Success within an organization is measured in great part by the collective abilities and productivity of its staff, which places high priority on recruiting as one of the most innovative tasks a company will undertake. To maintain its competitive edge, an organization must attract qualified candidates from a variety of backgrounds and differing work experiences. This writer aims to define recruitment and strategic recruitment and its importance to organizational success, to critically analyze the major recruitment methods and the advantages and disadvantages of each, and to discuss the recruitment of women, people with disabilities, older workers and minorities. As the context of this paper will illustrate, the importance of recruitment is linked to the global competition facing many organizations, including changing demographics of the workforce and global skill shortages.

Recruitment and Its Roles

According to the CBS Interactive Business Network, recruitment is the "activity of employing workers to fill vacancies or enrolling new members" (Recruitment). Employment recruitment is not a simple effort; instead it is comprised of a number of phases or stages including "verifying that a vacancy exists; drawing up a job specification; finding candidates; selecting them by interviewing and other means such as conducting a psychometric test; and making a job offer" (Recruitment). The methods utilized in recruiting determine whether the outcome is effective where the effectiveness is measured by the achievement of high organizational performance and minimal labor turnover. Recruiting can be internal or external or both.

Strategic recruitment entails an organization's literal recruitment needs based on the needs of the organization and its efforts to fill those needs by tying them to the overall strategic business plan. The needs vary by organization but typically include elements related to number, quality, and specialized skills and talents in every area of the organization's activities. Strategic recruitment is also an organization's method of adapting to changes within the business environment, which can be related to specific changes within a respective industry or it can be related to changes in terms of prospect demographics, education changes or improvements, and overall changes in the hiring environment, among others.

Human resource managers have expressed a number of recruitment concerns but the most common issue is typically related to worker retention. In 2006, the results of survey of a group of human resource managers revealed that 70% feel worker retention is already a primary concern, 40% report a turnover increase in the past 12 months, and 55% expect workforce retention will be a high to very high challenge for their organization in the next five years. According to the same respondents, 69% reveal the use of employee satisfaction surveys as an informal method of reducing turnover. However, of those using employee satisfaction surveys, only 32% report making personnel and workplace changes based on the findings (p. 1).

Given the ongoing retention concerns organizations face, human resource managers must recognized and place strong emphasis on the importance of the recruitment process from start to finish and beyond. To maintain a competitive edge and ensure organizational productivity there is no room for error or shortcuts. In fact, shortcuts can lead to problems later on and these problems may very well prove detrimental to the overall organization. CVS, a major pharmaceutical corporation, learned the hard way that taking short cuts when recruiting can lead to damages in terms of money and a tarnished reputation. CVS failed to do an extensive background check on a new pharmacist the company hired. While the individual did indicate a prior felony conviction on the employment application, CVS did not investigate the extent of the conviction and it was later discovered that the individual was a federally excluded pharmacist and allowed him to work as a pharmacist filling prescriptions. This incident ended up costing the corporation $1.8 million as a settlement to cases brought against CVS. This incident should serve as a stern example that effective recruiting methods can never include oversight and the lack of follow up and follow through.

Major Recruitment Methods

As organizations face increased global competition the methods of recruiting must change to fit the needs of the organization and to remain competitive in the global marketplace. Innovative strategies can be internal and external, but the most common major recruitment methods include the use of the Internet. Advertising remains a major method but this has also been predominantly replaced by electronic advertising methods as opposed to the traditional use of print job ads in local and major newspapers. As explained previously, however, the recruitment process involves much more than simply advertising a position and waiting on prospective employees to submit an application. Human resource managers must understand what the organization's needs entail, what experience and/or education applicants should possess, and the background of applicants and how elements in individual backgrounds will impact the organization. These steps must be taken before beginning the interview phase.

As CVS learned, prospective employers must know all they can about prospective employees to ensure that the hiring process does not put the organization at risk. As part of the background research process, managers will want to include some form of behavioral and/or personality testing process as these methods help determine which applicants are best suited for a given position within the organization. The organization will want to inventory its current employee pool to determine where changes may be needed (e.g. does the organization need more female or minority employees). When the determination has been made, the application process can include questions that require applicants to reveal their sex and nationality. However, caution must be applied to ensure the hiring process is not discriminatory, a subject that is discussed in greater detail later in this paper.

Before delving deeper into major recruitment methods, this writer will briefly discuss the benefits of internal recruitment. Internal recruiting is often the process of hiring or promoting from within the organization. Internal methods are also considered motivation techniques that encourage employees to become more productive, which have also been found to reduce turnover. Employees who feel they are valued and those who are given the opportunity to advance or promote within the company are more likely to work hard, become more productive, and remain with the organization long term. Organizations that offer little incentive to advance risk losing employees and among those employees who do stay with the organization morale decreases to the point that the organization's business objectives are hindered.

Apart from internal recruiting, external recruiting offers managers a vehicle for enticing prospective employees based on specific requirements that must be met to qualify for a given position. The use of electronic recruiting resources is an excellent method of gathering information and obtaining permissions (e.g. permissions needed to conduct background searches, et al) while also organizing applicants according to gender, age, experience, and other related factors. For example, job applicants using the Monster employments system are categorized according to each company's preferences. If an organization is interested in receiving resumes or applications from individuals with a two-year degree and two years experience, the Monster system will recommend individuals based on these requirements. If a position is offered only to local candidates, this preference can be included as a requirement.

In addition to professional online recruiting resources, many organizations are turning to social media resources for soliciting potential employees. Facebook is becoming widely used for recruiting and, in fact, most organizations have a Facebook page that aids in promoting its product or service making the recruiting and hiring process easier. Not only can managers post position openings, they can also view applicants' individual Facebook profiles to get an idea of the individuals' personality and how he or she handles themselves with others. The creativity of the individual in his or her posts can provide insight into their potential as an employee as well. The way one presents themselves in social network situations is more realistic than the way they present themselves in the face to face interview. Managers can obtain a more accurate image of the individual's talent and potential in a matter of minutes.

While some managers have listed retention as a major obstacle, others claim that talent is becoming a problem in the recruitment process. A global lack of talent management is believed by some to be a large part of the problem with retaining high quality performers in the workplace. It is here that many organization begin to fail by being unprepared to handle the elements involved in the recruitment steps and to manage employees once a hiring decision is made. Collectively, "the least prepared organizations will not only find themselves at a significant disadvantage over time, but may lose critical momentum in trying to catch up to more advanced peers once recovery is in full swing" (Companies Worldwide).

Recruiting Minorities and Other Groups

With the enactment of several federal laws protecting workers from discrimination, organizations must be careful to ensure the recruitment process meets local, national, and global employment standards. Operating in the global market entails more than hiring and waiting for productivity to happen. Human resource managers must be on top of their roles in ways that work for the good of both the organization and the employee. When recruiting based on unique factors such as the recruitment of women, people with disabilities, older workers and minorities.

Recruiting methods can include the solicitation of biographical data that allows managers to categorize prospective employees. However, when making a hiring choice managers must be cautious to avoid the appearance of being discriminatory. For this reason, among others, the recruitment process must include a clear description of the job and the responsibilities the position entails. Some positions are more suitable for certain applicants but to refuse to hire an applicant because of gender, age, disability or ethnicity is discriminatory, unless the organization provides clear details that make it understood to all applicants that no everyone will be a match for a given position.

Prescreening resumes is an innovative means of reducing discrimination claims. By using recruiting resources (e.g. Monster or other external recruiting sources), organizations can pick prospective employees that it feels will be an asset in achieving organizational objectives. For example, if a corporation seeks to hire females between the ages of 30-45 with a Bachelor's degree, these preferences can be determined by the prescreening process. Organizations that conduct business that would not be suitable for an individual with a disability can prescreen these factors as well; however, it must be noted that many applicants are not required to disclose a disability unless it will put themselves or the company at risk. The same premise applies to all workers, especially when considering factors that may give the slightest appearance of discrimination.

Conclusion

Global competition makes it more important than ever to carefully screen prospective employees and take the collective recruiting process seriously. The methods of recruiting have become as advanced as the technology that drives them, but the end results are determined by the manual efforts of human resource managers. Furthermore, it is the manager's responsibility to ensure the recruitment process adheres to organizational policies while also ensuring that all legal requirements are met. By taking a close look at the organization's current and projected needs, managers will have a better understanding of what the recruitment process should entail.

The organization's strategic business plan is the starting point for determining its recruiting needs. Based on the roles and responsibilities within the organization managers will know which applicants are best suited for specific positions both for short and long term needs. However, there is much more to the recruitment process than announcing a position and beginning the interview phase. Organizations must know their prospective employee before the interview phase. Background checks and recruiting tests are beneficial in determining an applicants potential and in weeding out those who will not be a match for the organization, which saves the human resource manager valuable time.

