Good Writer 64 | - ✏ Freelance Writer
Nov 19, 2015 | #1
For almost 150 years, the labour movement in Canada has endeavoured to communicate the value of justice, hard work, and overcoming oppression. By virtue of this communication, it may be said that every activity and campaign the labour movement has undertaken revolve around the notion of learning. The labour movement has made multiple contributions to capitalist societies the world over in which competition, individualism and inequity co-exist side by side. Under this perspective, unions have historically strived to "value and build community;" to be aware when inequality takes place so that it may be addressed; to promote unity in the face of adversity such as discrimination as well as to establish "inclusive organizations" (Labour Education Centre 10). In light of these, unions proactively encourage learning that identifies and generates appropriate actions to act against systemic barriers so that a more equitable future may be gained. One of the most progressive and comprehensive undertakings by the Canadian labour movement has been in the field of education. Yet, it is surprising that the milestones in such endeavours are hardly recognized, much less written about. It cannot be denied that the Canadian union movement used to be perceived in a negative light. Unions in Canada were among the most misunderstood entities and understandably, there was little interest or sympathy towards their efforts. Quietly but determinedly, the labour movement in Canada undertook extensive measures in order to provide or enhance education for its constituents. By mid-1994, labour education has evolved to become the most widely-used, non-vocational, non-formal method of educating adults in Canada (Spencer). Since then, labour education has continued expanding and progressing, such that it now encompasses distance learning, more universities providing Labour studies, formal and informal methods and other innovative means of delivering learning. As a result, not only has labour education addressed the needs of its constituents but it has also been accepted as a cultural expression of Canada's working people.
Unions in Canada represent at least 4.5 million workers in practically all of the labour market sectors as well as occupational groups. Currently, education is delivered by unions through different programs such as "literacy; workplace programs; apprenticeship, pre-apprenticeship and work skills training; labour education" (Labour Education Centre 10). There are times that some of these programs are closely interlinked as a result of integrated initiatives. The creativity at how these lessons are delivered is admirable. Most weekends, classes converge at unions halls, civic centres and even hotel rooms so that "practical and innovative adult education" can take place. However, many community members and stakeholders in the field of education are hardly aware that these are going on. Apart from this non-formal method of delivering learning, there is also a broad spectrum of informal learning by means of union campaigns, meetings, strikes and other labour movement activities. It must be noted here that the term "non-formal" refers to courses that are provided external to the formal educational system. Just as importantly, for labour unions, activities such as collective bargaining agreements or strikes are stages for informal learning processes due to the knowledge acquired by participation or observation.
Decades of story-telling among unionists have cultivated channels through which information learning may take place (Martin 6). Currently, this tradition has transformed into a more formal structure, akin to mentoring programs at regular universities. What makes the mentoring taking place at unions is that insights are based on a combination of facts, inspiration, political and social perceptions, and the ever-relevant technical skills. Unions have always been advocates for education of those marginalized members of society that have little alternative in schooling other than staying out of it. Union education has had a long history. Working people who have spent long hours volunteering for union activities have been among the first recipients of both formal and informal adult, union education. Way before it became legal for unions to accept memberships in 1872, labour councils have already been sponsoring reading classes for workers. In succeeding decades, initiatives by the Workers Educational Association, in collaboration with their allies in the community as well as several political organizations ascertained that "knowledge, skills and will" required to "seek economic and social justice were developed among activists" (Labour Education Centre 12). The challenge for contemporary unions is to serve as channel for learning for their members.
The direction that labour education takes is usually based on collective goals that are motivated by service to 'fellow workers, to the working class, to society, for social and economic justice" (Labour Education Centre 12). As may be seen here, this is in direct contrast with the goals of mainstream education in Canada. In alignment with other union activities, labour education enhances solidarity, encourages critical thought as well as democratic participation and seeks changes, starting from the working environment. Moreover, unions are motivated with the realization that mainstream education is not able to provide the necessary knowledge that will make lives productive for people. Labour education prefers to see learners become competent and engaged adults who are equipped with a broad range of experiences and capabilities. Because of the structure and content of mainstream education, many workers feel that they have been left behind. It must be noted that in other countries such as the United Kingdom, universities used to be active in providing trade union-oriented education. The goal of such universities was to address broader liberal, political, and social questions intended for trade unionists as both decision makers and social activists (McIlroy and Spencer). It is noteworthy that the number of universities offering such education started to decline after the Second World War. This decrease was mainly as a result of new directions that universities that started to take, and which sought to tap into the student market composed of middle-class people. The United Kingdom was one of the spearheading countries that provided labour education. In 1979, almost half of the universities offered specially designed courses that would appeal to trade unionists, particularly, workplace representatives. The national trade union centre in the United Kingdom, the Trade Union Congress (TUC) was a partner in the provision of almost half of these courses. The rest were composed of programs developed in collaboration with "different trade unions and certificate or diploma courses in Trade Union Studies offered to workers generally" (McIlroy and Spencer 63). Things changed in the 1980s when many educators started to believe that students are shortchanged if they study only purely trade union content. These educators believed that it was necessary to teach the basic industrial relations skills as well as lessons encompassing broad political and economic issues. Little by little, labour education in the United Kingdom became diluted with mainstream course contents.
