Leadership Theory - Satisfaction of International Students with Graduate Education and Programs

Leadership Theory - Graduate Student Education Satisfaction

Leadership theory has a relationship to satisfaction of international students with graduate education because it influences the non-management elements of the content of graduate level educational leadership programs. Transactional leadership theory is based on the assumption that the behaviors of the leader can influence followers. The leader selects a behavior that communicates the goals and objectives to the follower as well as the rewards and consequences involved with achieving or failing to achieve the objectives. In this theoretical model, the leader and follower are rational actors who bargain to maximize their benefits. The leader establishes the benefits for the desired actions to achieve the goals with the follower responding to obtain the reward and avoid the negative consequences associated with failure. The theory does not consider the emotional responses of leaders and followers. It also assumes that extrinsic factors such as rewards and consequences are sufficient to motivate the follower to take the actions desired by the leader. The transaction leader adjusts behaviors to the situation and the characteristics of the follower.

Multiple variants of transactional leadership theory exist. The path goal theory of leadership is based on a model in which the leader motivates followers by defining a path to achieve a goal desired by the leader, with followers obtaining a reward for complying with the desires of the leader. In this view of leadership, the task of the leader is to align the goals desired by the leader with the personal goals of the followers. The leader member exchange theory postulates that a series of social transactions involve rewards and consequences establish a social relationship between the leader and the follower that motivates the follower to achieve the goals defined by the leader. According to Ross and Gray transactional leadership theories are flawed because they assume that "transactional leaders accomplish organizational goals without attempting to elevate the motives of followers or the human resources of the organization." In effect, the transactional leader controls followers through rewards and consequences and discounts the possibility that followers can be self-motivated if effectively inspired by the leader.

Transformational leadership theory was developed to address some of the shortcomings in transactional leadership theory and has become the preferred theoretical approach in leadership training programs. In transformational leadership theory, the effective leader develops a personal relationship with followers to inspire them to adopt the leader's goals as their own, which results in self-efficacy and motivation among followers to take the actions necessary to achieve the goals. The theory is called transformational because it motivates followers to perform tasks by changing their perspectives about the value of the goal and their relationship to the organization making the collective effort to achieve the goals. Ideally, the leader's goals are intended to move the organization from its current state to a desired future state that allows the group to achieve a common objective. The leadership process encourages individual followers to cooperate to achieve the objective. The transformational approach to leadership requires the leader to appeal to the intrinsic factors within followers that act as motivators such as the desire for achievement or the desire to cooperate with a collective effort. This approach differs from the transactional leadership methods that rely on rewards and consequences extrinsic to the follower as motivational factors. In addition, transformational leadership contrasts with transactional leadership because it focuses on the outcomes of leadership rather than on the behaviors of the leader.

Research investigating the effects of transformational leadership used by principals in schools indicates that it has a strong correlation with positive teacher and organizational outcomes. Some of these positive outcomes include higher teacher job satisfaction, willingness to make extra effort to achieve educational objectives, and higher organizational commitment. In the school environment, transformation leadership depends on the factors of the charisma of the principal, the willingness of the principal to form personal relationships with teachers, and the degree of intellectual stimulation of teachers. To some degree, the effectiveness of transformational leadership in the schools also depends on the degree of collaboration the principal as leader permits in the decision making process.

The application of transformational leadership theory in any organization including schools, however, has difficulty accommodating cultural differences between the leader and the follower. In practical situations, transformational leadership requires the leader and follower to form a personal relationship that allows the leader to appeal to the internal motivators of the follower. Leaders from different cultural backgrounds from followers, however, may have difficulty forming the relationship and understanding the factors that can inspire followers to be self-motivated.

Distributed leadership theory attempts to remedy some of the shortcomings of transformational theory for dealing with leaders and followers from different cultural backgrounds and is often used in educational institutions. Distributed leadership theory envisions leadership as "a process dispersed across the organization (within systems, activities, practices and relationships) rather than residing within the traits, actions and/or capabilities of 'leaders' in formal positions". In this perspective, leadership occurs through the interactions of individuals in both formal and informal leadership roles, which typically occurs in organizations such as schools. The individuals in both formal and informal roles exert leadership influences on each other, with the context of the situation determining the type of interactions that result in leadership. In this model, all members of the organization share some responsibility for leadership and can exchange the roles of leader and follower. In practice, a formal leader in the organization can temporarily assume a role of follower when a follower has particular knowledge or skills that can assist the organization in achieving its goals. In some situations where the leader and followers are from different cultural backgrounds, the exchange of roles provides an opportunity for both the leader and follower to learn about cross-cultural expectations for leadership behavior. The theory focuses on the leadership potential of the collective rather than the leadership potential of the individual.