When recruiting women, people with disabilities, older workers and minorities, managers must ensure the organization's recruitment and hiring processes do not present the slightest appearance of being discriminatory. All open positions should be clearly detailed to avoid organizational liability in the future. These issues are especially important in the global business world as applicants will come from a variety of backgrounds. Diversity in the workplace is a proven benefit to success. Determining how diversity will be used to benefit the organization, however, begins with the human resource manager.

References

70 Percent of HR Managers Concerned about Workforce Retention, According to Monster Study; Related Aberdeen Group Report Further Explores Worker Turnover. 2006. Business Wire.

Cole, M. S., et al. Recruiters' Inferences of Applicant Personality Based on ResumeScreening: Do Paper People have a Personality? J Bus Psychol 24, 5-18. Print.

Companies Worldwide View Talent as Biggest Obstacle to Future Growth, Towers Watson.

Survey Finds. 2010. Business Wire. Print.

Dickson, D. R., and Nusair, K. 2010. An HR perspective: the global hunt for talent in the digital age. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, Vol. 2, No. 1, 86. Print.

Edwards, J. 2011. CVS Pays $1.8M for Failing to Do a Google Search. BNet.

Jones, S. 2001. Going global: How international firms are using the Internet to recruit. Canadian HR Reporter, Dec 3, Vol. 14, No. 21, 21. Print.

Introduction

Globalization and advancing technologies have placed intercultural communication at the forefront of many discussions, some focusing on interaction, culture and cultural identity factors, ethics, training needs, interaction, and linguistic and cultural barriers. Discussions, however, stem from other major themes as information technology now effects intercultural communication in art, business, education, healthcare, and politics, among countless other areas. In this paper, however, discussion focuses on how commonly used technologies effect intercultural communication in business, education, and healthcare. An examination of the benefits and disadvantages will generate an understanding of how the use of technologies in the global community can both improve and hinder progressive intercultural communication. As such, the central focus in this paper stems from this writer's claim that technology, when understood and used properly and ethically, is tool that benefits the individual and national and international communities.

Culture and Cultural Identity in Communication

When one thinks about intercultural communication the first though generally related to language but other factors are involved in the collective scope of intercultural communication. In many countries, particularly the US, language varies among different cultures in both verbal and physical communication traits. Because cultural diversity is such a big issue in today's world, professionals in all industries must be educated on how to handle all types of language and communication issues. At first glance, language and communication barriers appear to relate primarily to those who do not speak English (or other native language), but it encompasses so much more.

According to the University of Southern California, culture is comprehensive. However, what is acceptable for one culture may not be for another. Despite what some may believe, culture is learned and often "manifested within boundaries of acceptable behavior" (par. 3). Some cultural barriers include the limitations of conscious awareness of cultural standards (e.g. what is acceptable in the US might be illegal or embarrassing in another country).

Furthermore, cultures are constantly subject to change, but that does not necessarily mean that change will occur. The most commonly perceived language difference is the context of verbal communication; however, nonverbal communication-specifically through technology-can impact language issues as much as, if not more than, verbal barriers.

Culture is linked to ideas, beliefs, and customs that can include many factors (e.g. how a person speaks, carries themselves, what they eat, the laws of their culture, et al). Language is an expressive form of thinking that can be a benefit or a barrier when dealing with different cultures. Furthermore, language is important when passing down elements of a culture from generation to generation. When some elements are lost, the culture changes, and as a result, the way one communicates between cultures also changes. The changes also impact learning, whether the learning process takes place in the academic or business setting. For this reason, among others, it is important to learn the differences in the way language is used in different cultures.

Diversity among cultures is common in today's world. Simply because an organization or business is located in the US does not mean its owners or workers are of the American culture. The ability to communicate by verbal language skills and nonverbal communication methods is important to maintain positive and productive cross-cultural relationships. For example, when dining in a Chinese restaurant one will generally adhere to the customs of the Chinese whether that is in how one sits during a meal or by the types of food eaten or the dishes on which the meal is served. In the same sense, cross-cultural business relationships require the understanding of language differences that may be a barrier to effective communication. For example, if it is customary to address someone by his or her full name (e.g. John Doe), addressing them as John may be offensive. If the difference is presumed offensive, the outcome may be a severed business relationship or, if the offense is perceived as extreme, it may cause the individual to refuse to conduct business in a given area or country altogether.

While some may perceive the learning of another culture as a hindrance, especially when the new culture is coming into one's home country (e.g. Hispanic culture doing business in the US), understanding different cultures can be one of the most beneficial tools to strengthening cross-cultural relationships. The diversity among languages and cultures enriches other cultures and gives each party a tool for being more productive whether the efforts are in personal, academic, or business settings.

Choosing the appropriate words and language when engaged in intercultural communication is important at all times. Determining the appropriate language varies by culture. Paying someone a compliment is viewed as positive language use in the US but, again, it may be offensive to other cultures. Silence may be interpreted as respectful or disrespectful or even refusal, depending on the culture. A good practice in cross-cultural communication is to know what to say and how to present it, particularly with regard to language tone. These same traits and efforts apply when using technology in intercultural communication-perhaps even more-as the parties generally cannot see the physical reactions that accompany language through technology.

Technologies

Among the most common and widely used technologies in today's cultural community are email, the Internet (e.g. websites), and social media (e.g. Facebook, blogs). Globalization has grown so rapidly that people around the world are more connected to each other than ever before. Most industries-including business, education and healthcare-network email, websites and social media services in a centrally located area, the most common area being the organization's website. By providing a central location for users to access these collective features and services, the organization can essentially streamline its communication and collaboration efforts (Bosley, 1993). However, each type of technology has unique-though often combined-functions that, when misused, can present communication barriers and decrease the intended productivity of the technology. Email and social networks (e.g. Facebook), for example, are two predominantly quick methods to communicate with individuals and organizations from virtually any location in the world. However, some users do not understand the intercultural communication disadvantages that might arise. Unlike some websites that offer a translation option (e.g. English, Spanish, French), most email and social networking services are designed according to the initial user's domestic language and preferences, commonly recognized as the default language or setting. As such, the risks for misinterpretation or communication issues increase.

Technology in Business, Education and Healthcare

In regard to the Internet and websites, it is important to understand the use of intranets or networks which are common in business, education, and healthcare industries. Business, for example, use networked services to provide information to clients, to enable instant communication options, and to make is easier to perform global business transactions. At present, only select businesses have global websites (or mirror sites) where users from across the globe can access the organization's information and services in their native language. eBay, for one, does offer mirror sites where users from different countries can use the website's services. Multinational corporations (e.g. Wal-Mart) have similar capabilities. However, general business websites are typically available in English with limited-if any-availability for Spanish speaking users.

In general terms, as the business culture continues to change, many organizations are quickly realizing that diverse groups require diverse policies, particularly in industries where geographical changes are constant such as global businesses. The impact of demographic characteristics and cultural diversity on behavior depends greatly on the organization's leadership structure and individual leader's abilities to manage their team while introducing the unknown. Often times, a group's failure to advance to or thrive as a high-performance team is hindered through a "fault line" that is concerned with the attributes of several team members simultaneously and mirror the structure of diversity within a team" (Molleman). The fault line can be demographic or cultural in nature; however, technology can remedy the fault line if understood and applied in ways that enhance intercultural communication. When these characteristics are not understood and technology is not implemented in a way that fosters a cooperative effort, the strength of the fault line increases, creating similarities and dissimilarities that work against one another.

Education

While the global business world is adapting to the increasing needs for intercultural communication abilities, education tends to lag behind. Sadly, however, education has rapidly evolved to such a degree that many colleges and universities offer online courses and programs for students around the world but few have the technological capabilities of providing a bilingual classroom experience. Similarly, many online education networks are presented in English with some Spanish capabilities, which hinders effective communication among students from other nationalities. While most online colleges and universities teach some form intercultural courses, the ability for non-American students to communicate remains a dilemma. Georgetown University, for one, offers an online Intercultural Communication and Technology (ICCT) Learning Community, designed to explore topics that reflect the faculty and student's "concern and fascination with the state of the world and the significance of intercultural communication in deciphering and contributing to its complexity" (Intercultural Communication).

In an effort to examine the current situation and the possible future avenues of education in Bulgaria and the role of intercultural education in it, one study reveals the development of a Helpdesk designed to recognized the socializing benefits of schooling in "developing knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviors in future citizens" (Katsarska, p. 159). Katsarska's study, which can be beneficial to the international education community, introduces an evaluation model that "elaborates on the evaluation criteria and the evaluative zones with which the existing learning materials are reviewed" (p. 160). Collectively, these efforts focus on developing young people who "express their complex cultural identities and are comfortable with them; understand and respect cultural diversity around them; possess the necessary skills and positive attitudes for effective intercultural communication and understanding; and become active and responsible citizens in their respective communities, in Bulgaria, Europe and the world" (p. 162). The author further believes that by applying these concepts and goals in evaluating curriculum and educating students, these efforts will be "the starting point for an educational orientation of school documentation towards developing positive attitudes towards communication and intercultural understanding of differences related to race, ethnicity, language, religion, sexual orientation, etc." (p. 165).

