J., Robinson, S., & Machara, M. (2003). Parent involvement in early care and education programs: A review of the literature. Interdisciplinary Human Development Institute. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky.

Technology and Student Communication

The use of computer communications technology has been growing rapidly in children, teenagers, and others. Presently, computer-facilitated communications technology like chat services, email, and Skype face-to-face chat services are an everyday part of the life of a student. However, what is uncertain is what effect this has had on the student's ability to communicate. It could improve communication skills, or it could degrade communication skills or prevent students from learning needed communication skills. It could also have no effect at all. This research is designed to identify what effect computer-based communication has on the communication skills demonstrated by students. It will use quantitative testing of communication skills, combined with analysis of the degree of computer-facilitated communication, in order to determine the relationship between these two factors.

Introduction

It is impossible to ignore the ubiquity of computer-facilitated communication in our everyday lives. Email, once a tool of technical specialists and academics, is now commonplace. Instant messaging (IM) chat programs allow for even more immediate access to individuals, while voice chat programs such as Skype create a voice-based communication experience that can include video. This extends to communication methods such as SMS texting, as well as multiple other methods of communication. Social networking programs, such as Facebook, allow for a more holistic communication experience and involve a many-to-many social dimension to communication that is often lacking in more conventional computer-facilitated communication techniques.

This is clearly a significant social change, and it has happened primarily within the past 15 years. However, it is not only adults that use these communications technologies in a casual manner. Children and teenagers have become experts in the use of computer-facilitated communications methods. This is not consistently regarded as a positive development, and in fact many researchers and commentators feel that this is a negative outcome. However, there are also some positive effects that have been seen in the development of computer-facilitated communications for children. This research project will focus on identifying positive and negative effects on communication in children from the use of computer-facilitated communications technologies.

Statement of the Problem

The use of computer-facilitated communication methods by children is part of a larger, and highly contentious, conversation about the use of technologies by children. One strand of research indicates that the use of technology is fundamentally changing the nature of childhood (or, as Cornwell somewhat inflammatorily frames this argument, "ruining children") through the modification of communication skills and social and emotional connections to others. This argument views the use of the technologies of cyberspace in childhood to be isolating, alienating, and ultimately dehumanizing, and predicts that it will ultimately lead to the destruction of social and emotional constructs of what it means to be human. However, the majority view is that the use of technology in childhood has multiple and mixed effects, rather than being wholly negative in the way that this argument is framed. These multiple and mixed effects do not in general point to a dehumanizing effect, but rather to exacerbation of conditions that are already in place for negative or positive communication outcomes. By exploring the specific role of computer-facilitated communication in childhood, this research will attempt to determine what effects may be seen with an increase in intensity and ubiquity of its use. Thus, the major problem that will be addressed in this paper is: What positive and negative effects does computer-facilitated communication have on the development of communication skills?

Hypotheses

The main hypothesis of this paper is based on the literature review findings as well as critical reflection on the role of technology in communication and the potential outcomes of this technological role.

The independent variable that will be used in the research is Computer-Facilitated Communication. This will be operationalized as the use of any computer-facilitated communication technology, including (but not limited to) email, IM, texting, and Skype. However, this will not include assistive technologies such as voice boards intended to allow for increased communication skills for children with impaired communications facilities, as this is a different use of computer technology. This will be measured as an interval index variable, indicating the sum average time spent on each of these communications methods as determined by a diary-based method.

The dependent variables will be operationalized as Interpersonal Communications Skills, operationalized as the ability to read, write, speak, and understand written, verbal, and non-verbal communication at a level that is appropriate to the age and developmental capacity of the child. This will be measured by communications skills assessment designed to test the communications skills of children of the age selected for the study. This instrument will have three subscales to test written, verbal, and non-verbal (physical) communications skills.

Written, verbal, and non-verbal communications skills will be tested separately, and so are posed with different hypotheses. The hypotheses that will be posed for this study will be as follows:

Hypothesis H1a: The use of computer-facilitated computation technologies will have a positive effect on the written communication skills of children in the study.

Hypothesis H10: The use of computer-facilitated computation technologies will have no effect on the written communication skills of children in the study.

Hypothesis H2a: The use of computer-facilitated computation technologies will have a negative effect on the verbal communication skills of children in the study.

Hypothesis H20: The use of computer-facilitated computation technologies will have no effect on the verbal communication skills of children in the study.

