Adult Learning Theory - Education at the Graduate Level

Studying at the Graduate Level

Education at the graduate level and particularly degree programs intended to enhance professional skills involve adult learning for both domestic and international students. Graduate students often have previous work experience in a professional field and are self-motivated and self-directed in their pursuit of additional education. The application of adult learning theories to graduate programs have been successful for enhancing the students' perception of the value of the educational experience. In addition, the use of adult learning theories to shape the educational methods used in graduate programs increases the understanding of students of social problems and approaches to address the problems.

According to Franz, "No clear consensus exists on the specific theoretical base of adult education." Some of the major theories related to adult learning include behavioral theory, andragogy theory, and transformative learning theory. These theories have some common elements concerning a motivational requirement to support learning but differ in the models used to describe the mechanisms leading to motivation and knowledge acquisition among adults (Huang, 2002). The theories are also based on a fundamental assumption that the adult learner had different needs that must be met by an educational program when compared to a child or adolescent learner.

The early behavioral theory of learning postulated that learning occurs in response to a stimulus that motivates the actions that result in learning. If the learning meets the expectations of the learner, the knowledge will be accepted and reinforced through repetition. If the learning fails to meet the expectations of the learner, it will be rejected and the knowledge will be lost. In addition, the theory proposes that learning takes place through repetition of a cue and response in which the perceived benefits of the knowledge are reinforced through repetition. One of the shortcomings of the behavioral theory of learning is its failure to distinguish between the external stimuli used to motivate children to learn and the internal stimuli motivating adult learners.

The behavioral learning theories are the foundation for the constructivist approach to education. In this model, the role of the teacher or instructor is to shape the students' experience of the environment to enable them to construct knowledge their experience. The adult students bring their past experiences with them into the educational environment. The learning process assists the students with developing reasoning processes to develop a better understanding of the meaning of these experiences and how they fit into a larger pattern of knowledge. At the same time, learning takes place in a socio-cultural environment in which students interact with each other. This interaction results in a social construction of knowledge concerning the meaning of experiences. In effect, the theory postulates that individuals construct knowledge concerning the reality around them through interactions with others, which produces a collective understanding. The learning process occurs through these interactions whether they are formal in a classroom or informal through contact with instructors and peers.

The andragogy theory of learning originated with the seminal work of Knowles that distinguished self-directed adult learning from externally directed pedagogical approaches used to motivate childhood learning. In the andragogy model, the adult learner is presumed to be self-motivated and autonomous with the learner adopting full responsibility for acquiring knowledge. The teacher has a collaborative rather than a directive relationship with the adult learning and does not attempt to control the learning process. The teacher provides information and guidance, but allows the adult learner to set the pace and direction of the learning experience based on the assumption that the adult learner can determine the type and extent of useful knowledge. The andragogy theory also considers some methods of adult education more effective such as self-guided discovery because they conform to the motivations and autonomous position of the adult learner.

Andragogy relies on several assumptions concerning the adult learner. The adult student needs to understand how the learning will occur, the content of the material that will be learned, and reason the learning is important. The adult learner will not voluntarily engage in learning unless this basic information is apparent. The adult learner also desires to take control over the techniques of learning, which is important to maintain autonomy in the learning process. As a result, the adult learner determines the most suitable approach to learning to match their particular style of acquiring information and knowledge about a topic. The andragogy theory is also based on an assumption that adult learners will seek education when some event or situation creates a need for new knowledge or information. As a result, they are strongly motivated to learn to solve a personal problem or to achieve a goal or objective.

Transformative learning theory is based on the premise that the learning experience for adults produces some type of transformation in perceptions or viewpoints. The transformation results in a more mature guide for action. The transformative process is bounded by a frame of reference composed of existing paradigms and assumptions that influence thinking and the understanding of events. In this theory, learning consists of challenging existing paradigms and assumptions, requiring reflection and assessment of their validity. The outcome of the learning process is a paradigm shift that results in a different understanding of reality and the type of actions necessary to achieve goals.

In the general learning context proposed in transformative learning theory, the educator functions as a facilitator to assist the adult learner with challenging paradigms and development new perspectives the learning will use to guide future actions. Critical reflection plays a central role in the learning process with the educator in a horizontal relationship with the learner intended to provide guidance and mentoring rather than instruction. In addition, transformative learning theory incorporates elements of constuctivism by presuming that the adult learner has multiple interactions with peers from different backgrounds and often from different cultures, fostering the learner to challenge existing paradigms and perspectives.

Research conducted by Brown determined that the application of the principles of both the andragogy and transformative theories of adult education are effective in motivating and shaping the perspectives of graduate students in educational administration programs. The content and methods used in the program relied on transformative learning theory, and focused on assisting students to develop critical thinking skills and reflections focusing on social justice and equity in the educational institution. The transformation from the current state of understanding to a more reflective state of understanding was intended to support the ability of the students to take action to improve social justice and equity in the schools where they would be employed after completion of the program. The specific procedure relied on challenging the ontological and epistemological assumptions of the students concerning approaches to education. The specific instructional methods used in the program relied on andragogy theory, with students presumed to be self-motivated and self-directed. Using data obtained from a survey questionnaire, Brown determined that the use of transformative approaches in graduate education increases the students' perceived growth in awareness of social justice and equity issues and strategies for action to implement social justice.

Variants of transformative leaning theory include neurobiological transformation theory and cultural-spiritual transformation theory. The neurobiological variation of the theory is based on evidence that the brain cognitive process change during learning. For the learning to occur, however, there must be some initial discomfort motivating the discovery process leading to the learning. The process is strengthened by emotive and sensory experiences. The cultural-spiritual variation of the theory contends that learners construct meaning from their social, cultural, and spiritual experiences. Narratives or the storytelling that occurs internally and through interactions with others provide the foundation for constructing meaning.

The various theories concerning adult education and learning have a common factor in the assumption that individuals have an innate desire to learn that motivates adults to acquire knowledge. According to Ahl, however, the theories do not agree on the various situational, structural, or dispositional barriers that can moderate the motivation to learn. The situation or environment can increase or decrease the motivation to learn, creating variability in outcomes of the learning process. In addition, the theories do not fully address the motivations and needs of adult learners who attend programs because of employment requirements or the need to obtain a certification for career advancement.

The application of adult learning theory in graduate education is significant because of the effect of teaching methods on the satisfaction of the student with the educational experience. A pedagogical educational approach using didactic and controlling pedagogical methods could reduce the satisfaction of autonomous adult learners in graduate programs. The following section examines the factors contributing to satisfaction with graduate education.