The Psychological and Social Factors that Motivate Casual Sex Among College Students

Sex in College - Integration in Social Sciences Research Paper

Promiscuity among adolescents is becoming more and more predominant in today's society. Researchers in the past have found that when adolescents begin to mature, they experiment with sexual behaviors. 70-85% of adolescents (Grello, Welsh and Harper, 2006) and 70% of college students participate in intercourse with a casual partner (cited in Grello, Welsh and Harper, 2006.) Understanding the underlining cause of promiscuous sex can help combat this growing epidemic. If educators understand the motivation behind casual sex, proper programs can be created to help children avoid situations that lead to risky sexual behavior.In order to understand the cause of promiscuous behavior among adolescence, one must explore the factors that motivate their sexual behavior. Psychology and Sociological influences that attribute to promiscuity will help gain more insight about the issue. In order to conduct further research, I will conduct a survey among the students of John Abbott College in order to gather data.

Literature Review

Grello, Welsh and Harper conducted a study that examined the reasons and circumstances that cause college students to participate in casual sex. The study consisted of 404 college students, both male and female. They were asked to fill out a questionnaire that asked various questions pertaining to their sexual experiences. Firstly, the participants were asked general information about themselves. Secondly, the authors attempted to evaluate the love styles of the students. This was done through a version of The Love Attitude Scale designed by Levesque in 1993 (cited in Grello, Welsh & Harper). Next, the questionnaire asked questions pertaining to the students' sexual behaviors. The questions were designed to look at sexual behaviors with in a romantic and casual sexual relationship. This portion also included questions about infidelity, history of sexual behaviors and expectations. Finally, Grello, Welsh and Harper used The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale to measure levels of depression within the participants. Based on the results, the authors came to several conclusions concerning the factors that motivate casual sex.

Firstly, the earlier a person was sexually active, the more often they would engage in casual sex, especially if the first time was a casual encounter. Casual sex was also related to drug use and alcohol consumption. Casual sex occurred more often between "friends" than with strangers. "It seems that the participants are not afraid of intimacy; they are just unwilling to commit to a romantic relationship" (Grello, Welsh & Harper, 2006) Females with the most amount of depressive symptoms and males with the least depressive symptoms were the most likely to engage in casual sex. The depressed females were seeking external validation from sex. These women have a very low self-esteem; therefore, they have a desire to feel wanted and be intimate with another person. Casual sex allows them to temporarily feel better about themselves. These women also reported having more depressive symptoms when the number of sexual partners grew. The authors believed that this is their way of filling an "internal void." Men, who are attractive and have a high self-esteem, seek vulnerable women that they do not have to commit to).

Alcohol is one of the primary motives behind promiscuity. Casual sex encounters were more frequent when alcohol was involved. Coleman and Cater conducted an experiment that tested the relationship between alcohol and promiscuity. This study examined how alcohol consumption over a single session can affect the likelihood of risky sex in adolescents. In-depth interviews were conducted with 64 adolescents, both male and female. The researchers found five primary reasons that alcohol consumption motivates casual sex encounters and risky sexual behaviors. "(1) Alcohol affecting young people's assessment of a person's sexual attractiveness; (2) alcohol used as an "excuse" for socially unacceptable behavior; (3) increased confidence and lowering of inhibitions; (4) impaired judgment in accurately recognizing and controlling a potentially risky situation; and (5) complete loss of control, memory loss, and black-out" (Coleman and Cater, 2005.) Impaired judgment and loss of control, memory and Black- outs, were the explanations that had the biggest effect on risky sexual behavior among adolescences. The researchers found that risky events were more likely to occur when alcohol consumption had increased.