Hypothesis H3a: The use of computer-facilitated computation technologies will have a negative effect on the non-verbal communication skills of children in the study.

Hypothesis H30: The use of computer-facilitated computation technologies will have no effect on the non-verbal communication skills of children in the study.

These three hypotheses are based on the idea that written communication skills are most likely to be those developed by the use of computer-facilitated communications technology, while verbal and non-verbal communications skills may suffer due to substitution with written communications skills facilitated by computer usage.

Review of the Literature

A critical literature review has been conducted that will provide some preliminary information regarding the current state of research regarding this topic of research. Two general topics have been considered for the literature review, including the effects of computer-facilitated communication on communication skills in general and the research available on this effect in children. This literature review is intended to support the development of the methodology, as well; so particular discussion has been devoted to the use of specific methodologies in the research that is used. This will be used to frame the research as well as to compare results that are seen in the current research with that seen in existing research.

General Effects of Computer-Facilitated Communication

One of the questions that can be asked about this topic is, why is this important? Castells (2007) posits that communication in the modern network society is a form of power. This form of power is used both in vertical communication networks (such as formal mass media and political communication) as well as in horizontal communication networks (such as social networks, insurgent and protest spaces, and other counter-hegemonic spaces) (Castells, 2007). Under this formulation, the use of communication is used to both conform to and resist the power of social hegemony and create or reject the political legitimacy of a given movement. Communication is obviously important for everyday life as well, including interaction between social peers and in vertical social networks. The pressures that have driven changes in the information environment, including the development of horizontal electronic communications networks, have begun to lead to the convergence of horizontal and vertical communications networks (Castells, 2007). However, given the political importance of communication in a networked world, it is still necessary to communicate effectively both within and outside the network.

There are a variety of methodological approaches to the study of computer-facilitated communication. One of the latest emergent methods of study is the ethnographic research method, in which the social space is studied in a qualitative manner. The practice of ethnography is based on the use of observation and questioning in order to derive meaning from a given situation. Although derived from the field of anthropology, it may also be used in sociology, education, and other social sciences fieldwork. However, this is still a minority form of research of education and communication technologies. As Garcia et al (2009) note, the majority of research in this area to date has been quantitative and based on measurement or assessment of communications technologies and issues. Furthermore, what qualitative research has been performed is not generally ethnographic in nature, but instead uses methods such as grounded research. This demonstrates both the flexibility of research methods that can be used in this case and the wide variety of methods that have been used.

There is also a great deal of specific research about the use of computer-facilitated communication. One study used a quantitative survey approach to examine the effects of computer-facilitated communication on the relational quality of various types of interpersonal relationships. This study examined interactions between college students and friends, family, and romantic partners. It found that although there were significant variations between relationship types in the perceived relational quality of relationships, these were not affected by media use in communication. That is, even though participants used a varying amount of communication through computer-facilitated media, this did not change the way the participants viewed their relationships. This study indicates that there was no negative effect seen from the use of computer-facilitated communication within the relationship.

A second study was a survey-based study that examined the strength and gratification-utility (the amount of satisfaction that is obtained from a relationship) among users of social networking software. This study used a sample of 286 college students, due to their status as the main demographic that uses social networking software such as Facebook. The study found that higher use of social networking was associated with a higher level of internetworked relationships, although network size was related to the amount of enjoyment that was obtained from the process. This research indicated that the use of computer-mediated communication in the case of social network users was not associated with reduction in communication effectiveness. However, it did indicate that users were more likely to use computer-facilitated communications technologies such as social networking if they were receiving some degree of pleasure from them.

Whether or not computer users have difficulties in creating and maintaining social ties through communication has also been widely debated. Zhao (2006) pointed out that some clarification and separation of groups of internet users was called for; as users are not a homogenous group, but instead display different characteristics in terms of their use purpose and goals, heaviness of Internet use, and contact density and length of time contact is maintained, it is not feasible to make a single determination of how all Internet users may react. Zhao used data from the 2000 General Social Survey (GSS) to determine whether Internet users had more social ties and under what conditions. This study found that there were stronger social ties among email and chat users than among web users and non-users (Zhao, 2006). This study did not take into account social networking, which is largely a post-2000 phenomenon; thus, this could be seen to increase the number of potential social ties even further. However, this does not clearly indicate that there is no associated social cost to the use of computer-facilitated communications. For example, it is a well known phenomenon that email communication can make it very hard to both communicate and interpret the emotional content of communications. This can lead to alienation and emotional distance between communicators in the work setting, which may be extended to interpersonal relationships in other contexts as well. However, on the positive side, the use of computer-mediated communication can reduce the inequality effects of face-to-face gender construction. In this context, it was only when gender stereotypes were actively engaged that communication became gendered. Thus, it is not sufficient to state that the use of email or other computer-facilitated communication approaches are uniformly positive for communications outcomes; instead, this situation must be defined as highly complicated.