The Canadian experience is quite unlike that of the United Kingdom. In Canada, there is no specific union objective, aim or methodology when it comes to union learning practices. Certainly, the student community has always been diverse. However, unions in Canada generally design their education programs using the adult education framework, which shows that they truly understand how workers learn best. Rather than taking the approach in which all of the knowledge is invested in the instructor, so that all the student has to do is listen and be passive, union education instead cherish active learners who share as much about their experiences and knowledge as the course topic is explored. Worker-centred education optimizes upon what people already know and then focuses on the entire person. The differences there may be in experience and identity are valued so that ultimately, a supportive and respective learning environment is built. As seen here, rather than the typical lectures and text, union education depends upon different activities that are appealing to the learners' "eyes, ears and hands" (Labour Education Centre 13). In union education in Canada, there is much use for trained peer instructors. This peer level approach usually encompasses seeking a fit between workers and trainers, or tutors with staff facilitators or even instructors from the public education system. Moreover, the popular education approach has recently been added to union education because this also optimizes upon adult education. To note, popular education is the approach in learning in which there is a conscious collective action for change. Lessons usually critically analyze inequality in terms of race, gender, disability, heterosexism or ageism. It has been observed that popular education pursues "a positive social vision" that seeks transformative education so that power hierarchies are transformed to social and economic equality (Labour Education Centre 13).
One of the most significant breakthroughs in labour education in Canada was the establishment of the Labour College of Canada in the early 1960s. The College received funding from the labour movement and the government but given its focus on university-accepted approaches and the priority of training leaders for the collective bargaining system, there emerged a tension in terms of ideological perspectives. Nevertheless, the Whitelam administration was supportive of the Canadian Labour College. It must be noted, however, that the College did not really count on government support most of the time but was guided by two current intellectual streams. The first was a need for practical tools courses for leaders and second, the notion of an abstract liberal arts-type philosophy in other components of the curriculum.
In spite of the establishment of several formal learning institutions intentionally meant for labour education, by principle, Canadian unions typically eschew partnerships with universities because they prefer to educate their own workers and officials. This attitude is in direct contrast with their American and British counterparts. An example of this is the Canadian Workers' Centre in at Port Elgrin in Ontario (Nesbit 683). Nevertheless, one of the most extensive training provision is given by the Canadian Labour Congress (CLC) through a five-week Residential Program that is delivered in two parts: a national four-week component at the Labour College of Canada and an added week in one of the CLC locations. This standard course is made up of five subjects, namely, political science, sociology, economics, history and law (Nesbit 683). The aim of this program is to develop leadership by enhancing the ability of unionists to comprehend, analyze and deal with the daily issues encountered at work, in unions as well as in the community. Currently, several Canadian universities are offering a type of labour studies certificate or degree program. Understandably, these programs take a more academic approach to labour issues, practices and organizations. Hence, they are not specially designed for union workers or officials. It is noteworthy that there are more recent course designs that are intended for union leaders. For example, Simon Fraser University in British Columbia has several successful nine-month certificate programs intended for senior provincial labour leaders. These courses strive develop the theoretical foundation understanding regarding management of labour issues while at the same time, broadens the learners' knowledge and awareness of practical tools that may be used for efficient and effective management and leadership of unions (Nesbit 683). The following is a description of the current labour education landscape in Canada.
1. Adult Education Approach
Malcolm Knowles' seminal work on program design takes a paradigm shift from focus
on the educator to the learner. It was Knowles who coined the term "andragogy" to refer to "the art and science of helping adults learn" in direct contrast with "pedagogy" which refers to the "art and science of teaching children" (Newman 83). Therefore, andragogy as used by labour education emphasizes "learner learning" instead of "teacher teaching" and equally encourages respecting and utilizing experiences that adults bring to their learning (Newman 83). Therefore, in adopting this paradigm, labour education seeks to address the need of adults to solve problems and play new roles by means of encouragement of self-direction. To facilitate all these, Knowles promotes the use of a "learning contract" which is dramatically different from mainstream frameworks used n education. A learning contract is an individualized, highly personal project that is negotiated between the learner and the adult educator. Through this contract, the learner sets his or her own objectives, identifies the methods that he or she wants to use for learning so that these objectives are met, and then identifies the resources he or she wants tom use. Such resources typically include videos, visual materials, colleagues or books. The learner also sets the criteria through which both the learner and the adult educator can measure progress. Through the use of these contracts, learners are encouraged to design learning that is closely associated with real-life concerns, workplace problems and personal interests. It is expected that this learning contract will also generate outcomes that are directly applicable to the working or personal life of the learner.