Casual sex can be attributed to many external factors and behaviors. Oswalt, Cameron and Koob, performed a study that examined the relationship between regret and casual sex.The data was gathered through a questionnaire that was distributed among 207 college students, both men and women. The participants were asked about their sexual experiences and related out comes. The next section of the questionnaire asked the students to respond to questions that asked about regretted sexual experiences (i.e. "Have you ever regretted your decision to engage in sexual activity?") Lastly, subjects were questioned about their reasons for their behavior and behind their regret. The results showed that the primary sources of regret came from what motivated the student to participate in the casual sex act. Firstly, like the study done by Coleman and Cater, alcohol was one of the primary motives that affected the participants' behavior. Secondly, the participant engaged in casual sex due to the fact that their partner was putting pressure on them to do so. Finally, subjects would engage in casual sex because they hoped that the encounter would bloom into a relationship.

Internal factors that influence casual sex can be attributed to a persons mind set. Lykins,Janssen and Graham, conducted a study that attempted to connect sexual behavior with negative moods in college men and women. This was a comparative study, done through a questionnaire, which attempted to compare the effect negative mood had on each gender's sexual desire. The study consisted of 663 females and 399 males, who were all of college age. Participants were asked questions pertaining to the mood they were in the last time they engaged in a sexual act. The results showed that men had an increased sexual interest when they were in a negative mood. The majority of women reported decreased sexual interest and response when feeling upset or anxious (Lykins, Janssen and Graham). The results reported in this study seem to contradict the study done by Grello, Welsh and Harper, however in reality they don't. There is a difference between a bad mood and depression. A bad mood is when someone is not feeling sad for a few hours or days (Weiten). Some one that is depressed will show the same symptoms, however, it will at least two weeks, and will be accompanied by other symptoms that interfere with daily living.

Both internal and external psychological factors have a role in motivating casual sex among college students. As shown by Grello, Welsh and Harpers' study, external factors such as alcohol, relationship expectations and pressure from the participant's partner attribute to risky sexual behaviors. They also found that internal factors such as depression and negative mood play a role in motivating casual sex encounters. However, these studies were not entirely representative of the population. The participants in each one of the studies were primarily female, making it difficult to assess if the authors' conclusions were completely valid.

From a sociological stand point, Marston and King, attempt to explain the social standards that can attribute to risky sexual behavior. They conducted an experiment that looked at young people and how social and cultural forces in western society have an effect their sexual behavior and condom use. The participants were both male and female and ranged from age 15-24.The data was taken from different studies that were done between 1990 and 2004. The results showed five key findings that explain the social motivations behind promiscuous sex. Marston and King found that, (1) sexual partners have an influence on sexual behavior, (2) gender stereotypes determine social expectations and behavior, (3) there are penalties and rewards for sex from society, (4) reputation, and (5) social expectations make communication about sex difficult.

Culture and religious beliefs have a profound effect on people's values. People's attitude towards sexuality can help create inferences about what social factors contribute to casual sex. Religion and age are important factors to examine when questioning what motivates promiscuity. Le Gall, Mullet and Shafighi explored the idea that age and religion have an effect on people's sexual attitudes. The research was a comparative study that compared the sexual attitudes of 800 people in different age groups. To gain insight on the general population, the ages ranged from 15-70. The study also compared Americans to the French in France. The study consisted of 200 young adults (102 men and 98 women), 200 adults (98 men and 102 women), 200 middle-aged adults (94 men and 106 women), and 200 older adults (83 men and 117 women). Through a questionnaire, Le Gall, Mullet and Shafighi, collected data pertaining to the subjects' sexual attitudes and behaviors. Participants were asked questions pertaining to their religious views, their sexual activities and what types of sexual behaviors they found acceptable.

The results showed that older adults and who had strong religious views, tended to be less promiscuous than young people who did not share the same religious ideals. A cultural difference between the French people in France and the Americans showed the French to be more promiscuous then the Americans.

Environmental factors motivate peoples' sexual behaviors. When a college student is in an environment that promotes sex, drinking and drugs, they are more likely to engage in casual sex because they are in a place where it is socially acceptable. Mardi Gras is an annual festival in New Orleans, Louisiana, consisting of parades, costumes, parties and lots of drinking. Milhausen,Reece and Perera, conducted an experiment in order to understand sexual behavior at Mardi Gras. The study examined how the festival might influence sexual behavior. During the festival there is a lot of partying and drinking. The college students that participate in this event go to New Orleans expecting that they will engage in some risky sexual behaviors. Data was collected from 300 Mardi Gras participants in February 2004 through a questionnaire. The subjects were asked questions pertaining to their sexual expectations. For example, "do you expect to engage in sexual activities at the festival?" The results showed that both men and women predicted engaging in sexual behaviors at Mardi Gras due to peer sexual activity, intentions, and previous sexual experience.