Effects of Computer-Facilitated Communication on Children

In addition to the general discussion above, the literature review also included specific discussion of children's use of computer-facilitated communication methodologies. This was intended to demonstrate the research that has already been done, as well as identifying useful methodological approaches.

One study used contextual, rhetorical, and semantic analysis of elementary school students' emails in order to determine what the characteristics of communication in this context. The researchers find that children were likely to use a strong turn-taking approach to communication, with sequential emails directly following each other. They also observed a strong use of meta-tags, or a direct explication of their intended communication. The majority of email communication was devoted to informational statements, with a stronger sequential zigzag communication pattern being associated with more questions and answers. Overall, this research demonstrated that the communication between children was cohesive and followed a clear communication pattern. This confirmed earlier research regarding email communication patterns of children in the elementary school, which identified two other patterns of exchange other than the zigzag pattern that was observed in the later study. The communication identified stacking, in which emails were sent rapidly back and forth, and compounding, in which students integrated the previous emails in response. This research did show that children engaged relatively rarely with each other's emails; however, this was seen as common to the communication patterns seen in other forms of written communication as well. Both of these studies were performed using an observational approach in an elementary classroom.

A third study examined the ways in which children use the Internet on public computers in a library, using an ethnographic approach. This study, which was conducted in a dedicated computing center for children of lower socioeconomic status, found that contrary to expectations of computer use for adult users, children found ways to use the computers offered for play. However, this is in contrast to the stated goal of the center, which was to provide an avenue for information access. Thus, there was a conflict between the use of computers by children and the intent for use by adults. This indicates that the communication styles expected or intended by adults may also not meet with the uses that are posed by children. A fourth study, which found that the use of computer technologies and communications was often limited and constrained by the expected uses, may also support this interpretation. Selwyn et al's study was based on a survey of school children. This study found that while children agreed with the positioning of computer technology as a learning tool, the majority of children did not view computers as a tool for enjoyment or engaged actively with the learning experience. Thus, the use of computer-facilitated technology may be negatively affected by the context in which it takes place.

These studies clearly indicate that the use of computer-mediated communication in the school environment may be difficult to develop, given the constraints on children's use of computers. Thus, one of the problems expected to be encountered in this research is disconnecting the expectations of computer use and the requirements within the school and the use of computers by children, in order to determine whether this is truly a communications problem or mismatch.

Bibliography

Baym, N. K., Zhang, Y. B., Kunkel, A., Ledbetter, A., & Lin, M.-C. (2007). Relational quality and media use in interpersonal relationships. New Media and Society , 9 (4), 735-752.

Byron, K. (2008). Carrying too heavy a load? The communication and miscommunication of emotion by email. Academy of Management Review , 33 (2), 309-327.

Castells, M. (2007). Communication, power and counterpower in the network society. International Journal of Communication , 1, 238-266.

Cornwell, J. (2008, April 27). Is technology ruining children? Retrieved from The Times Online: women.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/women/families/article3805196.ece

Dimmick, J., Ramirez, A., Wang, T., & Lin, S.-F. 'Extending society': The role of personal networks and gratification-utilities in the use of interactive communication media. New Media and Society , 9 (5), 795-810.

Garcia, A. C., Standlee, A. I., Beckhoff, J., & Cui, Y. (2009). Ethnographic approaches to the Internet and computer-mediated commnication. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography , 38 (1), 52-84.

Postmes, T., & Spears, R. Behavior online: Does anonymous computer communication reduce gender inequality? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 28 (2), 1073-1083.

Sandwig, C. (2006). The Internet at play: Child users of public Internet connections. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication , 11, 932-956.

Selwyn, N., Potter, J., & Cranmer, S. Primary pupils' use of information and communication technologies at school and home. British Journal of Educational Technology , 40 (5), 919-932.