2. Labour Education Programs
Through the years, a clearer definition of labour education has emerged. Labour education ranges from half-day to eight-week sessions, including courses at the Labour College of Canada residential school (Spencer 20). These courses are controlled by labour unions, are targeted at their members, union representatives and officials. Labour education courses seek to improve union effectiveness and develop union consciousness and thus encompasses all courses using the adult education approach for union members. Specific job training is not included in this definition. The essential components of current labour education are:
- Social education: A crucial component of union-controlled education is that it must be social, and therefore in opposition to the "personal" approach of mainstream formal education. Hence, current labour education emphasizes constructs such as service and representation and in these contexts, that union members be educated so that they can better serve their fellow members and the union within the workplace.
- Goal of labour education is to "advance or build the union, and to advance the interests of working people and the labour movement" (Spencer 21),.
- Tool Courses: Majority of union education courses aim to prepare its learners for union activities or possible leadership roles in the union. These are typically offered in-house by specific labour unions themselves. Sometimes, these tool courses are provided in collaboration with labour councils or the CLC. Seldom are they offered through or with a formal educational institution.
- Issues Courses: These courses aim to raise awareness about relevant labour union issues. These focus on the socio-political environment as well as on problems that impact union members and their families. Examples of these issues are privatization, outsourcing, free trade, new management principles, racism, and the like. It is notable that issues courses move onto tool training wherein unionists are provided with the skills and knowledge that they need to be able to effectively deal with such issues.
- Labour Studies: This type of learning means to widen the awareness of unionists of the context and nature of labour unionism. The flagship course is the aforementioned eight-week course at the Labour College of Canada at which selected activists are provided with university-level training in five disciplines, namely, history, economics, sociology, labour law, and politics (Spencer 21). As early as 1993, the Labour College of Canada had entered into an agreement with Athabasca University so that labour studies may be studied online.
- Dedicated Programs: There have been instances when unions or labour centrals have entered into agreements or partnerships with formal post-secondary schools so that courses ranging from tool to labour studies may be offered to union members. However, although the union takes part in decision-making regarding the courses, the union does not control these programs.
- Worker Education: This is a variation of labour studies that focuses instead on learning needs of workers. Hence, these courses cover areas such as literacy, basic skills development and workforce adjustment training.
- Union Leadership Training: Many labour unions such as the Sasketchewan Government Employees Union have designed leadership courses that will prepare members for union leadership. Such courses focus on the operation of a public sector union that covers various provinces and populations.
- Steward Training: Steward training is a hallmark of labour education (Gereluk, Briton and Spencer). Therefore, it is also the most developed and well-documented. The reason for this is largely because stewards play crucial roles in labour unions, and their training is centered around specific needs and organizational priorities in mind, such as skills in negotiating for collective bargaining agreements, legalities as well as grievances, among others.
- Other Forms of Union Learning: Labour unions have developed technologically and thus, are able to harness media in delivering their training instead of relying on traditional classrooms or courses. Therefore, there are self-help publications, factsheets and other article published over the Internet (Spencer 22). There are even some unions that have produced radio and television programs focusing on labour education.
3. The Learners
The only measure used in assessing efficacy of labour education is the degree to which they prepare activists and member to deal effectively with the different issues that they face in the workplace, the union as well as the community. For instance, the stewardship component of labour education pertains to handling grievances, leadership, education and communication effectiveness, among others. To note, leadership may be measured according to the responses of leaders help provide to union issues. This encompasses providing direction to the organization, and if it is the approach being used by a specific union then to lead resistance. Because of these combined factors, access to labour education is limited only to those who meet the requirements pertaining to duties and responsibilities that they will be asked to undertake on behalf of the union. For instance, majority of unions require that an individual must first have stewardship training before becoming a full-fledged steward. Similarly, those who are accorded position in collective bargaining teams are required to first have the necessary knowledge and skills acquired through labour education before they can take part in negotiations. Hence, it may be said that only those who have demonstrated their commitment to the labour movement are given access to labour education. Commitment may be measured through attendance of meetings, election to office, volunteer work, participation in picket-line duty and other types of activities that are service-oriented (Spencer 128).
4. The Educators
Just as there are limits as to who may become a union education learner, unions have clearly identified standards and expectations for those who are tasked with providing and guiding these learning activities. These requirements are both formal and informal and the balance is truck between these two elements by considerations of expertise and continuity. It must be noted that the "organization and mobilization of the rank-and-file requires volunteer membership involvement in education" (Spencer 135). These requirements have led to the development of an entirely new segment within labour education that is devoted to the training of instructors through the help of "plain language" manuals and materials. Typically, the roles of the instructors are to (i) develop education strategies and guidelines for courses; (ii) encourage and help members create education committees to work with national education departments to assess learning needs and implement programs; (iii) collaborate with the labour movement in order to build educational resources; and (iv) provide a resource center for education initiatives Spencer 135). It is seen here how instructors at labour education programs have responsibilities and duties that are quite different with mainstream instructors.