A person's social class can have a profound effect on their sexual behavior. Researchers believe that children in a lower social class are more sexually active than those of a higher social class. Weinberg, Lottes andGordon conducted research that investigated the relationship between social class and sexual attitudes and behavior. The sample consists of 554 college students (19-22 years old), that were asked to fill out a fourteen page questionnaire that they received in the mail. 61% of the sample was women and 39% were male and the participants ranged from varying races and religions. The data collected in this study was compared to a similar study that was done a few years earlier. A dramatic result was found. Researchers found that promiscuity has become part of the social norm in college and is no longer associated with class. Casual sex has grown more common due to reliable birth control, gains in equality of women, and the sexual images of television and other media. This study suggests that a person's environment is an important factor pertaining to the motives behind casual sex. College life and the atmosphere that surround the campus, promotes sexual activity; therefore class is no longer a factor because everyone is living in the same environment. However, a study done by Ramirez-Valles, Zimmerman, Newcomb show different results when examining high school kids.

Ramirez-Valles, Zimmerman, and Newcomb, conducted a study that examined sexual behavior and whether social class, race, and gender are factors that motivate risky sexual behavior. The researchers accumulated their data through a questionnaire. Students were asked questions pertaining to their sexual behaviors and their family life. Questions relating to the parents income and where they lived were essential in identifying the students' social class. The study used a cross sectional sample of 370 American high school students from different districts. The results showed that family structure and family class, indirectly predicts sexual risk behavior through neighborhood poverty, parental involvement, and pro-social activities. The results differ from the study done by Weinberg, Lottes and Gordon due to the fact that they were each studying a different demographic. Ramirez-Valles, Zimmerman, and Newcomb examined American high school students, were as Weinberg, Lottes and Gordon looked at American college students. High school students live at home and are influences by the environment around them.

The collection of research pertaining to the motivations behind casual sex show that promiscuity can be motivated by sociological factors. Le Gall, Mullet and Shafighi found that religion, age and culture play an important role in motivation sexual behaviors. A person's cultural believes shapes their sexual attitudes and behaviors. Milhause, Reece and Perera and Weinberg, Lottes, and Gordon found that a person's external environment is a factor that motivates casual sex. Researchers found that a person's behavior is shaped by social norms and expectation. If a person is an environment that promotes drinking, parties and sex, they are more likely to engage in casual sex. Finally, Ramirez-Valles, Zimmerman, and Newcomb found that social class is another factor that predicts casual sex among students.

Introduction

Sex sells. We are a capitalist country, run by businesses and businesses want to sell. They sell through advertising, which saturates America culture with overt and covert sexual innuendo in order to sell products. While this may be an acceptable strategy if society were an island relegated to adults, this is not the reality. Even with parental controls and various attempts by pro-social organizations, communities, and religious organizations, to encourage adolescents to engaging in behavior that is responsible, the siren call of sex and how it is spun by the media and advertisers, many times proves to be too much for young people to resist. The result is that many young people engage in risky casual sexual behavior before they are mature enough to understand the act and its biological, psychological and social consequences, in order to fit in with social norms and/or to fill a void in their developing self-schema. To think otherwise would be irresponsible and ignorant to the influential power that external factors, such as advertising and the constant bombardment of pro-sex images in the media, has on an individual's psychology; say nothing of the influence it has on the psychology of an adolescent who is still going through an identity maturation process.

While not all adolescents are negatively affected by America's capitalist/consumer/sex-selling culture, certain subsets of the population have traditionally been more susceptible: those without other influences to counterbalance overarching social themes - usually children from low income and/or single parent families. However, according to new research by Weinberg, Lottes and Gordon, today, family structure and class are no longer the primary determinants of what causes young people to engage in risky sexual behavior, and further present that risky sexual behavior has been normalized in this generation. The discovery that casual sex is now a social norm for most adolescents, regardless of their SES, family structure, and all of the associated and potentially lethal risks, reiterates that the primary causes that now motivate risky sexual behavior in adolescents are psychological and sociological.