Similar to the need to increase training for business managers and employees, educators must continue toward the examination and implementation of adequate training sessions and materials that improve teacher/student communication and increase levels of success for students in the intercultural environment. Pittman stressed the importance of examining and understand the "literature and a tech-infused multicultural learning community to identify what a unified cultural-convergence theory might consist of and how it could be shaped to align instructional technology and critical ICE in teacher education" (p. 200). By reforming teacher education and making better use of the technologies available, Pittman (2007) further explains that teachers will be better prepared for "a more globally diverse and complex educational environment will require integrating information technologies to draw connections between instructional technology and multicultural education (MCE)" (p. 200).

Healthcare

In the healthcare industry, intercultural communication has become important as patients today come from diverse cultures and backgrounds, making effective communication paramount to the delivery of quality healthcare services. However, there are aspects of technology that have enhanced the collective global healthcare community's ability to share information related to issues such as gender and health disparities. In general terms, technology has enhanced intercultural communication by making patient information available through facility networks where patients can access medical records, appointment notices, and, in some areas, communicate with the provider regarding certain health care topics. In the healthcare industry, technologies have had a positive effect on intercultural communication in ways that some physical discussions do or cannot, specifically by making it possible for patients to access information in their native language or to correspond with a translator. However, it is important to mention, the introduction of HIPAA has changed the way information is obtained, shared, and stored and further changed the way the healthcare industry operates.

As the use of technology has evolved, the increased efforts under HIPAA guidelines have been made easier for the medical professional and the patient. The Internet, for one, has become a priceless tool for maintaining information databases that enable quick and easy access for health care professionals and patients seeking to update account information, make payments, add insurance coverage, and schedule appointments, to name a few. Specifically, ongoing trends include the use of email, telemedicine, and the electronic transfer of records.

Telemedicine is an impressive trend but remains "largely unproven [for] providing case management services to patients with chronic conditions and lower access to care" (Shea, p. 446). Electronic health records (EHR) is a growing trend that is used by more than 38% of all office-based physicians and is expected to increase significantly. Specifically, the use of EHR enables quick retrieval, access, and transfer of health records both internal and external to the organization and improves communication standards for intercultural patients. Interestingly, in 2008, international Internet users totaled 21.2% of the world's population and 3.4 billion (about 50%) of the world's population were mobile phone subscribers. The growing mobile technologies are integral to Telecare providers' ability to "decentralize and extend their reach to remote settings as well as to individual members with a comparatively smaller investment in technology infrastructure" (How, par. 4). While Internet users comprise a great number of individuals accessing health care information, the majority of information users are linked to some form of mobile technology. In fact, the advancements in mobile technology has given many of the same perks to mobile users as were formally afforded to Internet users and further enhance intercultural communication.

Ethics of Technology and Intercultural Communication

Ethics and technology is not a new combination nor is it a forgotten concern among individuals and organizations that opt to engage in the use of various technologies for communicating with others. Similarly, a number of ethical issues are involved when technology and intercultural communication are merged. As discussed earlier, there are issues pertaining to understand other cultures and the diversity of merging cultures through technology; however, privacy and legal issues are also a large element that, when ignored or not understood, can lead to significant conflicts and potential legal consequences. As such, it is vital that both individual and organizational users understand that technology is not only a beneficial tool to enhance intercultural communication but it can be a barrier in itself when used improperly.

The term improperly fits many contexts but herein it applies to incorrect use because of inadequate or lack of training-a common dilemma with individual use and among many smaller organizations. For individuals, using technologies in intercultural communications involves being respective of each party's cultural differences in ways that promote unity and avoid unethical behavior or conversation. For organizations, the uses are more complex and must involve various learning stages and processes of training that typically begins at the human resources level and extends throughout all levels of the organization. Since there is a strong link between human resources and cultures in the growing global work environment, the importance of linking human resources management to the understanding of cultural and multicultural work environments is a first step. The objective of these links is to address the common problems associated with cross cultural working environments: communication, management, and continued training. The changes of the globalized organization are constant and the objectives of human resources must be constantly evolving to meet the growing cultural demands in ways that enhance the organization's work environment and meets overall productivity needs.

Conclusion

Through out this paper, this writer has worked to extensively discuss how technologies are used and the benefits and disadvantages of use in business, education and healthcare with regard to intercultural communication. The growth of globalization has increased the use of advanced technologies in all industry, particularly in business, education and healthcare. The levels of interaction available through technologies such as email, the Internet and social networking has led many researchers to examine how these advancements effect intercultural communication. Collectively, the use across all industries has been impressive but the collective sources examined in this paper stress the importance of self-education and training to ensure users (individuals and organizations) understand the cultural difference among users in the global setting and how this understanding will ultimately enhance communication in ways that seamlessly unite people and business around the world. Further, ethical concerns generally stem from failure to understand cultural differences and legal issues that apply to global technology and communication practices. Overall, however, the sources examine support this writer's belief that technologies positively enhance intercultural communication and serve as a bridge between nations where people from various cultures and backgrounds can share innovative ideas and, in some cases, simply connect to learn more about life and culture in other nations.

REFERENCES

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Communication, Culture and Technology. Georgetown University.

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Shea, S., et al. (A Randomized Trial Comparing Telemedicine Case Management with Usual Care in Older, Ethnically Diverse, Medically Underserved Patients with Diabetes Mellitus: 5 Year Results of the IDEATel Study. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association 16(4), 446-456.

Most of the students that I have been handling lately seem to all suffer from the same problem. They cannot remember the English term for words that they are quite familiar with in their native tongue. This had me worried because in class, they could easily tell me the vernacular equivalent of the English word that I was teaching them. This started me on wondering about whether I have been teaching them how to learn English words in the most efficient way. I came to the realization that no, I wasn't really doing the students a good service by insisting that they memorize the English words coming from their local dialect. I decided to switch things around and see what would happen.

I started off my next class by having the students read the words in English and then having them translate the words to the language they were used to speaking. I gave them a print-out of an English beginner's story and gave the instruction that they were to translate the English words to their language.

After they did this, I gave them some homework. I provided them with copies of the article we used in class to take home with them then asked them to use Google Translate to change what they had written in their native language to English. I was not concerned about accuracy at this point, I was only concerned with helping them remember the English words in the best manner possible. The next day, when they reported to class, I had them tell me the English equivalent of certain words in their language. Words that I knew were contained in the translation exercises that we did the day before. I was amazed by the results.

The students managed to retain the information regarding the English equivalent of the words from the previous exercise. Where I used to struggle with reminding them of the word equivalent or how to memorize it, now they had confidence in their translation and they knew the exact word to use for the English term. Based upon this exercise, I began to change the way I taught them the language.

By always having them translate English to their mother tongue, it became easier for them to remember the words. In this case, word equivalency paid off big time and I did not have to make them waste Post-It notes writing the English equivalent of items around their house. Pretty soon, they had memorized the words enough in English to automatically know how to use it properly in a sentence. All because their brains now associated the English words with other language equivalents. Now, they truly understood the meaning of the English word and how to use it in a sentence because they had the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the English words in their native equivalent words first.

The students were pleased with the results of my adjusted teaching method. They continued the practice on their own and they began to show an advancement of English grammar skills and vocabulary within the month. I could not be prouder of my students. They all passed their English tests when the time came, with the highest possible marks for their English reading, listening, and writing skills.

Overview and Purpose of the Study

The problem addressed by this study is related to the mentorship and education of students in the communication sciences and disorders curriculum. There is concern that there could be a decrease in the number of speech-language pathologists available for the long-term. The specific problem is related to the unknown effect of not allowing undergraduate and graduate clinic internship hours to be counted toward ASHA certification.

The ASHA has proposed that there be a reduction or complete nullification in counting student intern and clinical hours toward their certification. The policy mandate is still pending and the effect this may have on the future pool of SLPs is not known. The basic objectives of this study are as follows:

1. To examine the attitudes of SLP and CS&D professionals toward proposed nullification of college-level clinic and intern hours as counting toward ASHA certification.

2. To understand how such attitudes of these professionals tends to bridge the knowledge gap as identified in this study.

3. To elucidate those factors or variables associated with the professional's attitudes toward such a policy (demographics, field of practice, etc.).

4. To cross-examine those identified factors or variables from objective #4 against attitudes from such professionals on the future of the SLP and CS&D profession.

5. To recommend future avenues for research in this topic of study.

This research has significant implications with regard to SLP learning. The proposed changes could discourage students from learning in an experiential setting such as a clinic or practicum. This means they will be less likely to comprehend how the theories they are learning in the classroom can be applied in a real-life situation. This could result in students who are not as skilled at applying theories in their work with clients. This becomes a quality of care issue for those being served by the SLPs.