Jeffrey Taylor explains that the direction labour education takes is aligned with the political purposes that the labour movement has established for itself (Taylor). For instance, when labour education first started, its orientation was on social issues largely as response to the radicalism of the 1930s and 1940s. Then, this transitioned into a service and training orientation, this time, as a response to conservatism after the Second World War. Currently, the prospects of labour education are aligned with the context of revived social movement. It has been noted that there have been declining enrolments in labour education programs (Taylor). During the 1970s, a tension between post-secondary schools and the labour movement started to emerge. It was during this time that universities and colleges started signalling willingness to make available educational resources to unions and their members. However, because many labour unions were feeling highly self-sufficient as a result of large grants to the CLC from the government that led to the establishment of the Labour Education and Studies Centre, these unions started rebuffing the offers of universities and colleges. In 1997, the CLC sent out letters containing guidelines to every Canadian university and college, stipulating that any labour education program must be controlled by the labour movement. In particular, post-secondary programs had to be managed by a committee designated by the relevant labour council or federation - taking responsibility for every aspect of the program including the selection of the instructor, fees to be charged, as well as course content and materials. Many post-secondary school officials warned unions that the control they were requiring was illegal in many jurisdictions but the unions did not pay attention. On the other hand, the 1970s were the "glory days" of labour studies programmes in universities and colleges in spite of the "general hostility" that unions were showing to post-secondary schools. Taylor explains that this hostility is very unfortunate because without it, labour education would have been much stronger today.
In spite of these, there have been significant developments in the field of labour education that bode well for the future. Collaborations between the labour movement and universities have improved such that these entities have become comfortable with their spheres of control. Universities are not very interested in offering tool courses, which is just fine as labour unions feel that this is their responsibility and forte. Although unions have been generally disinterested in the skills trainings offered by colleges and universities, they have consistently sought the help of these when it comes to research assistance. Colleges in particular have been offering a combination of tool and issues courses in compliance with their institutional mandates, but the labour movement continues to be wary because they do not have control over such programs. At the very least, labour unions seek joint control of course contents. Overall, by virtue of these persistent frictions, if the gap between labour studies programs and the labour movement continues, then "the prognosis is not good" (Taylor 38). However, if these stakeholders maximize upon their strength which is collaboration, then the future could be bright for labour education. The key here is having a vision for labour education, and this vision hinges upon the development of a labour learning agenda that links different public institutions with unions, labour councils, federations of labour as well as the CLC (Taylor 38).
This new learning agenda will be achieved if labour unions sit back, and take time tor review their existing education and training programmes. Then, unions must consider the current state in internal education and training so that a long-range education and training strategy may be designed. Crucial to this strategy would be the setting of principles and framework "negotiating articulation agreements and brokered arrangements with colleges and universities" so that unionists learning is on a broader scope. For example, a union may negotiate with universities or colleges to provide credits for learning that has already been gained under union education. There could also be involvement of peer educators within the universities or colleges so that the missions and aims of labour education are followed through. It is also preferable if technology is properly harnessed in order to make such a program accessible to all members regardless of geographic distance or time constraints. A dynamic online platform may be further developed to achieve this goal. Taylor suggests that there should be closer integration between the CLC's Education and Campaigns department and the Labour College of Canada to ensure national and cross-union coordination "of labour's internal education and training programmes as well as its brokered arrangements with external provider" (Taylor 40). The first step that may be taken here is to review the relationship between internal union education programmes and distance education courses to make sure that they are aligned. These two entities could also collaborate to help make sure that affiliates are able to infuse technology into their programs so that there is progression from basic courses to more advanced course contents. It would also be beneficial if colleges and universities collaborate among themselves as they work with local and national labour unions (Taylor 40).
Conclusion
Labour unions were regarded with suspicion for more than a century and a half. Indeed, there was generally negative perception of unions during this time. Nevertheless, the labour movement in Canada continued to persevere and in so doing, communicated values to society that include justice, hard work and overcoming oppression. These efforts are essentially the origin of labour education in Canada. Every activity and campaign undertaken by the labour movement taught lessons to its members. By taking part in pickets, strikes and meetings at union halls, members learned about competition, individualism and inequality and how these could exist side by side within the microcosm of the working place. Thus, labour education took form and over the years, have transformed into a non-formal learning system based on the belief that there is always more room for learning in the case of working adults. This transition period has been wrought by triumphs and failures. Today, it cannot be denied that not much is written about labour education. However, union learning has dramatically transformed such that there are currently comprehensive stewardship, tools and issues programs that not only address the learning needs of workers but also adhere with labour union values. Through the years, the labour movement has persistently fought for an education framework that it feels will better equip members as they strive to be productive in their personal and work lives. The progress of union education has been admirable and many learning programs now even have online delivery of education. The future is not that certain for labour education largely due to the unwillingness of mainstream educational institutions to handover control to the labour movement for their labour-oriented course contents. At the other end of the spectrum, experience shows that collaboration can be possible for these educational institutions and the labour movement. As long as this strength is optimized, then the future will be bright for labour education.
Works Cited
Friesen, Gerald. "Adult Education and Union Education: Aspects of English Canadian Cultural History in the 20Th Century." Labour / Le Travail 34: 163-188. Academic Search.