Psychology

Psychology is the science that deals with mental processes and, ipso facto, is a subfield of biology (Uttal). It is focused on the mental processes of living organisms, but is mostly concerned with those who have high level cognitive functioning such as humans and primates. It is important to note that since psychology is a biological science, it carries with it the rules of biology which has a factual basis of what is healthy and what is not healthy, if healthy is defined as life affirming, and un-healthy is defined as death inducing. Specifically, Psychology is the study of how the individual perceives, itself and its environment, and in some cases behaves in its environment. Understanding a person's psychological perspective is the cornerstone for understanding their motivation, and without use of psychological theory in determining motivators for engaging in risky sexual behavior, any inquires and findings on the issue will be severely limited.

Sociology

Sociology asks questions that related to the individual within their social context. Questions like "why do people like one another", and "how are governments formed", and discovering how societies are formed, evolve and how they function are all fall under sociological inquiry. Sociology seeks to understand society as a whole, rather than according to the individual or from a philosophical standpoint. Similar to psychology, sociology has so many sub-sets and specialties; they would fill the rest of this page in list form; differing from psychology, in order for sociology to be employed there must be social interaction, so more than one person has to be present, but the upper end is unlimited. As with psychology, sociology can mix with any of the natural and other sciences in studying the massive complexity of human social construct, change, action and interaction (Cove). Without having a firm understanding of sociology and sociological theories, individual motivating factors for engaging in risky sexual behaviors are limited only to the individual and does not include the variety of other influences outside of the individual that influence their choice as to whether or not to engage. However, a combination of both psychology and sociology provides a comprehensive framework that researchers can use to determine the factors that motivate adolescents to engage in risky social behavior. One of the primary factors, within a social context is western consumer based society.

Advertising & Capitalist Society

The structuring of personal identity with material items is one of the primary vehicles that dive capitalist economies (Davidson). This is in large part due to the psychological study of behaviorism and how a symbol, a representation of an activity or psychological state, can ignite a visceral feeling. The ability to sell products based upon representations that fill a human need is called Semiotics, and occurs when a material object is assigned a symbolic meaning (connotative meaning) that is more than the meaning of the object itself (denotative meaning). Semiotics is concerned with anything which 'stands for' something else. Examples of signs include words, images, sounds, gestures and objects. Signs are a part of larger semiotic 'sign-systems' which determine how meanings are made and how reality is represented (Chandler). In western society, sex has become the primary semiotic and signs are any of the products that advertisers are trying to sell - and make no mistake, sex sells and capitalist society is invested in this biological reality. The visceral charge that consumer's get when purchasing a product that is sexualized has come to be expected from everything from food to shoes. Though the biology of human arousal should be enough for sex to sell on face value, many advertisers don't want to risk any burn out, so in order for sex to keep selling, the positives of sex must continue to be sold and the negatives, ignored.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of this study is to determine whether psychological and sociological factors are the primary motivators for risky sexual behaviors in college age students. Our hypothesis is that it is, and that psychological (mental state, mood, affect, psychological history, ignorance) and social factors (culture (television, radio, mass media), potential sexual partners, gender perceptions & stereotypes and environment), will rank as the top two factors (in no particular order) when compared with other factors that will be examined during the study, including: Substances (alcohol and drugs), family structure, socio-economic status, and religious and/or personal values. The ranking in which the students place various items in the study will provide better insight as to whether the theories asserted by theorists Le Gall, Mullet and Shafighi, Milhause, Reece and Perera and Weinberg, Lottes, and Gordon, Ramirez-Valles, Zimmerman, and Newcomb are valid in a population of college students, and if so, what is the order of relevance. The results of this study are intended to provide a better understanding of what motivates young adults to engage in risky casual sex, regardless of the consequences.