Research examining distributed leadership practice in universities, however, has determined that the concept is more effective as an analytic framework for describing leadership styles rather than as an explanation of the nature of leadership. Distributed leadership does not adequately address issues of accountability, which remains with the formal leader such as a principal in the school organization. As a result, a formal leader temporarily relinquishing a leadership role to a subordinate can be viewed as an attempt to foster a more collegial and participative environment rather than actual sharing of leadership functions. In practice, it is also difficult to determine whether the leader has indeed adopted the role of a follower or has merely delegated responsibility to a subordinate or is seeking advice from an individual with specialized knowledge concerning an issue.

Educational Leadership Programs

Research evidence suggests that the number of graduate level educational leadership graduate programs in the United States have increased substantially over the past decade. At the same time, the expansion in graduate programs in educational leadership has occurred primarily in comprehensive educational institutions that do not specialize in research. At the same time, the labor market in education in the United States has not expanded sufficiently to support specialized professional degrees for educational leadership. As a result, many institutions rely on international students to support these programs. Roach and LeMasters provide evidence that institutions with residential graduate level educational leadership programs face substantial competition from institutions offering distance education programs to international students. The distance education approach has competitive advantages for attracting international students because of the lower cost and the ability of the student to obtain a degree without disruption to work or family life. These factors are particularly important for employed educators seeking a degree in educational leadership to enhance their career prospects.

According to Robinson, the focus of graduate level educational leadership programs is shifting away from the effective management of schools and towards leadership of the people responsible for teaching and learning. In this emerging model, management and administration of schools is a separate task from leadership. The management of schools involves the organization of the physical and human resources in the school to perform the tasks necessary to educate students. Leadership, however, involves inspiring the human resources of the school to adopt a vision of educational excellence, which motivates teachers and other personnel to educate students. In contrast, Browne-Ferrigno, and Muth argue that leadership in the context of educational institutions is synonymous with administrative responsibility. The conflicting opinions concerning the nature of educational leadership are indicative of the variable theories and perspectives influence the content of educational leadership programs.

In the past, graduate level leadership education programs have functioned to regulate entry into education administration. Because of this orientation, many educational leadership programs have focused on teaching the technical skills necessary to administer an educational institution operating in the public sector. The theoretical and practical aspects of managing human resources to maximize their contribution to the organization were considered a secondary objective of the program. The increased recognition of the importance of leading personnel to enable schools to achieve their educational objectives, however, has produced an increased balance between administration and leadership in the content of educational leadership programs. The balance between administrative and leadership content is apparent in the institutions that have added educational leadership graduate programs in the past decade.

According to Orr, "the research in the leadership preparation field has been characterized as scant and of limited methodological quality." In the United States, organizations such as the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Council (ISLLC) strongly influence the content of educational leadership programs. As a result, the university programs in educational leadership focus on providing the information deemed necessary by external bodies, which results in standardization of content. Despite the efforts to standardize educational leadership curricula, innovation and existing learning theories have influenced program content and methods of delivery. Adult learning theory has fostered the greater use of self-directed learning, particularly in the use of developmental and self-reflective practices in field experienced intended to apply leadership in practical situations.

Orr further indicates that ideally, leadership theory and leadership education theory intersect in graduate educational leadership programs. Leadership theory should guide the program components and processes as well as the learning outcomes in terms of ability to understand and apply the principles of leadership. The desired general outcome of the educational program is to improve school leadership, which occurs only when the graduates of the program learn leadership methods and can apply those methods in the specific school environment where they are employed after completion of the program. This perspective, however, considers the outcomes of the programs in terms of the teaching profession and society in general and does not consider whether the program meets the objectives or needs of the graduate students. It also conflicts with the traditional paradigm concerning the administrative nature of educational leadership.