Friesen, Gerald. H.C. "Pentland and Continuing Education at the University of Manitoba: Teaching Labour History to Trade Unionists."
Friesen, Gerald and Lucy Taska. "Workers' Education in Australia and Canada: A Comparative Approach to Labour's Cultural History." Labour History, 71: 170-197. Web.
Gereluk, Winston, Derek Briton and Bruce Spencer. "Learning About Labour in Canada." 1999. Centre for the Study of Education and Work.
Labour Education Centre. "Integrating Equity, Addressing Barriers: Innovative Learning Practices by Unions."
McIlroy, John, and Bruce Spencer. "Despatches from a Foreign Front: The Decline of Workers' Education In U.K. Universities." Labor Studies Journal 17.3: 53-77.
Martin, D'Arcy. Thinking Union: Activism and Education in Canada's Labour Movement. Toronto: Between the Lines.
Nesbit, Tom. "Educating Labour's Professionals." Relations Industrielles / Industrial Relations 56.4: 676-700. Business Source Complete.
Newman, Michael. The Third Contract. Sydney: Stewart Victor Publishing.
Spencer, Bruce. "Labour Education in Canada Today." Centre for Work & Community Studies.
Spencer, Bruce. "Workers' Education for the Twenty-First Century." In, Learning for Life: Canadian Readings in Adult Education. Toronto, Thompson Educational Publishing.
Taylor, Jeffrey. "Linking Labour Studies and Unions: Past Lessons and Future Visions."
Taylor, Jeffrey. Union Learning: Canadian Labour Education in the Twentieth Century. Westmount: Thomson Educational Publishing.
Overview of Labour Education in Canada
Unions in Canada represent at least 4.5 million workers in practically all of the labour market sectors as well as occupational groups. Currently, education is delivered by unions through different programs such as "literacy; workplace programs; apprenticeship, pre-apprenticeship and work skills training; labour education" (Labour Education Centre 10). There are times that some of these programs are closely interlinked as a result of integrated initiatives. The creativity at how these lessons are delivered is admirable. Most weekends, classes converge at unions halls, civic centres and even hotel rooms so that "practical and innovative adult education" can take place. However, many community members and stakeholders in the field of education are hardly aware that these are going on. Apart from this non-formal method of delivering learning, there is also a broad spectrum of informal learning by means of union campaigns, meetings, strikes and other labour movement activities. It must be noted here that the term "non-formal" refers to courses that are provided external to the formal educational system. Just as importantly, for labour unions, activities such as collective bargaining agreements or strikes are stages for informal learning processes due to the knowledge acquired by participation or observation.Decades of story-telling among unionists have cultivated channels through which information learning may take place (Martin 6). Currently, this tradition has transformed into a more formal structure, akin to mentoring programs at regular universities. What makes the mentoring taking place at unions is that insights are based on a combination of facts, inspiration, political and social perceptions, and the ever-relevant technical skills. Unions have always been advocates for education of those marginalized members of society that have little alternative in schooling other than staying out of it. Union education has had a long history. Working people who have spent long hours volunteering for union activities have been among the first recipients of both formal and informal adult, union education. Way before it became legal for unions to accept memberships in 1872, labour councils have already been sponsoring reading classes for workers. In succeeding decades, initiatives by the Workers Educational Association, in collaboration with their allies in the community as well as several political organizations ascertained that "knowledge, skills and will" required to "seek economic and social justice were developed among activists" (Labour Education Centre 12). The challenge for contemporary unions is to serve as channel for learning for their members.
The direction that labour education takes is usually based on collective goals that are motivated by service to 'fellow workers, to the working class, to society, for social and economic justice" (Labour Education Centre 12). As may be seen here, this is in direct contrast with the goals of mainstream education in Canada. In alignment with other union activities, labour education enhances solidarity, encourages critical thought as well as democratic participation and seeks changes, starting from the working environment. Moreover, unions are motivated with the realization that mainstream education is not able to provide the necessary knowledge that will make lives productive for people. Labour education prefers to see learners become competent and engaged adults who are equipped with a broad range of experiences and capabilities. Because of the structure and content of mainstream education, many workers feel that they have been left behind. It must be noted that in other countries such as the United Kingdom, universities used to be active in providing trade union-oriented education. The goal of such universities was to address broader liberal, political, and social questions intended for trade unionists as both decision makers and social activists (McIlroy and Spencer). It is noteworthy that the number of universities offering such education started to decline after the Second World War. This decrease was mainly as a result of new directions that universities that started to take, and which sought to tap into the student market composed of middle-class people. The United Kingdom was one of the spearheading countries that provided labour education. In 1979, almost half of the universities offered specially designed courses that would appeal to trade unionists, particularly, workplace representatives. The national trade union centre in the United Kingdom, the Trade Union Congress (TUC) was a partner in the provision of almost half of these courses. The rest were composed of programs developed in collaboration with "different trade unions and certificate or diploma courses in Trade Union Studies offered to workers generally" (McIlroy and Spencer 63). Things changed in the 1980s when many educators started to believe that students are shortchanged if they study only purely trade union content. These educators believed that it was necessary to teach the basic industrial relations skills as well as lessons encompassing broad political and economic issues. Little by little, labour education in the United Kingdom became diluted with mainstream course contents.