Van der Meij, H., & Boersma, K. E-mail use in elementary school: An analysis of exchange patterns and content. British Journal of Educational Technology , 33 (2), 189-200.

Van der Meij, H., De Vries, B., Boersma, K., Pieters, J., & Wegerif, R. (2005). An examination of interactional coherence in email use in elementary school. Computers in Human Behavior , 21, 417-439.

Zhao, S. Do internet users have more social ties? A call for differentiated analysis of Internet use. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication , 11, 844-862.

Learning Through Distance Education

Though once considered a futuristic science-fiction fantasy, distance education courses are quickly becoming commonplace, allowing students to attend courses to receive advanced degrees from the comfort of their homes. In this rapidly progressing field, new advances make online learning environments increasingly similar to traditional, face-to-face classrooms. However, numerous challenges remain for distance education learners, particularly related to how communication is mediated online. In this essay, I will explore some of the major challenges online education learners face, and consider solutions to each challenge in turn. I will argue that distance education courses face limitations in terms of their capacities to provide (a) substantial student support, (b) active, critical thinking opportunities, and (c) deep, interactive engagement among instructors and students. However, I will also demonstrate that there are workable solutions to these challenges, making distance education a strong alternative to classroom teaching.

One of the most obvious differences between distance education and traditional classroom instruction is that there is little or no face-to-face contact in distance education programs. If a student enters the online "classroom" breathless and exhausted from a stressful day, his or her online professor has no way of knowing, unless the student chooses to share. If something is wrong with a student or if a student is facing serious problems in his or her personal life, there is no online counselor the student can see, and the student can feel as if he or she is at the mercy of the professor. Thus, the online environment can be problematic for students facing personal challenges, as student support systems commonly accessible in traditional university settings are generally not available to the distance education learner (he or she may be permitted access to campus services in some cases, but may nonetheless live too far from campus to make this a realistic option). Additionally, it can be difficult for the distance education instructor to take on a supportive role toward students, developing personal relationships that make the educational environment a safer place for students to be themselves.

Such separation from the support networks associated with traditional university life can take its toll on distance education learners. As Galusha notes, distance education students are "more likely to have insecurities about learning" than are traditional students, "founded in personal and school related issues such as financial costs of study, disruption of family life, perceived irrelevance of their studies and lack of support from employers," leading to higher dropout rates (1). Relatedly, Galusha points out "the perceived lack of feedback or contact from the teacher" distance learners face, related to their lacking face-to-face contact (1). Because distance education students are not living in dorms and sharing problems with peers in their living areas, they can easily feel alienated from their peers and their instructor. Family and friends and real life may seem disconnected from the classroom, and the online educator additionally can seem foreign and far away, not related to the student as he or she might be, if they ran into one another in the university halls or campus coffee shop.

Turbill describes this challenge as a lack of "personal contextualising" (7). According to Turbill, personal contextualization is "all the 'small talk' that one expects with face-to-face talk. It usually occurred at the beginning [in traditional classrooms]. However it did not occur initially" in online classrooms, in her experience (7). Turbill has some simple solutions to this problem, such as bridging students across continents in an online environment, as she goes on:

I commented, 'It is pouring here as I write, the wind is blowing a gale and it is cold--well cold to us Aussies' ... My demonstrations of personal contextualising were soon picked up by students on both sides of the Pacific and thus a great deal of small talk had to do with the weather at first. However there was also a lot of discussion about 'babies' as one of the women was pregnant and another happened to fall pregnant during this time. When the baby arrived we had images of mother, father and child sent out for all to see.

It seems there are ways to make the online classroom a personable space over time, and Volery and Lord point out relatedly that comfort with technology prior to class enrollment among students can also help significantly to decrease student isolation at the start of distance education classes (218). However, the lack of real student support online in terms of students' emotional well being and academic development remains a serious challenge for many distance education learners. As Galusha notes, "the lack of support and services such as providing tutors, academic planners and schedulers, and technical assistance," is often overlooked in online environments, to the detriment of students who may also be struggling with social isolation and alienation from academic settings while studying from a distance (2). If distance education programs could develop psychological and academic support networks like those commonly provided to students within traditional academic institutions, retention rates in distance education courses would likely rise (Allen and Seaman 20).