Several studies have indicated that there is a wide variety of advantages for internships and practicums. Some of these advantages include helping newly graduated students avoid feeling overwhelmed due to a lack of experience. The experience gained in the internship or practicum allows them to feel more comfortable with the role as an SLP. In other words, it is not sufficient for the newly graduated SLP practitioner to be fully versed in theories, but have no practical experience.

Elaboration and Interpretation of the Findings as Related to the Research Questions

This was a mixed methods study with both a qualitative and quantitative portion. Therefore, there is a research question which corresponds to both portions of the study. The research questions are as follows:

QUANTITATIVE:

R1: Can the attitudes toward the nullification policy by CS&D and SLP professionals predict a potential outcome upon the future of the profession?

QUALITATIVE:

R2: What factors does an SLP/CS&D professional see as significant toward maintaining a skilled and talented professional base?

With regard to the quantitative question, over 50% of the respondents indicated that the lack of a mentor associated with a practicum or clinical experience reduced the chances of a positive outcome for the SLP and CS&D.

The qualitative question was answered through the responses to the interviews. Question 3 asked the respondents about their perceptions regarding the quality of the profession of SLP as it now exists. There was a wide variety of answers from the respondents. These ranged from a positive assessment such as "very intelligent" to "quality is lacking within certain settings." There was an overall favorable response to the question with a caveat that not all SLPs were providing quality services.

Question 4 asks about the respondent's opinion of the professional organizations. All the respondents mentioned the ASHA. There were two respondents to mention the NBASHLA. Only one of the respondents indicated a relatively neutral feeling about the importance of these organizations. The remainder of the respondents believed that the organizations gave them support, opportunities for networking, and a way to stay updated with regard to advances in the profession.

Question 15 asks the respondents to indicate what they believed the effect would be of eliminating practicums or internships for students learning to be SLPs. Without exception, the respondents indicated that elimination of the internship and practicum would result in negative effects on the profession. Generally, the respondents believed that the students would be unprepared to work in the field if they had not experienced an internship or practicum. A long-term concern was voiced by one of the respondents who indicated that the entire profession could come under criticism due to a lack of quality services to clients. There was agreement among these respondents that without the internships and practicum, the new batch of students would be ill-prepared to provide quality services to clients.

Conclusions

Both the qualitative and quantitative analysis indicate that the SLP as well as the CS&D professions will suffer if the ASHA adopts its proposed policy of no longer providing credit for internships and clinical practicum with regard to ASHA certification. This result is what would be expected according to previous studies.

There are a number of reasons that internships are vital for the SLP and CS&D professions. One of the most important advantages of an internship is that it allows students to gain actual work experience. This means it is much more likely that the graduate will be able to locate a job when their degree is earned. Most employers are reticent to hire students who have little job experience in the field. However, there are often happy to hire students who have successfully completed internships and have strong recommendations from those they have worked with.

Many times an internship will provide an opportunity for a first-time job seeker. Employers often view the interns as possible employees and may offer positions when the internship is completed. In fact, internships are one of the most common ways for employers to locate staff with advanced degrees. The intern can conceptualize the experience as being a long interview and evaluation.

Another significant advantage of the internships in SLP and CS&D is that they allow students to determine how well they are suited for the profession. Many times, studying a subject in the classroom is quite a bit different than working in the profession for which the knowledge can be used. The internship is a time-limited situation in which a student can determine if they enjoy working in the profession. There can also be more specific instances than the entire profession. For example, an intern may learn that they do not enjoy working with young children. However, they may be especially skilled at working with adolescents with speech problems. Another intern may find that their bilingual skills are particularly suited for immigrants with speech difficulties.

There is a significant psychological factor involved with internships in the SLP and CS&D professions. As the student can apply their classroom knowledge, they can earn praise from those at the work site. Over time, this builds confidence in their skills regarding the profession. This means that the student will be more confident when are asked in a job interview if they believe they can successfully meet the demands of a job.

Context of the Findings in Relation to the Literature

The findings of this study that internships and practicums are an important part of learning for SLPs as well as CS&D students match findings in the literature. For example, Gregory pointed out that a significant aspect of oncogenic learning involves sensory experiences. Information gained in this way is generally better retained. The traditional coursework approach involves high volumes of material with low sensory input. The internships and practicums provide focused information with high levels of sensorial input. This type of learning is more likely to be retained and incorporated into behaviors.

A study done by Caracciolo, Morrison, & Rigrodsky investigated the perceptions of supervisors and undergraduate students with regard to growth in the SLP field. They discovered that there was a relationship between supervision, experience, and the clinical effectiveness of students entering the field. The study concentrated on the need for undergraduate students to be provided with practicum opportunities and supervision. The students reported a positive relationship with their supervisor. They were found to appreciate constructive criticism.

Research done by Ciocci & Miller found that growth of individuals entering a profession was partially determined by the experiences they had with their supervisors during the clinical practicum. The SLP students were discovered to have significant advantages with regard to learning how to apply the theories and concepts from the classroom to the actual work setting. The study supported the idea that having a practicum or internship in which the SLP student maintains a positive relationship with their supervisor, is associated with higher levels of professional growth.

There is evidence from other professional fields, which highlights the importance of mentoring for students becoming professionals. One framework for understanding the importance of mentoring is the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT). According to SCCT, the factors of reaching achievement goals, interest development, and self-efficacy are important with regard to career choice. According to the SCCT model the background of the student and their experiences will lead to formation of certain self-perceptions and self-efficacy with regard to professional interests. These levels of self-efficacy and self-perceptions lead to certain goals in life. With regard to the SLP student becoming a professional, their developmental background and history interacts with the internship or practicum to help them become a more skilled professional.

Implications of Findings

It was noted in the introduction to this study that there is an increasing trend for universities and colleges to no longer count the clinical practicums and internships as part of the requirements for clinical hours in achieving certification by the ASHA. This results in a situation in which many SLP and CS&D students are discouraged from participating in these work-study situations. This is especially troubling since this study and the literature in general, point out the importance of internships and clinical practicums. In fact, there are some who believe the entire profession will suffer as graduating students will be unprepared to apply their knowledge. This could then lead to situations in which SLP professionals provide poor quality services and the reputation of the profession suffers.

The ASHA began accrediting graduate programs in speech-language pathology and audiology during 1965. These accreditations are now handled by the Council on Academic Accreditation in Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology (CAA). This type of accreditation is essential for graduate programs to attract skilled students. Unaccredited programs are generally not taken seriously, and students have difficulties practicing upon graduation. Therefore, the policies of the ASHA, which apply to the CAA, are crucial in determining the type of education the majority of SLP programs will provide. If no internship or clinical practicum is necessary for accreditation, many institutions will no longer provide this training. This is because the one-to-one mentoring relationship associated with this approach is more expensive than traditional classroom teaching.

Eliminating the internship or clinical practicum is likely to do considerable damage to the SLP and CS&D professions in the long run. Students would no longer be able to take advantage of work experience during school. This decreases the likelihood that these graduates will secure gainful employment once they have completed their degrees. Most employers are hesitant to hire individuals who do not have work experience. This means many of the graduates would be unable to find employment in the profession and never gain the work experience necessary to be hired. This would result in a high unemployment rate among graduates from SLP and CS&D programs. This is likely to reduce the number of individuals interested in the profession.

Limitations of the Study

This study used information gained from both questionnaires and interviews. Both approaches have specific strengths and limitations.

The interview is often limited by the skill level of the interviewer. In the case of this study, the interviews were done by the researcher. While every effort was made by the researcher not to give unconscious signals or cues to the respondent, there is no way to know with certainty that this did not occur and affect the responses to the interview.

Another limitation of the interview approach is that it is expensive and time-consuming. Considerable time and effort were devoted to interview a mere eight subjects. The same amount of time and effort spent on an online survey could have yielded thousands of respondents. While the information gained in the interviews was qualitative and does not suffer from statistical power problems, there are, nevertheless, limitations created by the small number of subjects. For example, it could be that the subjects interviewed are not representative of the general population of SLP professionals.

A significant drawback to the interview method for gathering information is that one can never be certain if the respondents are answering questions truthfully. There is a plethora of reasons those being interviewed may not answer any truthful manner. Some of these reasons are not conscious. For example, some people may not have accurate recall of the information being sought. This is especially problematic as this study involves questions regarding experiences when the respondents were in school, which may have been several years in the past.

Those responding to an interview can psychologically view the opportunity as a method of explaining their behavior. In other words, the interview allows the subject to reflect on previous behaviors and make sense of what was done. There is often a significant amount of rationalization involved with this type of response, which may lead to inaccurate data. This is not a conscious lie, as the person will believe that they are providing truthful information. However, the explanation given for the behavior may be significantly different than that which was experienced at the time by the respondent.

The questionnaire approach to gain information also has its disadvantages. The questionnaire is a format in which it can be difficult to gather information regarding complex opinions and issues. This is especially true when open-ended questions are not used. The respondents must answer in a limited fashion which may miss the richness and detail of the actual opinion.