The Canadian experience is quite unlike that of the United Kingdom. In Canada, there is no specific union objective, aim or methodology when it comes to union learning practices. Certainly, the student community has always been diverse. However, unions in Canada generally design their education programs using the adult education framework, which shows that they truly understand how workers learn best. Rather than taking the approach in which all of the knowledge is invested in the instructor, so that all the student has to do is listen and be passive, union education instead cherish active learners who share as much about their experiences and knowledge as the course topic is explored. Worker-centred education optimizes upon what people already know and then focuses on the entire person. The differences there may be in experience and identity are valued so that ultimately, a supportive and respective learning environment is built. As seen here, rather than the typical lectures and text, union education depends upon different activities that are appealing to the learners' "eyes, ears and hands" (Labour Education Centre 13). In union education in Canada, there is much use for trained peer instructors. This peer level approach usually encompasses seeking a fit between workers and trainers, or tutors with staff facilitators or even instructors from the public education system. Moreover, the popular education approach has recently been added to union education because this also optimizes upon adult education. To note, popular education is the approach in learning in which there is a conscious collective action for change. Lessons usually critically analyze inequality in terms of race, gender, disability, heterosexism or ageism. It has been observed that popular education pursues "a positive social vision" that seeks transformative education so that power hierarchies are transformed to social and economic equality (Labour Education Centre 13).
Current Prospects of Labour Education in Canada
One of the most significant breakthroughs in labour education in Canada was the establishment of the Labour College of Canada in the early 1960s. The College received funding from the labour movement and the government but given its focus on university-accepted approaches and the priority of training leaders for the collective bargaining system, there emerged a tension in terms of ideological perspectives. Nevertheless, the Whitelam administration was supportive of the Canadian Labour College. It must be noted, however, that the College did not really count on government support most of the time but was guided by two current intellectual streams. The first was a need for practical tools courses for leaders and second, the notion of an abstract liberal arts-type philosophy in other components of the curriculum.
In spite of the establishment of several formal learning institutions intentionally meant for labour education, by principle, Canadian unions typically eschew partnerships with universities because they prefer to educate their own workers and officials. This attitude is in direct contrast with their American and British counterparts. An example of this is the Canadian Workers' Centre in at Port Elgrin in Ontario (Nesbit 683). Nevertheless, one of the most extensive training provision is given by the Canadian Labour Congress (CLC) through a five-week Residential Program that is delivered in two parts: a national four-week component at the Labour College of Canada and an added week in one of the CLC locations. This standard course is made up of five subjects, namely, political science, sociology, economics, history and law (Nesbit 683). The aim of this program is to develop leadership by enhancing the ability of unionists to comprehend, analyze and deal with the daily issues encountered at work, in unions as well as in the community. Currently, several Canadian universities are offering a type of labour studies certificate or degree program. Understandably, these programs take a more academic approach to labour issues, practices and organizations. Hence, they are not specially designed for union workers or officials. It is noteworthy that there are more recent course designs that are intended for union leaders. For example, Simon Fraser University in British Columbia has several successful nine-month certificate programs intended for senior provincial labour leaders. These courses strive develop the theoretical foundation understanding regarding management of labour issues while at the same time, broadens the learners' knowledge and awareness of practical tools that may be used for efficient and effective management and leadership of unions (Nesbit 683). The following is a description of the current labour education landscape in Canada.
1. Adult Education Approach
Malcolm Knowles' seminal work on program design takes a paradigm shift from focus
on the educator to the learner. It was Knowles who coined the term "andragogy" to refer to "the art and science of helping adults learn" in direct contrast with "pedagogy" which refers to the "art and science of teaching children" (Newman 83). Therefore, andragogy as used by labour education emphasizes "learner learning" instead of "teacher teaching" and equally encourages respecting and utilizing experiences that adults bring to their learning (Newman 83). Therefore, in adopting this paradigm, labour education seeks to address the need of adults to solve problems and play new roles by means of encouragement of self-direction. To facilitate all these, Knowles promotes the use of a "learning contract" which is dramatically different from mainstream frameworks used n education. A learning contract is an individualized, highly personal project that is negotiated between the learner and the adult educator. Through this contract, the learner sets his or her own objectives, identifies the methods that he or she wants to use for learning so that these objectives are met, and then identifies the resources he or she wants tom use. Such resources typically include videos, visual materials, colleagues or books. The learner also sets the criteria through which both the learner and the adult educator can measure progress. Through the use of these contracts, learners are encouraged to design learning that is closely associated with real-life concerns, workplace problems and personal interests. It is expected that this learning contract will also generate outcomes that are directly applicable to the working or personal life of the learner.