Beyond the issue of provisioning basic support services to students attending distance education classes, students also need to be actively and critically engaged in online classes if they are to benefit as much as they could from within traditional face-to-face classrooms, and challenges with meeting this need can also significantly limit distance education learners. In a traditional classroom, students normally read books and peer-reviewed journal articles accessed from campus bookstores (and, to a lesser degree these days, from online libraries or other storages systems), receive lectures which complement and help explain the materials, and write traditional academic papers. Distance education students, on the other hand, normally access online sources for class content, communicate in online forums which may not encourage the sort of formal academic writing traditional classroom contexts encourage, and may produce websites or web reports rather than traditional academic writings (Beldarrain). However, whether the online environment meets the demands of rigor expected in academic contexts is something many have questioned, and thus likely presents a challenge to learners aiming to acquire academic skills through distance education coursework.

Many people feel that reading online is different from reading from books, for instance. As Warschauer notes, the web is audience-centered, as one can change sites quickly, whereas reading book requires one to focus on an individual editor or author's interest and choices (159). As Burbules and Callister similarly observe, as hypertext grows and evolves, the structure of the information itself changes. Form and content are interdependent ... to the extent that hypertext systems incorporate capacity both to impose patterns of organization on existing information and to facilitate the hypertext user's ability to imagine and create new patterns of organization, hyptertext challenges traditional distinctions between accessing and producing new knowledge. ("Knowledge at the Crossroads").

It is not necessarily the case that one cannot pursue traditional academic studies or research using the internet. However, as Burbules and Callister suggest, one is encouraged to do something different when researching online then going to a library and cross-referencing journal articles. Wikipedia, Google, and other user-friendly tools shape the way people conduct research today.

Distance education researchers and instructors do not necessarily see this change in research norms associated with online learning as a bad thing, however. As Warschauer reflects on his own experience teaching online, a "major benefit of teaching with multimedia networked computers was to introduce students to new types of reading and writing practices that they couldn't get otherwise," which are an important part of professional communication and development in today's world, regardless of traditional academic norms and standards (155). Similarly, Burbules and Callister argue that despites changes in notions of reading, authorship, writing, and so on that occur through using online learning contexts, challenges can be met through careful educator facilitation: making sure students use good websites, and use the web for research is a critical, rigorous way ("Knowledge at the Crossroads").

However, the challenge distance education creates to traditional methods of scholarly reading and researching also hint at changes in educational values that may threaten those invested in traditional academic settings, such as the face-to-face university classroom. As Allen and Seaman note, faculty reluctance to participate in online education programs because they are perceived to be of lesser intellectual quality than traditional programs is one of the biggest barriers to increasing distance education offerings (19). Burbules and Callister ask a question on the minds of many professors when introduced to distance education: "What happens to the college or university when new clients and new constituencies expect and perhaps demand access to intellectual resources and privileges that have traditionally been relatively exclusive, scarce, or costly? The implications of these shifts cannot be over dramatized" ("Universities in Transition").

Burbules and Callister offer their own critical question in response to this, however: "what is being compared here?" They go on, "Auditoriums with a thousand students, faculty lecturing from behind a podium on stage, discussion sections run by earnest but often inexperienced teaching assistants, office hours that afford a brief interview with a preoccupied or impatient professor, are not so clearly superior to their online equivalents" ("Universities in Transition"). It is true that teaching and learning online are different, and that the sources in distance education programs are limited, in some respects, when compared to a trip to the library. However, the engaged professor in either setting aims to facilitate intellectual rigor by guiding their students, ensuring that critical reading, thinking, and writing take place in whichever medium of education.

Finally, there is the question of peer and professor interaction and mutual engagement, which has been touched on in the preceding sections, but which nonetheless can be a problem for students in distance education courses. Classroom discussions cannot happen online the same way they happen in classrooms, with students raising their hands and being called upon by their facilitating teacher...or can they? Though the challenge of interacting and peer engagement has been discussed by many in the field of distance education as one of the largest barriers to widespread implementation of distance education programs by universities (Volery and Lord, Turbill, Galusha, Beldarrain), there are numerous methods and paths through which communication can occur in distance education courses despite the lack of in-person communication opportunities.