Some evidence from research suggests that the way the curriculum for leadership programs is designed influences the students' perceptions of quality and satisfaction. Fenwick examined student perceptions of a graduate leadership programs using a problem-based learning approach. Because leadership is a subjective topic subject to the interaction of many different variables, the instructional approach can be significant for the ability of students to apply theoretical principles in practical situations. The researcher collected data using questionnaires and interviews from 166 past students in a graduate program in leadership at a single Canadian university using problem based learning. Qualitative descriptive analysis was used to assess the data. The findings indicated that the students as mid-career professionals believed that the problem-based approach produced significant long-term learning gains in the methods to apply leadership principles in practice. The participants in the study were also very satisfied with the problem-based approach to learning. The findings of this study, however, are suspect because of the failure to compare problem-based learning in leadership programs with the traditional didactic approach. In addition, the qualitative analysis of the data suggests that the findings are functionally a case study that cannot be generalized.

Subsequent research by Ivanovka and Stick confirmed the findings of Fenwick concerning student satisfaction with graduate educational leadership programs among a population of distance education students. The research used a mixed methods approach with doctoral students in an educational leadership program. The findings indicated that students valued emphasis on developing critical thinking skills and the application of theory to practical problems that could be applied in practical situations.

The importance of interactions with faculty and advisors is also a significant factor contributing to satisfaction with graduate educational leadership programs. The student must perceive the relationship as personal, with the faculty tailoring responses and advice to the specific needs of the students. The subjective perception of the student concerning the personal nature of the relationship controls the degree of satisfaction, which creates variability in the expectations of the student for the extent of the relationship. In effect, some students may require more attention from faculty to perceive the relationship as personal.

Based on the findings of survey research among university instructors, Knight, Tait, and Yorke suggest that professional development programs in educational leadership or administration adopt some of the approaches and perspectives used in commercial firms. In this model, formal educational interventions are intended to provide the knowledge to educators to lead and manage others. The acquisition of the formal knowledge, however, must be supplemented with mentoring or coaching to assist with the practical application of the knowledge. Because of the substantial variation in the way in which leadership skills are applied to different individuals and in different situations, educational leaders may have difficulty applying theoretical knowledge in practical circumstances. While some activity-based training can occur as part of the formal training in educational institutions, some form of subsequent support for students after completion of the program may be necessary.

Some assessments of research into the content of educational leadership programs are highly critical of the effectiveness of the programs for providing a knowledge base that can support practical leadership. In a discussion of curriculum standards for educational leadership programs, English identified a trend towards standardization of the content across institutions. The content is often theoretical and addresses only a limited number of the actual responsibilities of school leaders. In addition, the content often emphasizes the more concrete elements of administrative tasks rather than the application of leadership skills necessary to inspire and guide subordinates in the school system. English further argues that the content of educational leadership programs is static and presumes that the same knowledge base concerning educational leadership is relevant in all situations. As a result, the content of advanced programs for educational leadership encourages use of traditional methods and stifles innovation. In contrast, Orr considers the trend towards standardization of content beneficial because it reduces variation in quality. According to Buchanan, Kim, and Basham, however, the content of a graduate program has less importance to students with an objective of career enhancement because obtaining the degree rather than knowledge acquisition is the objective of studies.

Some research evidence suggests that institutions have to develop a comprehensive global approach to attract and retain international students for graduate level educational leadership programs. Bogotch and Maslin-Ostrowski used a case study approach to examine the processed used by a small university in Florida to develop an international educational leadership program. The education department established a comprehensive internationalization policy that was intended to coordinate the efforts of faculty and to justify an increase in the budget for the department. In addition, it developed curriculum that was general in administrative areas to allow the information to be adapted to the practices and regulations in the home nations of international students. The process involved the stages of internationalization analogous to the stages used by commercial enterprises. Initially, the department focused on attracting international students to residential programs tailored to meet the needs of the students. As the department gained competencies with international students, it formed joint venture relationships with foreign universities to develop collaborative programs that included instruction in both the United States and foreign locations. In this model, the satisfaction of foreign graduate students with the educational leadership program is likely to be relatively high because it focuses on meeting the needs of this segment of the student population.