Whether the questionnaire is delivered in the traditional postal fashion, or it is done online, the researcher can never be completely sure who has answered the questionnaire. The problems with this situation with regard to this study are obvious. If the questionnaire which was sent out by the ASHA was not completed by a SLP or CS&D professional, the information is likely to be wholly inaccurate.

Another problem with the questionnaire approach is that the researcher is not physically present when the respondent answers to questions. This can lead to situations in which the respondent does not fully understand the question. It can also lead to different respondents interpreting the question in distinctive ways.

A final problem of the questionnaire is that the sample of respondents may be self-selecting. In other words, since there were not 100% response rates to the questionnaire, there is no way to know for certain if this significantly affected the results. For example, the professionals who answered the questionnaire could be different in some way from the general population of professionals.

Recommendations for Future Research and Practice

It is recommended that institutions training students to become SLP or CS&D professionals have significant programs for internships or clinical practicums. This means there may need to be a push by interested parties such as groups of SLP or CS&D professionals to require educational institutions to offer these programs for accreditation.

A recommendation for further research is to investigate the precise amount of clinical practicum or internship training, which is optimal for learning. This study established that it is not advisable to eliminate the internship or practicum. Clearly, it is not likely to be desirable to do the opposite and have only an internship or practicum and no coursework. The best approach will most likely be something between these extremes. Research could be done to determine the optimum level of coursework versus practical experience.

References

ASHA (2012). American Speech-Language-Hearing Association | ASHA.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.

Biber, S. N. (2010). Mixed methods research: merging theory with practice. New York: Guilford Press.

Morse, J. M., & Niehaus, L. (2009). Mixed method design: principles and procedures. Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press.

While the Republic takes on a number of philosophical issues, its overt goal is to argue against Thrasymachus' claim that the life of injustice is more worthwhile than the life of justice. Present Plato's argument and evaluate its success. In your assessment refer to Plato's concept of dikaiosune translated into justice or morality, and the way both meanings relate to each other.

Introduction

Justice, in Thrasymachus' opinion, constitutes of the interests of those in power. Thrasymachus argues that people in power make laws that ought to be obeyed by subjects of a given state, for their benefits. Injustice is therefore portrayed as a more worthwhile course as compared to justice, in that people in power profit from conducting unscrupulous activities and passing partisan laws, which enable them to accumulate wealth and increase their power. In contrast, the just indulge in fair activities aimed at enhancing the common good of every individual, hence failing to take advantage of profitable opportunities in the name of being 'just'. Thraymachus' claim can be interpreted as an issue of justice and morality; which Plato referred to as dikaiosune. Justice in the sense that rulers often create laws aimed at serving their self-interests, and morality in the sense that laws passed by those in power may be against societal principles.

Notably, the argument on injustice as a worthwhile course relative to justice was laid forward by Thrasymachus, a sophist. At the time, sophists were individuals who taught concepts for a fee, regardless of the validity of the claims they presented. They were argumentative and assertive people, who often applied dishonest techniques to win arguments, such as employing non-logical and unreasonable discussions. The outcome of such a discussion was the obnoxious claim of the value and usefulness of injustice over justice.

Justice and Injustice

During the ancient Greek civilization, early philosophers indulged in heated debates regarding the benefits of justice and injustice. With justice referring to fairness and the right treatment for all, in our present world, and injustice constituting all negative aspects of justice; justice, as argued by Thrasymachus prevailed over justice. Thrasymachus fails to speak for the people and identifies justice with the law by arguing that injustice is having a good judgment, while in power. Notably, injustice to him is not a virtue but only attempts to explain that complete injustice profits more than complete justice. Thrasymachus supports his claim by giving an example of a ruler who subjects a whole nation under his control. Such a ruler profits much from having control over the city, unlike a just individual who works hard daily yet profits less. Individuals in power who use their authority to embezzle a nation's wealth for their interests are described as completely unjust. However, their unjust nature is more worthwhile as compared to a just ruler who leaves office without having committed unjust activities to serve his interests. Thrasymachus further argues that a person who enslaves others, and commits all manner of ill activities is called happy and blessed in the society, not only by those he rules but by all who hear his unjust actions. The point made by Thrasymachus as a normal condemnation of injustice is not an outright admiration of justice being worthwhile. The motive behind injustice is viewed as a necessary factor for a ruler to achieve power and control, and with control, people overlook the evil and focus on the achievements of the unjust.

Thrasymachus is of the view that power, ruling and injustice go hand in hand. It is not a mere empirical fact that those in power are unjust, it was a fact in Greece. For example, Thrasymachus who was not a citizen of Athens appears to have admiration on the unjust, and the benefits they reaped from their actions. Justice, as he explains is a virtue and the good for another, but justice in the end always works for the advantage of the rulers and the stronger, and thus causing personal injuries to the subjects. Justice, in this case, has been described as the cause of injustice which the strong use to rule over the just and the simple. In his mind, Thrasymachus has essential exploitable actions of the just, which are used by the unjust for their advantage. Transactions such as business deals, distribution of wealth and social goods, and state taxation are expected to be fair dealings; unfortunately, with the motive of power and acquiring more wealth than others in the society, the unjust benefit from the actions of the just. Therefore, Thrasymachus argues that the doing good of another can be interpreted as doing what will be of benefit to the rulers. For instance, policies and laws enacted by rulers may be right for the people, but in the end tend to become the criteria for what is right among citizens, because of the rulers' ability to enforce them.

Thrasymachus believes that all human beings seek to satisfy their desires. His claim is supported by the mere fact of laws and policies enacted for the benefit of the strong, which subject the simple and just to the unjust' ill motives. Glaucon, also part of discussion argues that justice or the law come into being when the majority - in most cases the weak- come together to protect themselves from the attacks of the weak. Glaucon's claims somewhat support Thrasymachus argument, since he is of the opinion that justice is not good, natural and neither is it choice worthy. He claims that most individuals prefer satisfying their desires, contrary to being subject to the desires of the others, which may also lead the just into unjust decisions. They achieve this by settling for customs and laws (nomos) that will prevent them from acting on their desires, but also shield them from the evil desires of others. However, these laws are used by the strong for political control and manipulation of the just. The policies and laws declared as just by the people become appropriate avenues for political arrangements of the strong. Punishment, for instance, is just in the eyes of subjects on the grounds that unlawful behavior damages the common good and thus ought to be punished. In the reality, however, punishment is used by the strong, not for common good, but as an enforcer to the obedience of rules set by the strong in an attempt to safeguard the 'good of the rulers'. Being just, in this case also, is a state of serving the interests of the strong in the society.

Rulers and Crafts

Socrates objects to Thrasymachus claims by stating that craftsmen are concerned with the benefit of their objects. For instance, doctors are concerned with the welfare of their patients rather than their personal welfare. Similarly, a ruler is concerned with the well-being of his subjects and not with his personal well-being. Socrates is of the opinion that justice provided by a ruler exercising a ruling craft does not focus on the ruler's interest. He supports his claim by explaining a case of a shepherd who works hard to fatten his sheep for their sake. However, his illustration is opposed by Thrasymachus who explains that not every craft is designed for the benefit of the object. He points out that shepherds fatten their sheep, not to benefit the sheep but to profit from the sale of the sheep.

To further object to Thrasymachus claims, Socrates demonstrates that rulers are likely to make mistakes in their attempt to profit, which is likely to create justice, hence benefit the weak. However, Thrasymachus responds through stating that true professionals do not make mistakes, and since rulers are true professionals, there can never exist a strong individual capable of being mistaken about what is to their advantage and on how to pursue it. Such a mistake would signify a weakness on their part since it is their capacity to pursue what is to their advantage, which makes the rulers strong and in control.

Interestingly, Thrasymachus succeeds in countering Socrates objection due to its weakness. Socrates craftsmen theory appears weak since he refers to rulers as professionals to their clients, which is not the case. Also, Socrates' argument that craftsmen always work towards the benefit of their objects is not entirely true. Craftsmen do not undertake their daily work responsibility to create justice in the society. To a larger extent, professionals are driven by the desire to enhance their social wellbeing, such as their status and wealth. However, Socrates claim is not entirely refutable since there are craftsmen who work for the benefit of their clients. These professionals include individuals who quit high paying jobs to dedicate their lives to the less advantaged in the society.