Communication among students and instructors is no doubt less rich in some respects in distance education courses, as body language, facial expression, tone of voice, and more are missing from blogs, forum postings, emails, and other online educational spaces. Today, there are many ways to get beyond this challenge, however. Video technologies are increasingly available, which do allow peers and instructors to share facial expressions and body language, often in real-time (Beldarrain). Podcasts and voice transmissions are also now common ways to participate in discussions online, and share information, such as lectures. Some technology even allows students to raise their hands virtually in discussion sessions, making the possibilities for mirroring the traditional classroom online seemingly endless (Harasim).

Thus, communication and interaction among students and instructors is not necessarily challenged online, as today there actually are multiple modes through which distance education learners and instructors can interact and collaborate. As Beldarrain observes, the wiki is one particularly powerful tool often used today in distance education courses to facilitate collaborative online research, writing, and study among students, engaging them in tasks resulting in a group project. He notes that learners at "Bowdain College initiated their own collaborative wiki to share their love of romantic literature and poetry," while other universities "have implemented wikis for building relationships among learners" (142). Similar to a blog but more optimal for group work, possibilities for using wikis for collaborative learning seem endless, as students can do group research projects and more with wikis.

While some feel that distance education programs cannot provide the sense of community among students that traditional settings provide, even this issue is being resolved by those particularly concerned with community implications of online learning spaces. According to Renninger and Shumar, online spaces can become communities when they have the "the multilayered quality of communicative spaces that allows for mingling of different conversations, the linking of conversations ... and the archiving of discussions, information, and the like, that permits social exchange around site resources at a future time" (1). Though far from the image of the traditional classroom, online instructors can thus get beyond limitations to good communication some distance education learners face, by using new technologies effectively to create a classroom community.

Universities and college professors have been using technology for teaching and research more and more over the last few decades, and it has begun to be common practice for student research and student-teacher communication to occur online, through email, even in traditional academic settings. Inevitably distance education has become more convenient and widespread with the evolution of new teaching and learning technologies, as a way to open up education to more and more people. Yet distance education is not without its critics, and I have explored in depth some of the challenges learners in distance education environments face, including a lack of support services associated with the traditional university, challenges for critically thinking and engaging online, and difficulties associated with communicating online more generally.

I have argued here that there are many solutions to most of the problems that have been identified. Perhaps the biggest problem distance education learners face is the lack of support services for those who may feel alone and far from any campus scene. To make distance education work for more students, academic advising and tutoring and emotional support and counseling must be provided as they are in traditional university settings, so that students do not drop out because of personal problems that the program cannot provide support for. The other challenges I have mentioned here--the challenge of critical thinking and reading, and of communicating and interacting with peers and instructors online--are easier challenges to resolve. Educators must take the first step to ensure that their courses are rigorous when relying on resources online, so that students are not simply reading Wikipedia and can produce excellent academic writing. Finally, regarding classroom communication generally, educators can make use of various technology to ensure communication and interaction happen. By using wikis, blogs, forums, pod casts, video or voice lectures, and chat sessions, educators can ensure classroom communication and interaction take place despite distance. The future is bright, therefore, in distance education, even if some challenges remain for online learners.

Works Cited

Allen, I. Elaine, and Jeff Seaman. Online Nation: Five Years of Growth in Online Learning. Needham, MA: Sloan-C, 2007.

This resource is supported by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and is based on survey data taken from over 2,500 colleges and universities related to the state of online learning. The survey answers questions such as how many students are learning online, where growth in online learning has occurred, why institutions offer online offerings, possibilities for future online enrollment growth, and barriers to the widespread adoption of online education. It is a comprehensive source of information about online education today.

Beldarrain, Yoany. "Distance Education Trends: Integrating New Technologies to Foster Student Interaction and Collaboration." Distance Education 27.2 (2006): 139-153.

This peer-reviewed source considers how new technologies lend themselves to learner-centered constructive education, where student interaction is the focus of lessons. It argues that blogs, wikis, pod casts, and forums all enable student interaction online, and social software applications that may be used are also reviewed. The author concludes that despite limitations to distance education programs, new technologies promote collaboration and aid student learning, making online and distance education a productive future possibility. The source provides a great overview of possibilities for student-centered online learning today.

Burbules, Nicholas C., and Thomas A. Callister, Jr. "Universities in Transition: The Promise and Challenge of New Technologies." Teachers College Record 102.2 (2000): 273-295.