2. Labour Education Programs
Through the years, a clearer definition of labour education has emerged. Labour education ranges from half-day to eight-week sessions, including courses at the Labour College of Canada residential school (Spencer 20). These courses are controlled by labour unions, are targeted at their members, union representatives and officials. Labour education courses seek to improve union effectiveness and develop union consciousness and thus encompasses all courses using the adult education approach for union members. Specific job training is not included in this definition. The essential components of current labour education are:
- Social education: A crucial component of union-controlled education is that it must be social, and therefore in opposition to the "personal" approach of mainstream formal education. Hence, current labour education emphasizes constructs such as service and representation and in these contexts, that union members be educated so that they can better serve their fellow members and the union within the workplace.
- Goal of labour education is to "advance or build the union, and to advance the interests of working people and the labour movement" (Spencer 21),.
- Tool Courses: Majority of union education courses aim to prepare its learners for union activities or possible leadership roles in the union. These are typically offered in-house by specific labour unions themselves. Sometimes, these tool courses are provided in collaboration with labour councils or the CLC. Seldom are they offered through or with a formal educational institution.
- Issues Courses: These courses aim to raise awareness about relevant labour union issues. These focus on the socio-political environment as well as on problems that impact union members and their families. Examples of these issues are privatization, outsourcing, free trade, new management principles, racism, and the like. It is notable that issues courses move onto tool training wherein unionists are provided with the skills and knowledge that they need to be able to effectively deal with such issues.
- Labour Studies: This type of learning means to widen the awareness of unionists of the context and nature of labour unionism. The flagship course is the aforementioned eight-week course at the Labour College of Canada at which selected activists are provided with university-level training in five disciplines, namely, history, economics, sociology, labour law, and politics (Spencer 21). As early as 1993, the Labour College of Canada had entered into an agreement with Athabasca University so that labour studies may be studied online.
- Dedicated Programs: There have been instances when unions or labour centrals have entered into agreements or partnerships with formal post-secondary schools so that courses ranging from tool to labour studies may be offered to union members. However, although the union takes part in decision-making regarding the courses, the union does not control these programs.
- Worker Education: This is a variation of labour studies that focuses instead on learning needs of workers. Hence, these courses cover areas such as literacy, basic skills development and workforce adjustment training.
- Union Leadership Training: Many labour unions such as the Sasketchewan Government Employees Union have designed leadership courses that will prepare members for union leadership. Such courses focus on the operation of a public sector union that covers various provinces and populations.
- Steward Training: Steward training is a hallmark of labour education (Gereluk, Briton and Spencer). Therefore, it is also the most developed and well-documented. The reason for this is largely because stewards play crucial roles in labour unions, and their training is centered around specific needs and organizational priorities in mind, such as skills in negotiating for collective bargaining agreements, legalities as well as grievances, among others.
- Other Forms of Union Learning: Labour unions have developed technologically and thus, are able to harness media in delivering their training instead of relying on traditional classrooms or courses. Therefore, there are self-help publications, factsheets and other article published over the Internet (Spencer 22). There are even some unions that have produced radio and television programs focusing on labour education.
3. The Learners
The only measure used in assessing efficacy of labour education is the degree to which they prepare activists and member to deal effectively with the different issues that they face in the workplace, the union as well as the community. For instance, the stewardship component of labour education pertains to handling grievances, leadership, education and communication effectiveness, among others. To note, leadership may be measured according to the responses of leaders help provide to union issues. This encompasses providing direction to the organization, and if it is the approach being used by a specific union then to lead resistance. Because of these combined factors, access to labour education is limited only to those who meet the requirements pertaining to duties and responsibilities that they will be asked to undertake on behalf of the union. For instance, majority of unions require that an individual must first have stewardship training before becoming a full-fledged steward. Similarly, those who are accorded position in collective bargaining teams are required to first have the necessary knowledge and skills acquired through labour education before they can take part in negotiations. Hence, it may be said that only those who have demonstrated their commitment to the labour movement are given access to labour education. Commitment may be measured through attendance of meetings, election to office, volunteer work, participation in picket-line duty and other types of activities that are service-oriented (Spencer 128).
4. The Educators
Just as there are limits as to who may become a union education learner, unions have clearly identified standards and expectations for those who are tasked with providing and guiding these learning activities. These requirements are both formal and informal and the balance is truck between these two elements by considerations of expertise and continuity. It must be noted that the "organization and mobilization of the rank-and-file requires volunteer membership involvement in education" (Spencer 135). These requirements have led to the development of an entirely new segment within labour education that is devoted to the training of instructors through the help of "plain language" manuals and materials. Typically, the roles of the instructors are to (i) develop education strategies and guidelines for courses; (ii) encourage and help members create education committees to work with national education departments to assess learning needs and implement programs; (iii) collaborate with the labour movement in order to build educational resources; and (iv) provide a resource center for education initiatives Spencer 135). It is seen here how instructors at labour education programs have responsibilities and duties that are quite different with mainstream instructors.