Education and Educational Leadership in Belize

The literature concerning the educational system in Belize is relatively sparse. Lewis provides an overview of education in Belize in the colonial period based on a review of primary and secondary historical sources. When Belize gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1981, the nation's educational system was based on the British colonial model. In this approach, schools were used to train students for employment after graduation and to maintain social order by imparting values and norms that supported colonial authority. The educational process in the nation has traditionally relied on rote memory and discouraged critical thinking because it could lead to ideas challenging the existing social order. Compulsory education began in 1915, which resulted in an increase in enrollment and the number of primary and secondary schools in the nation. After World War II, the nationalist movement in the nation advocated greater expenditure on education, which was viewed as a necessity to develop the self-reliance and civic knowledge to support independence. The enrollment in secondary schools until 1981 remained low because most students did not finish primary school. Three teacher training schools were in operation at the time of independence providing three year programs leading to certification but not to a university degree.

Pandos discusses the education system in Belize following independence, outlining some of the challenges inherent in the system. Primary education is free and compulsory, but secondary education is optional. Although the government pays tuition for secondary schools, students face additional fees that reduce enrollment. While the Ministry of Education establishes national curriculum and formulates education policy, the Catholic Church administers the schools, and makes all decisions concerning teacher and principal employment. The Ministry of Education funds the school system, but the resources available in the nation are limited. The founding of University College Belize in 1986 resulted in secondary school teachers obtaining a baccalaureate degree in education. The Belize Teachers Training College opened in 1992 with programs intended for new teachers and to improve the professional skills of teachers already in positions in the schools. Challenges for educational leadership in the nation include the continued practice of hiring untrained teachers at the primary school level, and a shortage of teachers leading to high student teacher ratios. In addition, there are few opportunities for development of skills of teachers in the nation because of the policy focus on new teacher training. The educational outcomes for students in Belize are poor as measured by performance on national and international examinations.

Bush and Charron note that in the past teachers and principals have no opportunity to obtain a graduate level degree in educational leadership in Belize. The Ministry of Education and the Belize Teachers Training College have established a one-year in-service program to provide primary school principals with management training, but does not address leadership in the curriculum. The program involves attending a workshop one day a month and the preparation of an activities portfolio under the guidance of a supervisor. Successful completion of the program leads to certification and an increase in compensation. The focus of the program is on the administrative tasks associated with school management, and can be considered a traditional approach to educational leadership that does not emphasize motivating human resources Robinson.

Implications and Gaps in the Literature

An implication of the research concerning student satisfaction is the importance of the gaps between student expectations and the educational experience. The research based on expectancy theory and gap analysis indicates that graduate students use the same processes as other consumers of services when evaluating an educational program. The existing research has identified numerous expectations among students including adequacy of physical accommodations and environment, relevance of coursework, and perceived quality of instructors. Previous research has also examined some of the expectations of international students based on their unique situation involving consumption of an educational service in a cross-cultural context. Some of these factors include a need for adjustment support and perceived effectiveness of communications and relationships with faculty. These findings imply that international students are more likely to be satisfied with educational programs in institutions providing a wide range of supports for cross-cultural adjustment and the communication needs of foreign students.

A particular gap in the literature concerning international students is the absence of research examining the moderating effect of institutions with collaborative teaching arrangements with universities in the students' home countries. The research investigating satisfaction of international students with a cross-border educational experience assumes that the institution indiscriminately seeks students from all nations with no customization of coursework or support systems for the specific cultural needs of students. Some institutions, however, have formed a collaborative relationship with other universities in specific nations and have gained expertise in educating students from that nation. There has been insufficient investigation of the effect that this type of collaborative arrangement has on the satisfaction of international students.

An additional implication of the literature is the effect on international students of the transition in many institutions offering graduate programs in educational leadership from an administrative orientation to a combined administrative and leadership orientation. The educational administration elements of a graduate program in educational leadership can be specific to the nation where the program is offered because administration often entails compliance with local laws and norms. As a result, the content may not be relevant to students from other nations that use different administrative practices. In contrast, leadership is more universal in nature and can be relevant to international students regardless of the specific administrative practices used in their home nations. Previous research has not focused specifically on the expectations of international students for the relevance of coursework in graduate administration programs and the perceived congruity between expectations and the program experience. A gap in the literature also exists concerning the perspectives of international students in educational leadership programs of the applicability of the knowledge obtained through the program to the schools in their home nation.