This article, published in the peer-reviewed academic journal Teachers College Record, explores some of the challenges and promises associated with new technologies in university settings, including the possibility of distance education. The authors argue that the term "distance education" is anachronistic as it refers to technologies which may be used in correspondence courses or within in-person settings, such as email and online research and discussion forums. The authors also suggest that using technology is inevitable and discuss challenges and methods in distance education settings. The paper does an excellent job of comparing distance education to traditional academic settings, challenging stereotypes and exploring complexities associated with education and technology.

Burbules, Nicholas C., and Thomas A. Callister, Jr. "Knowledge at the Crossroads: Some Alternative Futures of Hypertext Learning Environments." Educational Theory 54.4 (1996): 45-67.

In this article, published in the peer-reviewed academic journal Educational Theory, the authors consider the educational implications of the use of "hypertext," online text rather than book sources, in education, for both reading and writing. They go onto to consider the use of hyperlinks online, comparing hypertext and hyperlinks to traditional research sources, such as using libraries and books to explores topics of interest. They argue that online environments effect the sense of authorship and how people read, before discussing educational challenges associated with the emergence of hypertext.

Galusha, Jill M. "Barriers to Learning in Distance Education." The Infrastruction Network, infrastruction.com/barriers.htm

In this article, Jill Galusha explores various barriers to learning in distance education programs. She states that distance education programs require greater flexibility on the part of the students, and that lack of face-to-face contact with teachers and peers, technology expenses, and lack of faculty support are serious challenges online students face. Galusha argues nonetheless that distance education programs offer a students control over time, place, and pace, and briefly considers methods to manage the challenges that distance education students often face. She does an excellent job of analyzing learner issues, limitations, and challenges in relation to online education.

Harasim, Linda. "Shift Happens: Online Education as a New Paradigm in Learning." The Internet and Higher Education 3.1-2 (2000): 41-61.

In this peer-reviewed article, an overview of the history of online education is provided, which focuses particularly on higher education and the use of network technologies. It explores "Virtual-U," a website which aims to assist with education online, that is used by hundreds of professors to teach courses to thousands of students. The paper discusses benefits and productive methods of online education and explores future possibilities emerging from the popularity of Virtual-U.

Renninger, K. Ann, and Wesley Shuman. Building Virtual Communities: Learning and Change in Cyberspace. New York: Cambridge, 2002.

This text explores various aspects of virtual communities in relation to online and distance education. It considers the emergence of online communities, and how to encourage girls to participate in educational and other online environments. The case of educators using the internet for a math forum is considered, and the effects of the internet on local communities is also explored. Various ways to teach online are explored in depth in many chapters, making this an invaluable resource for those interested in the benefits and challenges of online and distance education.

Turbill, Jan. "From Face-to-Face Teaching to Online Distance Education Classes: Some Challenges and Surprises." ASCILITE 2002 Conference at Auckland, New Zealand, December 2002. Ed. Jonathan Cooze. Auckland: ASCILITE, 2002.

In this peer-reviewed conference proceedings, Jan Turbill examines in particular challenges related to educating in an online environment. Taking a narrative form, Turbill reflects on her own resistance and reluctance to teach online. Challenges related to active learning, critical thinking, and language learning online are discussed. Communicating without "nagging" is also mentioned as a challenge, although assessment is deemed to be easier in an online environment. The time it takes to teach online is also explored at length as one challenge or issue distance education teachers face.

Volery, Theierry, and Deborah Lord. "Critical Success Factors in Online Education." International Journal of Educational Management 15.4 (2000): 216-223.

This peer-reviewed article explores ways universities make use of the internet for teaching and learning and the progressive development of online delivery methods. The paper also discusses the results of a survey of students taught through online methods, and identifies the technology used, the instructor, and the student's prior use of technology as significant factors effecting one's success with online learning. The article argues that lecturers are important, but that they become more of facilitators online. This source is clear and conclusive in exploring specific issues in online education.

Warschauer, Mark. Electronic Literacies: Language, Culture, and Power in Online Education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1999.

This book is based on a study of the use of the internet for language and writing classrooms in Hawaii, and includes rich data from interviews with students and teachers, classroom observations, and student texts. How language, culture, and class shape the influence of online education in diverse settings is centrally considered in the book, and the author argues that the internet and online education can help to educate diverse students about traditional literacy and online literacy, which he regards as crucial for full participation in society today. This book provides a great counterargument to those who argue that online education is lacking when compared to traditional academic education.