Future Prospects of Labour Education in Canada
Jeffrey Taylor explains that the direction labour education takes is aligned with the political purposes that the labour movement has established for itself (Taylor). For instance, when labour education first started, its orientation was on social issues largely as response to the radicalism of the 1930s and 1940s. Then, this transitioned into a service and training orientation, this time, as a response to conservatism after the Second World War. Currently, the prospects of labour education are aligned with the context of revived social movement. It has been noted that there have been declining enrolments in labour education programs (Taylor). During the 1970s, a tension between post-secondary schools and the labour movement started to emerge. It was during this time that universities and colleges started signalling willingness to make available educational resources to unions and their members. However, because many labour unions were feeling highly self-sufficient as a result of large grants to the CLC from the government that led to the establishment of the Labour Education and Studies Centre, these unions started rebuffing the offers of universities and colleges. In 1997, the CLC sent out letters containing guidelines to every Canadian university and college, stipulating that any labour education program must be controlled by the labour movement. In particular, post-secondary programs had to be managed by a committee designated by the relevant labour council or federation - taking responsibility for every aspect of the program including the selection of the instructor, fees to be charged, as well as course content and materials. Many post-secondary school officials warned unions that the control they were requiring was illegal in many jurisdictions but the unions did not pay attention. On the other hand, the 1970s were the "glory days" of labour studies programmes in universities and colleges in spite of the "general hostility" that unions were showing to post-secondary schools. Taylor explains that this hostility is very unfortunate because without it, labour education would have been much stronger today.
In spite of these, there have been significant developments in the field of labour education that bode well for the future. Collaborations between the labour movement and universities have improved such that these entities have become comfortable with their spheres of control. Universities are not very interested in offering tool courses, which is just fine as labour unions feel that this is their responsibility and forte. Although unions have been generally disinterested in the skills trainings offered by colleges and universities, they have consistently sought the help of these when it comes to research assistance. Colleges in particular have been offering a combination of tool and issues courses in compliance with their institutional mandates, but the labour movement continues to be wary because they do not have control over such programs. At the very least, labour unions seek joint control of course contents. Overall, by virtue of these persistent frictions, if the gap between labour studies programs and the labour movement continues, then "the prognosis is not good" (Taylor 38). However, if these stakeholders maximize upon their strength which is collaboration, then the future could be bright for labour education. The key here is having a vision for labour education, and this vision hinges upon the development of a labour learning agenda that links different public institutions with unions, labour councils, federations of labour as well as the CLC (Taylor 38).
This new learning agenda will be achieved if labour unions sit back, and take time tor review their existing education and training programmes. Then, unions must consider the current state in internal education and training so that a long-range education and training strategy may be designed. Crucial to this strategy would be the setting of principles and framework "negotiating articulation agreements and brokered arrangements with colleges and universities" so that unionists learning is on a broader scope. For example, a union may negotiate with universities or colleges to provide credits for learning that has already been gained under union education. There could also be involvement of peer educators within the universities or colleges so that the missions and aims of labour education are followed through. It is also preferable if technology is properly harnessed in order to make such a program accessible to all members regardless of geographic distance or time constraints. A dynamic online platform may be further developed to achieve this goal. Taylor suggests that there should be closer integration between the CLC's Education and Campaigns department and the Labour College of Canada to ensure national and cross-union coordination "of labour's internal education and training programmes as well as its brokered arrangements with external provider" (Taylor 40). The first step that may be taken here is to review the relationship between internal union education programmes and distance education courses to make sure that they are aligned. These two entities could also collaborate to help make sure that affiliates are able to infuse technology into their programs so that there is progression from basic courses to more advanced course contents. It would also be beneficial if colleges and universities collaborate among themselves as they work with local and national labour unions (Taylor 40).
Conclusion
Labour unions were regarded with suspicion for more than a century and a half. Indeed, there was generally negative perception of unions during this time. Nevertheless, the labour movement in Canada continued to persevere and in so doing, communicated values to society that include justice, hard work and overcoming oppression. These efforts are essentially the origin of labour education in Canada. Every activity and campaign undertaken by the labour movement taught lessons to its members. By taking part in pickets, strikes and meetings at union halls, members learned about competition, individualism and inequality and how these could exist side by side within the microcosm of the working place. Thus, labour education took form and over the years, have transformed into a non-formal learning system based on the belief that there is always more room for learning in the case of working adults. This transition period has been wrought by triumphs and failures. Today, it cannot be denied that not much is written about labour education. However, union learning has dramatically transformed such that there are currently comprehensive stewardship, tools and issues programs that not only address the learning needs of workers but also adhere with labour union values. Through the years, the labour movement has persistently fought for an education framework that it feels will better equip members as they strive to be productive in their personal and work lives. The progress of union education has been admirable and many learning programs now even have online delivery of education. The future is not that certain for labour education largely due to the unwillingness of mainstream educational institutions to handover control to the labour movement for their labour-oriented course contents. At the other end of the spectrum, experience shows that collaboration can be possible for these educational institutions and the labour movement. As long as this strength is optimized, then the future will be bright for labour education.
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