Summary

The literature examining adult learning theory and its application to graduate studies is relevant because graduate students often have previous work experience in a professional field and are self-motivated and self-directed in their pursuit of additional education. The traditional behavioral learning theories used repetition to reinforce learning based on the assumption that retrieval cues can elicit stored information, but the theories fail to adequately address the special needs of adult learners. Andragogy theory adopts the premise that adult learners are self-motivated and self directed with the teacher functioning as a guide in a collaborative relationship with the student. Transformative theory presumes that the learning process results in a transformation of the perspectives of the adult student through the evaluation of new and existing knowledge with critical thinking skills. The manner of applying adult learning theories in the context of graduate education can influence student satisfaction with the educational experience with a pedagogical approach generally associated with lower levels of satisfaction.

Satisfaction with education is the affective response to the overall educational experience. Factors influencing student satisfaction include the institutional environment and accommodations to student needs, the relevance of the coursework to the needs of the student, the perceived quality of instructors, and the relationship between education and achieving personal and career goals. Graduate education is a service that students purchase from institutions. As a result, institutions adopt a marketing approach to influence students to select the institution in a highly competitive environment.

Expectancy theory is often used by researchers examining the gap between student expectations and student experiences with graduate studies. Students are satisfied when the gap between their expectations and experiences is relatively small. The two-factor theory can also account for student satisfaction, with satisfaction increasing if the educational experience addresses the higher order needs of the student. Factors such as style of instruction and the educational approach of specific departments within the institution can mediate student satisfaction.

Research investigating the factors influencing student satisfaction with education has identified categories of factors related to institutional accommodations, social environment, relevance of coursework, quality of instructors, and support systems. In addition, the career goals and personal goals of students are factors influencing satisfaction with the educational experience.

Cross-border education is a market driven activity that is a solution for educational institutions faced with increased competition, Cross-border education is a positioned product with the reputation of the institution determining the value of the education in terms of social status or employment opportunities. Institutions penetrate international markets with various strategies including establishing a branch campus abroad or forming partnerships with foreign institutions. The general pattern in cross-border education is for students from developing nations to attend institutions in industrialized nations, with the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia dominating the cross-border education market. Research findings differ concerning whether the reputation of the institution or other factors such as location of the institution or cost influence international students when selecting a university.

The needs and perceptions of international students often differ significantly from domestic students. Cultural differences between students and the dominant culture of the institution influence learning processes and outcomes, with the ability of the institution to make adjustments for these differences critical for satisfaction among international students. The expectations of international students also vary across cultures, creating difficulties for universities with a diverse international student body when attempting to standardize support programs. The attitude of faculty towards international students influences satisfaction. The degree of support from the institution to assist with cultural adjustments also influences satisfaction among international students. Some research findings indicate that international graduate students do not differ substantially from domestic students in the factors influencing satisfaction with an educational program. International students also often develop expectations about a foreign institution based on sparse information, which increases the risk that the reality will vary substantially from the expectation.

The number of graduate level educational leadership programs in the United States has increased substantially in the past decade, which has also increased competition to attract students. The trend in educational leadership programs is away from an exclusive emphasis on administration and toward the inclusion of more general leadership theories and principles. Nonetheless, graduate level educational leadership programs continue to regulate entry into administrative positions in the school system. In graduate educational leadership programs, approaches emphasizing practical application of theoretical knowledge such as problem-based learning can increase student satisfaction. The perceived quality of faculty interactions also increases student satisfaction, although there is substantial variation in the expectations among students with respect to the type and extent of interactions with faculty. Institutions that develop a global and cross-cultural approach to graduate education programs can successfully attract international students because the content is tailored to the needs of students from other nations.

The sparse literature concerning professional education of teachers in Belize indicates that the system of teacher education has been undergoing changes over the past several decades. Secondary school teachers can receive an undergraduate degree from University College Belize, but most primary teachers have received two years of training at the Teachers Training College. Principals of elementary schools receive a leadership certification by attending an in-service program that focuses on management skills.

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