Method

Participants

In order to determine whether psychological and sociological factors are the primary motivators for risky sexual behaviors in college age students, we created a questionnaire to be filled out by students asking specific questions in order to determine and rank what motivates them to engage in sexual behavior.

- Only sexually active students were used in this study.

- 120 students participated - 4 were female and 46 were male.

- All participants verified their student status by showing ID, but responded to the questionnaire anonymously.

- Advertised for our study using social media and postings around campus.

- Complimentary lunch (Subway lunch combo) was provided as compensation.

- Students from all undergraduate class levels: Freshmen (32), Sophomores (38), Juniors (43), Seniors (14).

- The questionnaire contained a total of 30 questions; 20 were geared towards finding students motivations for sex and 10 were geared at ranking them in terms of significance.

Procedure

The principle investigator monitored the student participants in a room setting, 20 at a time. They were seated one seat apart, and no talking or interacting with other students was permitted while taking the test. After taking the test, they were directed to another room where they could select a Subway lunch and eat it there or take it to go. All of the questionnaires were answered in a one week period.

Measures

This experiment will determine which factors motivate young adults in a college setting to engage in risky sexual behavior. The first section of the questionnaire will measure what the primary motivating factors are, selected by the research presented in the literature review, and the second section will rank the factors in terms of importance.

Quantitative

This is a quantitative study, as the data from the questionnaire will be analyzed, charted and interpreted. There is no qualitative aspect to this study.

Reliability & Data Coding

Coding was done by *LIST NAMES OF PEOPLE IN YOUR GROUP* using MS excel and was converted into charts using MS word. This process was then double checked by another member of the group *LIST NAME* for accuracy.

Results

A. Questionnaire

Section 1: Please answer the following questions yes or no.

- Have you ever engaged in risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever felt depressed before engaging in risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever been intoxicated before engaging in risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever been under the influence of a drug before engaging in risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever been clinically diagnosed with depression or a depression related disorder?

- Are you aware of the psychological risks associated with risky sexual behavior?

- Are you aware of the physical risks associated with risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever engaged in risky sexual behavior because of lyrics in a song?

- Do more than 10 songs that you listen to on a weekly basis suggest, imply, or present risky sexual behavior?

- Do more than 5 of the television programs that you watch on a weekly basis suggest, imply, or present risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever been pressured by a potential partner to having risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever engaged in risky sexual behavior to fit in?

- Have your religious beliefs ever stopped you from having sex?

- Do you consider sex appeal when purchasing your clothing?

- Have you ever engaged in risky sexual behavior because of a game or dare?

- Have you ever abstained from risky sexual behavior because of a suggestion or command from an authority figure?

- Do your friends have more of an influence over whether or not you engage in risky sexual behavior than your parents?

- Do you think western culture has influenced you to engage in risky sexual behavior?

- Do you engage in risky sexual behavior to satisfy a non-sexual need?

- Has the participation in a sport or hobby ever prevented you from engaging in risky sexual behavior?

Section 2: Please rank the follow in the order of importance.

Rank the following factors in the order in which they motivate you the most to engage in risky sexual behavior.

- My friends

- My partner

- Music that I listen to

- Being under the influence of Alcohol or Drugs

- Being in an environment that promotes risky sexual behavior

- Feeling lonely

- Feeling good about myself

- My favorite movie or television show

- Because I am bored

- Because I need money

B. Responses

Section 1: Responses in the affirmative (yes)

Findings

The findings in the chart above are classified by raw scoring, answering the questions in the affirmative, and by the year of the student in school. The data can further be quantified by sex, percent, and made into a comparative analysis by any of those factors. The highest ranking questions in the affirmative are as follows:

- All: 1 (engaged in risky sexual behavior), 6&7 (aware of physical & psychological risks associated with RSB)

- Freshmen: 18 (influenced by western culture), 10 (more than 5 weekly tv/film programs encourage or imply RSB)

- Sophomores: 18 (influenced by western culture), 10 (more than 5 weekly tv/film programs encourage or imply RSB)

- Juniors: 18 (influenced by western culture), 10 (more than 5 weekly tv/film programs encourage or imply RSB)

- Seniors: 18&10 (influenced by western culture, more than 5 weekly tv/film programs encourage or imply RSB) & 3 (prior intoxication) & 9 (more than 10 songs with/imply RSB).