Justice and Morality

Justice and injustice discussion as brought out by Socrates and Thrasymachus introduces the concept of dikaiosune, which means justice and morality. At the end of the heated debate, Thrasymachus notes that states would reach levels of excellence through just actions; and that adopting a just life would be more worthwhile as compared to being unjust. In their discussion, it was noted that most people in the society fail to practice justice out of the fear of what may befall them. Likewise, unjust people present themselves as being just to cover their corrupt affairs. In that respect, wrong judgments in regard to how we relate to people are the foundation of morality. Morality arises from the very essence of a man, who obliges another to act in a just way. However, Thrasymachus' claim appears to subordinate the importance of justice, as the moral principle that governs relationships between people in society. He fails to demonstrate the moral good in justice and the moral evil in injustice. In relation to morality, justice can never be done to cause harm to another. Justice as morality is self-sufficient and ensures the happiness of every individual. Justice constitutes virtues that involve the knowledge of doing good, and the avoidance of evil in the society. A moral life entails breaking away from the selfish pursuit of gratification, materialism, and pleasure while causing harm to others. In most cases, acting fairly entails a sacrifice or loss on the part of the doer, which is a complete contradiction to Thrasymachus' argument. Justice involves redressing wrongs committed by punishing criminals and eliminating all opportunities for the unjust to take part in unfair practices. Such punishments are conducted with the belief that the knowledge of good is common sense to every individual. This belief implies that there is a rational way through which people determine what is objectively good and what is evil. However, according to the theory of ethical relativism, there are no universally accepted moral values, but rather, morals principles are isolated to specific cultures or individual choice. Therefore, certain morals may be valid in one culture but unacceptable in other. The varying cultures thus implies that the conflicting behaviors of people in different societies, should not be judged by one who is estranged to it.

The contention between Thrasymachus and Socrates claims may, therefore, be attributed to their different cultures since the former was a foreigner in Athens. Socrates, unlike Thrasymachus advocates for the greater good of the society through the application of just ways by rulers. In contrast, Thrasymachus advocates for injustice as a means to profit, while at the same time ignoring moral principles of fairness. However, it is unclear whether Thrasymachus' claims were motivated by the sole desire to win the argument, since, as a sophist, he had to employ all tactics to persuade others. In addition, Plato may have used Thrasymachus in his work -the Republic- to air his political views on the worthiness of justice and injustice. Notably, Thrasymachus fails to appear in the following chapters of the book, in spite of his significant contribution and arguments.

Thrasymachus' claims fail to acknowledge the very essence of people in power, which is to attend to the common good of all citizens. His arguments on the worthiness of injustice are contradictory to moral principles and tend to support the tyranny and the evils of injustice. Socrates on the other hand presents a fair argument that supports justice as a worthy course for the happiness of all people in the community. However, Socrates failure to present his case leads to the triumph of Thrasymachus' distorted views on the worthiness of injustice. Nonetheless, Thrasymachus' ability to persuade does not necessarily mean that his entire claims are believable. Notably, his claims on unjust people having power are true even in our present generation. However, such people do not enjoy a lasting power as compared to the just. Injustice often ends in failure and disgrace, while justice creates peace, happiness, and respect among people. Evidently, injustice profits individuals, while justice profits the whole society. Therefore, Thrasymachus claims may somewhat be true, since the life of injustice is worthwhile, only that it benefits a few individuals. However, the life of justice is most valuable and rewarding, since it focuses on the common good of every person, both the just and the unjust.

References

Kupperman, J. J. (2012). Theories of Human Nature, And, Human Nature: A Reader. Hackett Pub Co Inc.

Lycos, K. (1987). Plato on justice and power: Reading Book I of Plato's Republic. Albany, N.Y: State University of New York Press.

Zuckert, C. H. (2009). Plato's philosophers: The coherence of the dialogues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Despite the seeming large-scale corporate takeover of the world's businesses, the reality is that small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and entrepreneurial ventures (henceforth known as "EVs" in this essay) are still an integral part of the economies of most nations. "In the USA, 98 per cent of businesses have fewer than 100 employees, while in Denmark the figure is 97 per cent. SMEs comprise 99 per cent of UK businesses.Thus, it is critical for leaders and managers of SMEs and EVs to understand the various marketing and promotional tools at their disposal, not just because they are competing with the "big boys," but also because they are competing with each other, both nationally and, increasingly, internationally.

However, the primary marketing challenge facing SMEs and EVs as compared with larger corporations is the lack of a large marketing budget. Given the ubiquitous nature of SMEs and EVs, particularly those that seek a presence in the Internet marketplace, it is critical for leaders of such organisations to understand the various marketing (promotional) techniques that fall within their budgets.

This essay will examine and analyse the current research into marketing as performed by SMEs and EVs: how strategies have evolved, which ones work, and which ones do not. To do so, first a broad overview and analysis of current and evolving marketing strategies for SMEs and EVs will be presented. Next, case studies will be discussed to illustrate the points made in the literature review as well as to support the thematic analysis. Finally, conclusions will be reached as to the general themes discovered in the process of the review of current literature, and what implications this might have for the future of marketing for SMEs and EVs.

Marketing for SMEs and Entrepreneurial Ventures: Current and Evolving Strategies

BRAND BUILDING

In terms of current marketing strategies for SMEs and EVs, branding stands out as one of the most important, and most effective.

Company differentiation [for SMEs] cannot be achieved purely through classic economic ingredients such as advertising, sales force effort, changes to product design and product differentiation... Therefore, managers must optimise the brand value chain rather than the product value chain.(Lassen, Kunde & Gioia 2008: 96)

A full discussion of building a brand is beyond the scope of this essay; however, it is common knowledge that a strong brand is key to any company, regardless of size; and there are specific marketing techniques that SMEs and EVs can use to bolster and communicate their brand image. One of these is corporate social responsibility, or CSR. The authors note that communications about same are critical in brand-building, which is a challenge due, in part, to managers' unwillingness to participate in "forced marketing and branding exercise[s]" (83), as well as to budgets that regulate the extent to which internal affairs can be made known to the outside world.

Nevertheless, given the importance today's consumer places upon ethical business practices in light not only of the "greening" of the marketplace, but also as a result of hearing one too many Enron-like stories, it is important for companies to adhere to high standards regarding CSR as well as find ways to communicate same to consumers.

Juntunen, Saraniemi, Halttu, and Tähtinen concur with the importance of effective brand-building for SMEs, and describe a three-stage approach to same. The pre-establishment phase concerns defining the corporate personality before the company is officially formed (122); the early growth stage involves establishing the personality through brand planning, creating a corporate image, and ensuring employee "buy-in" (124); and the effective growth stage is about maintaining and further evolving the brand in light of consistent analysed feedback (127). At all stages, communication about brand-related matters is seen as critical.

Thrassou and Vrontis also address the importance of marketing communication for SMEs and EVs. They stress how critical it is that SMEs and EVs do not adhere to the research into marketing that has been based upon, and geared toward, larger firms, not just because of budgetary constraints, but also because the very nature of the businesses are different and thus demand different marketing approaches. Here we see another instance in which traditional marketing strategies are evolving to better suit the SME and EV. Thus, marketing communications for SMEs and EVs should focus upon, for example, personal communications, quite often ideally by the owner or manager himself or herself; obtaining referrals from current clients and reaching out to them personally; and ensuring that all communications are focused. These strategies recall Nielsen & Thomsen, in their findings that specific communications regarding CSR are critical to build brand.

As will be seen in the two case studies presented later, brand building is quite important for SMEs and EVs (as for firms of all sizes). The difference here is that because SMEs traditionally lack the ability to conduct extensive advertising campaigns and other traditional marketing strategies, they rely upon alternative means to promote awareness of their companies. Strategically creating and building a brand over time, and communicating about that brand (defined broadly to include such parameters as corporate social responsibility) to the various stakeholders (customers, suppliers, etc.) will, over time, be key to the success of the SME.

Relationship Marketing

Relationship marketing is increasingly utilised by SMEs and EVs as more traditional marketing methods (e.g. targeted advertisements, pricing strategies, and the like) are usually not relevant:

An important aspect of marketing in SME's is the central role of relationship marketing. .... Indeed, Zontanos and Anderson go further and suggest that it is difficult to disentangle or even to distinguish the practice of relationship marketing from entrepreneurial action... (Rowley & Spiezia 2006: 259)

Copley echoes this finding and notes that the evolution of marketing in SMEs from more orthodox to more relational strategies makes sense, given the necessity of owner/entrepreneurs to wear "many hats" (364) as they grow their businesses (i.e. with rare exceptions, start-ups at the SME or EV level cannot afford to hire marketing personnel, payroll executives, public relations staff, and the like; it is, quite often, the case that the originator of the firm is the one handling these and other aspects of managing and running a business, definitely in the beginning and often through the course of the company's existence, depending upon how quickly and efficiently the firm grows). Copley has also found that in SMEs, the traditional "4 P" marketing mix (product, price, place, and promotion) approach is present, but generally in the background as opposed to the primary plan, which makes sense given that smaller firms tend to grow more "organically" and perhaps not as linearly as larger firms, thus rendering it almost absurd to place primary importance upon as rigid a plan as a "4 P" model (364). Relationship-building, then, is a large part of this organic growth process.

McLeay and Andersen and Barnes, Chakrabarti and Palihawadana focus upon the importance of relationship building to SMEs and EVs involved in any kind of international trade. As Barnes, Chakrabarti and Palihawadana note, "[R]elationships need to be nurtured particularly in times of economic change, where globalisation and de-regulation are forcing more firms to compete internationally" (2006: 220). To forge such relationships, international travel is seen as key, as face-to-face interaction can foster trust in the ability of the firm among potential customers (in their case, the state of Montana as it represented a group of artists there). When that is not economically feasible, it is, of course, still possible to create and nurture such relationships; but the key point here is that especially when dealing across national boundaries (as increasingly is the case), SMEs and EVs need to consciously focus upon relationship building as a way to increase brand recognition, attract and retain customers, and establish legitimacy on a global scale. Piercy (2009: 551) reinforces the importance of excellent customer service that crosses international boundaries; and while his work involves the relationship between the marketing and operations "departments" of online retail businesses, his point is still salient given the enormity of competition among online retailers (and thus the need to distinguish oneself from the group).

Harrigan, Ramsey, and Ibbotson examined businesses in light of their efforts to implement relationship marketing (what they called "customer relationship management" or CSM) through "internet-based technologies," or IBTs (503). They studied 1445 SMEs and found that the majority of them are implementing what they term "e-CSM," or online marketing strategies to boost relationships with customers. What is interesting about this study is that the IBT methods used to cultivate these relationships are not the same as those used by larger firms, which suggests, yet again, that SMEs find their own "twists" on traditional-style marketing approaches. In this case, the majority of SMEs surveyed were using quite simple IBTs, yet they were finding them effective to "create competitive advantage in their own way" (503). Such simple techniques are, quite often, a part of relationship building.

However, as Redondo and Fierro note, relationship-building is far more than the payment of a social call. The educational level of managers, owners, and others seeking to build relationships with consumers, vendors, distributors, and so forth is an important (and often overlooked) aspect of the success of relationship marketing. The authors specifically studied those relationships between purchasing managers and vendors, but the results can be extrapolated easily to extend to all relevant relationships, if only because communication skills are greatly enhanced when the communicator possesses a relatively high educational level.

It is also the case that the relative success or failure of relational marketing is connected to perception. De Clercq and Rangarajan studied "perceived relational support," or PRS, among 217 entrepreneurs in Western Europe (they did not disclose the exact location), defining "PRS" as "the extent to which entrepreneurs perceive that they receive support from their customers" (673). They found a correlation between the amount of perceived support from customers and the reciprocal support that came back to the entrepreneurs, and that this support went "back and forth" in a sort of feedback loop. In other words, there was an affirmation that relationships in relationship marketing, at least in EVs, is reciprocal -- it is interactive and non-static, dependent upon both parties for success (or failure). This makes intuitive sense, as common wisdom holds that all relationships are two-way streets; however, it is instructive to note that this is the case in the context of marketing as well.

As Altinay and Altinay found, relationship marketing is used across ethnicity; their study of 227 Turkish small business owners in the UK found that they heavily utilise relational approaches to marketing. Some might argue that, in fact, many non-Western cultures have always been far more relational in their marketing strategies, and that is indeed what this study found: "Ethnic minority businesses recognise the importance of social ties in the development of business relationships both with the co-ethnic and mainstream consumers" (1189). Of course, as this section shows, relationship marketing is not solely the domain of ethnic minority business owners; however, it is interesting to see empirical confirmation that, when entering the so-called Western business model, relationship building is carried right into the marketing strategy.

Fillis found this to be the case with Celtic ethnic minority business owners as well. He notes that Celtic business owners, for the most part, are not afraid to network; they are not afraid to be "informal" and allow relationships to grow (or not), as they will, in keeping with the organic approach to building an SME that seems to span so many ventures. However, he takes things a step further:

Focusing on softer, qualitative Celtic dimensions, such as networking, word-of-mouth marketing, building and sustaining relationships, opportunity recognition and the importance of reputation of the business and of the owner/manager as a form of branding are equally, if not more, important factors than the formal processes of Saxon marketing planning and strategy. (Fillis 2007: 15)

In the context of a discussion about promises, Little, Motion, Brodie and Brookes discuss the vast importance of relationship marketing to SMEs. It makes sense that promises are seen as part and parcel of the relationship-building process; it is in large part that through promises kept, trust is established, and trust keeps customers coming back. The marketing strategy involved in this "promise" perspective is more complex than that -- it involves four discrete activities [making promises, keeping promises, enabling promises, and realising promises (26)] -- but the basic idea is that by building an infrastructure that enables promises to be made and kept, customers keep returning, especially when intent-driven attention is focused upon the maintenance of the relationships that are built. The goal is to forge long-lasting relationships, even when acknowledging that some will need to "go by the wayside" is they are deemed unprofitable for the firm (30).

Networking is a variant upon relationship building, and is increasingly seen as a valid form of marketing for SMEs and EVs who generally don't have large marketing budgets, and are generally operated by owner/entrepreneurs who may or may not have specific marketing knowledge. Networks (social and/or professional) are built up over a period of years, and cultivate a great deal of trust on the part of all parties when done correctly. Thus, networking in itself is a relationship-building activity, but carries an added dimension in that contacts are often established without an immediate agenda, but with the assumption that some day, in some way, said contact will be helpful to the SME. One negative side of networking is that such networks can be intensely personal, cultivated and created over years by one individual who may be loathe to "hand over" his or her contacts to others in the SME; another is that not everyone has the social skills (or desires) to pull off networking, even when they can cultivate perfectly reasonable relationships with customers in the context of doing business.

Social networks were also found (perhaps unsurprisingly) to be correlated with the success of start-up social ventures in Israel. In fact, social networks were found to be a critical aspect of the actual capital that was usually needed to start an entrepreneurial venture (in line with findings in previous literature, e.g. Baron & Markman, 2000; Burt, 2000; Davidsson & Honig, 2003; Johannisson, 1996; as cited in Sharir & Lerner 2006: 13). In other words, not only were social networks helpful to the success of these ventures, but they were found to be instrumental, in part because the networking provided a vital foundation, much as cash does, in the beginning of the venture.

Eng and Spickett-Jones found an interesting connection between marketing communication and networking among SMEs, while they also found that conventional marketing communication strategies (as well as other traditional marketing techniques) were not necessarily applicable to the SME for all of the reasons discussed thus far (case flow, limited people power, and so forth). The interesting finding was that the communication and relationships that seemed to work for many SMEs were those fostered between SMEs.

For SMEs, with their limited resources, the implications are clear: cooperation over resources may enhance the mutual position of enterprises. This type of
interdependence may require levels of trust found more easily in business relationships where commitment, motivation and interpersonal contact are strong,
like SMEs.... Given the potential significance of relationships for SMEs and the motivation 'to network', a network model may help provide a more insightful level of strategic analysis than conventional approaches alone yield.

The implications are quite interesting. Eng and Spickett-Jones note that the relationships within a given network of SMEs vary over time and according to the level of cooperation involved; who has more power and when; and what role any given SME plays in the network. Again we find this same sort of organic growth process that seems to be a hallmark for so many SMEs and EVs. As the authors point out, it may appear that SMEs have no strategic long-term marketing plans, but instead go from sale to sale, working to maximise each one; but while that may be true to some extent (and/or for some SMEs more than others), the reality is that another kind of marketing mix is at work here. Growth is organic, not limited to following a linear plan funded by ample capital; opportunities arise as they arise, and are (ideally) taken advantage of in a limber fashion.

The findings of O'Dwyer, Gilmore, and Carson concur with Eng and Spickett-Jones in that they feel that strategic alliances among SMEs who are competitors can be of great benefit to all. Pointing out that this in itself is an innovative marketing strategy -- this "colluding with the enemy," not with a nefarious goal but with the true intent to share resources and help in other capacities -- the authors note that such alliances represent yet another dimension of "relationship marketing." This is highly interesting, and bears watching to see if, over time, such alliances help or hurt on balance, and whether or not this strategy continues and spreads, or dies out for lack of either trust that it will work (competitors do not, by and large, trust one another) or for lack of effectiveness in the long run.

Innovation and Flexibility

One of the running themes through this discussion has been the need for SMEs and EVs to eschew traditional marketing techniques and embrace more flexible, more organic, ones such as relationship marketing and alternative brand building. Innovative marketing is another current approach to marketing choices for SMEs and EVs. In fact, O'Dwyer, Gilmore, and Carson call innovative marketing "fundamentally important for SMEs" (383), due to a variety of factors including "poor cash flow, lack of marketing expertise, business size, tactical customer-related problems and strategic customer-related problems" (383).