Section 2: Motivating Factors

Findings

The findings in the chart above are classified by raw scoring, ranking the top reasons for engaging in risky sexual behavior and by the year of the student in school. The data can further be quantified by sex, percent, and made into a comparative analysis by any of those factors. The ranking of the top motivators for engaging in risky behavior are as follows:

- Freshmen: Partner, Friends, Substance

- Sophomores: Partner, Friends, Substance

- Juniors: Partner, Substance, Friends & Environment

- Seniors: Partner & Environment & Lonely, Substance & Friends, Bored

Based on the information in our study, we found that the all of the students that we interviewed engaged in risky sexual behavior at some point in their lives and that they were aware of the psychological and physical health risks associated with risky sexual behavior, but did so regardless. Freshmen, sophomores, and juniors were further influenced by western culture and the television/film media that they consume, while seniors were influenced by that as well as music that they listen to with high RSB based content. Our findings validate hour hypothesis that psychological and social factors, above others, motivate college students to engage in risky sexual behaviors.

In terms of motivations for engaging in risky sexual behaviors, we found that the top ranking for freshmen, sophomores and juniors is pressure from the potential or current partner. For seniors, it is a tie between pressure from the partner, feeling lonely, and being in an environment that encourages risky sexual behavior. For freshmen and sophomores, the second motivating factor is pressure from friends, while for juniors it was being under the influence of a substance, and for seniors it was tied between pressure from friends and being under the influence of a substance. The third motivating factor for engaging in risky sexual behavior for freshmen and sophomores is being under the influence of a substance, for juniors it is a tie between pressure from friends and an encouraging environment and for seniors it is boredom. These findings provide mixed support for our hypothesis because while being pressured by a partner and friends are social motivations for engaging in risky sexual behaviors, being under the influence of a substance is not.

Implications

The primary implications from our study indicate that college age students are heavily influenced by social, psychological, and substance related factors when deciding to engage in risky sexual behaviors. Social factors include anything from peer or partner pressure to the strong reliance on sex for marketing and advertising in western society. It also demonstrates that these influences and motivators are so powerful that they overshadow reason and doing what is the best interest of the psychological and physical health of the students, as they have indicated that they are aware of the associated risks, but engage in the behavior regardless. On an individual level, having a generation of young adults who engage is causal and irresponsible sex is creating a cadre of adults who will not have as much respect for abstinence, and marriage which will further strain the ability to build healthy families, communities and so forth. Sex, and the context in which it is had is one of the most powerful acts in society, and when it is devalued to the point of being casual, all of the other concepts that are attached to it; healthy communication between the sexes, healthy relationships, physical health and psychological health are also treated with little to no regard. This does not spell success for the next generation of western civilization; it is an alarm that shouts that a change in our social value system is necessary for the preservation of our nation.

Discussion

Our experiment was successful in that it did prove that psychological and social factors are motivators for engaging in risky sexual behaviors among college students. Our findings also imply that more attention needs to be paid on the link between substance use and risky sexual behaviors. It may be that substance use prior to engaging in RSB's is also linked to psychological or social factors, but that link was not made clear in this study and would make a strong point of investigation for further studies. Also, it is important to note that some of the questions that we asked received no answers in ranking questions, and for another study, perhaps different more refined questions can be asked; ones that are more specific in their examples of different types of motivating factors for engaging in risky sexual behaviors. Other areas for exploration in future studies include using a biological framework in addition to psychological and social ones to determine whether factors such as hormones, disabilities, and genetic proclivities have any bearing on motivators for engaging in risky sexual behavior.

References

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Cove, W. R. Is Sociology the Integrative Discipline in the Study of Human Behavior?. Social

Davidson, D. Inquiries into truth and interpretation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chandler, D. Semiotics: The Basics. London: Routledge.[/i]