But what is innovative marketing? O'Dwyer, Gilmore, and Carson, calling upon previous research, note six aspects to innovative marketing: "marketing variables; modification; customer focus; integrated marketing; market focus; and unique proposition" (384). Marketing variables include product enhancement (incremental change as opposed to radical change), variation upon the traditional marketing mix, and finding alternatives to traditional distribution channels in an effort to save both time and money (385). Modification refers to being both proactive and embracing change -- that is, being flexible when necessary (385). Customer focus is another way to express relationship marketing, which the authors note is critical for the success of SMEs (386). Integrated marketing is based upon the premise that whatever the SME is doing, marketing-wise, that particular "thing" permeates all marketing activities; in other words, everything is connected, and at the same time doesn't have to follow a set script (385). Market focus includes vision, being profit-focused, and being market centred, meaning that SMEs that employ innovative marketing techniques are able to exploit changes in the market with greater agility than their larger competitors (386). Finally, unique proposition is simply another way to say that SMEs that wish to have a growing presence rely upon that which is new; that which is innovative and unconventional in terms of products and services (386-387). Finding (or creating) niche markets by being willing to risk uniqueness is one way for SMEs to flourish.

Innovation in itself can be a double-edged sword, however, warns Fillis. He argues that innovation that is solely profit-driven risks drowning out something far more important: true creativity (14). Advocating for his Celtic-style approach to entrepreneurship, Fillis points out that by carving out the space to be creative, innovation (in the more business sense of the word) will come eventually, as the pressure to "create" something new and unique will not stifle truly innovative and interesting ideas. He has a good point here; one of the strengths of the SME is its small size and concurrent willingness to take risks. Indeed, without the flexibility inherent in risk-taking, SMEs and EVs might well struggle even more mightily against their larger competitors, as one of their advantages would be lost. Thus, encouraging true creativity in the quest for innovation is something SMEs might well wish to cultivate as part of their marketing plans.

Crick in his study of 448 UK SMEs in a variety of industries -- all firms that decided to internationalise -- found that flexibility served them well on balance. "[M]anagers employed different strategies in particular countries and these changed over time to meet broad but flexible objectives. It can therefore be concluded ... that managers' sources of competitiveness vary in the context of the strategies employed" (407).

On the other hand, having a plan is another important marketing strategy for SMEs and EVs. In their study of growth and profitability among 1691 Welsh SMEs, Foreman-Peck, Makepeace, and Morgan found that having a marketing plan was critical to both. As self-evident as this may seem, it is instructive to note the organic growth process followed by many new SMEs and EVs. While they are not necessarily as casual as "let's have a show in the barn" (to paraphrase Mickey Rooney's famous words), small start-ups often begin in a rather haphazard fashion; to assume that all have carefully crafted business plans, let alone marketing plans, is fallacious. Thus, a marketing plan not only helps start-ups chart their course, but the mere existence of same indicates a level of commitment to the firm.

Case Studies of Marketing the SME and Entrepreneurial Venture

Montana A/S (a Dutch furniture manufacturer specializing in shelving) is a clear example of how clear, proper branding is an effective (and critical) marketing strategy for SMEs. Montana A/S was quite successful until the late 1980s, when three issues caused the company to stagnate; the two that are relevant to this discussion are confusion over product offerings and an unclear brand profile. Confusion arose in part because of the plethora of offerings; customers were told they could customise their shelves, but they were unclear as to how to do this, and the promotional materials that had been created were ineffective at communicating how this was possible. Tied into this issue was that of improper branding; customers were told that Montana A/S was the leader in its field, but because the brand did not convey this, customers rightfully could not see how the company was any better than the numerous "do it yourself" options that existed for far less money.

To correct these issues, Montana A/S embarked upon a rigorous brand-building process to take them from "shelf builders" to "shelf gods," as per Kunde's concept of brand religion:. The idea is that one begins with a product and then, to attain "ultimate value positioning" in the market, one must work to ensure the brand is not only "so strong in the eyes of the consumers that they become equivalent to the function they represent," but that "their belief in the brand is akin to a religious belief" (Lassen, Kunde & Gioia 2008: 97). How did they accomplish this? They created a marketing plan that followed these core steps:

(1) Identify the brand essence (the brand's value, culture and personality).
(2) Focus on the right target group.
(3) Select the right media.
(4) Devise a consistent concept.
(5) Keep all communication consistent and continuous.
(6) Renew the brand over time, but leave the core unchanged (Lassen, Kunde & Gioia)

None of these things costs a huge amount of money; but all of them require a clear, consistent focus upon brand-building, following a concrete step-by-step plan. It worked for Montana A/S -- between 1991 and 2007, sales increased almost 300%.

Rowley and Spiezia present another case study of an SME that effectively utilised a variety of marketing strategies to position itself well in the niche market of organic personal care items. Reminiscent of Foreman-Peck, Makepeace, and Morgan's findings that having a marketing plan is critical to the success of an SME, Spiezia Organics first identified its product line, which effectively identified its competition (other ecofriendly, organic personal care production companies) as well as its customer base (women) (255-256). Having done so, both the name (using the word "Organic") as well as the logo (incorporating nature-based themes into the graphic design) were carefully chosen so as to attract attention in a relatively new, yet already well-populated industry. Thus, from the beginning, the brand was created consciously (branding being a critical aspect of marketing for SMEs).

Marketing communication via advertising (both in magazines and business-to-business) was also conducted from the beginning, and once a website was established, this enabled another piece of the puzzle, so to speak (259). Relationship marketing was also critical, both in terms of the supply chain (building strong relationships with suppliers and vendors has greatly assisted in word-of-mouth advertising) and with customers; in fact, the authors note that "[t]his case study confirms the centrality of relationships to the marketing of SME's" (261). Finally, innovation (second only to customer needs in terms of marketing priorities) is a key component of Spiezia Organics.

However, it must be noted that all of these things -- from brand positioning to innovation -- were not conducted according to a well-thought-out plan that was crafted from the beginning. Rather, they were "borne out of a very sound understanding of their product and market, and [were] honed very carefully" (261) as matters proceeded, as it were. In other words, this successful SME followed the course of others in the sense that it grew organically, in line with the principles of relationship marketing in particular, and also of being willing and able to be flexible and innovative, even as efforts were made to grow a consistent brand. This "disjointed" progression of events, Rowley and Spiezia note, can often make outsiders conclude that many SMEs have no marketing plans, even for the short term (261), and they do believe that had Spiezia Organics had a marketing plan in place from the beginning, one that included an adherence to the principles of relationship marketing, some missteps might have been avoided. However, again, this is the nature of many SMEs, arguably most of which are begun and operated by one or a very few individuals who must attend to all aspects of a business from production to operations to customer service to marketing; thus, once again, it can be seen that this relational approach works well in SMEs that have limited people-power and (most likely) limited capital, especially in the beginning, because from this base of strong and lasting relationships can come further growth.

Conclusions

There are several themes that have run through this discussion of current marketing techniques and trends as utilized by SMEs and EVs. The first, and arguably the foremost, is that SMEs are in many ways redefining marketing. So much previous research and other attention has been paid to the marketing strategies of larger firms that SMEs have either been neglected or seen to sort of haphazardly throw things together, hope they work, and, if so, then (and only then) devise some sort of marketing plan. While this statement is a bit exaggerated for effect, the point is salient; SMEs are typically seen as less organized, in terms of their marketing strategies, than larger firms.

Of course, it is true that the average SME lacks the budget of larger companies; and it is also true that many SMEs and EVs are started by one or a few people, all of whom need to, collectively, handle all aspects of the business, from inventory (if applicable), hiring (also if applicable), licensing, sales, and everything else. If marketing falls by the wayside, or becomes secondary to the seizure of short-term sales opportunities, it is understandable. Nevertheless, it is not the case that no marketing strategies are being performed by SMEs. The reality is that they just tend to present differently than do those conducted by larger companies.

Perhaps the most widespread marketing strategy utilised by SMEs and EVs is relationship marketing (aka relational marketing). Whether this is done informally, deliberately, or with a combination of the two, relationship marketing helps SMEs almost across the board build their businesses (when done properly, of course). It is these early relationships with customers, suppliers, and others (including, increasingly, other SMEs) that helps them build a base of support, and move forward into the future. Hand in hand with relationship marketing is networking; long a "standard" of all companies, large and small, with SMEs and EVs, it is a virtual prerequisite (and, for some, a form of capital). Networking even among SMEs (as in, networking with competitors) is also a way to share resources that alone, none would have the opportunity to obtain.

Building brands is also critical for SMEs and EVs. With a strong, consistent brand image being formed and put forth, SMEs can begin to stand out from the crowd, target their customer base, and again, build a foundation upon which to grow. Innovation and flexibility are also hallmarks of SMEs, if only because they are both positioned to, and also need to, take advantage of opportunities in a more limber fashion than the larger firms as a way to move up; only by being flexible can this happen. And while marketing plans are certainly smart, and desirable, the reality is that "invisible" plans do exist even when it seems that SMEs are being "flexible" to the point of chaotic.

In all, if one was allowed just one word to describe the current (and most likely future) marketing trends of SMEs and EVs, it would be "organic." Given that this is how the internet is often described, and given that SMEs and EVs are increasingly making their presence known online, this is also a quite fitting word. Now that more research is being conducted into SMEs and EVs, we will have the chance to find out of this is accurate.

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