Psychological Studies - Research Questions and Answers

Psychology Study

1. Explain in detail the difference between structuralism and functionalism.

Differentiating structuralism from functionalism calls for a clear understanding of the two approaches independently. According to Wundt' model, Structuralism is an approach to psychology that attempts to understand the human mind by breaking down the human consciousness into minor components of feelings, sensation as well as perceptions and how these facets respond to stimuli such as sound. Functionalism on the other hand takes a different perspective to understanding the mental experience by analyzing the purpose it serves. This school of thought explains how one's behavior can help him/her adjust to the changes in the environment s/he lives.

Wundt takes an introspective approach in analyzing the human mind by breaking down the mental experience into discrete elements and analyzes how these elements are prearranged to form a multifaceted knowledge and how they are interrelated with physical events such as stimuli. These elements organize themselves in a manner that provides room for conscious experience. It is clear that Wundt's perception of psychology through structuralism was meant to understand how the elements of sensation, feelings and thinking would correlate upon exposure to a stimulant to bring forth a conscious reaction in an individual.

However, understanding of individual's conscious reactions through such perception has proven to be inaccurate. Different people have different reactions or responses when their feelings for instance are evoked by an external stimulus. When two people are exposed to the same degree of heat for instance, their response to the stimulus will vary as reflected by their perceptions. How they sense the heat, and perceive the stimulus is different from the other person and this is what makes one unique. How about other people who are not in a position to provide a distinctive description of their feelings? This forms the technicality involved in trying to understand the human mind through structuralism.

This led to evolvement of a different approach of functionalism which interprets the mental experience through analyzing the functions of the mental processes. William James' model states that individual's behavior is dependent on the prevailing environment around him/her and that people act as per the situation they find themselves in. Individual's behavior reflects his conscious reaction upon exposure to a stimulus. For instance, if you subject an individual to high degree of heat, that person will respond by either moving away from the heat source or removing his body part that is directly exposed. His behavior has therefore helped in understanding his mind. Functionalism is therefore considered a suitable approach in understanding of the human mind.

2. Why is it necessary for psychological researchers to use the scientific method?

Think about a psychological issue of interest to you. How would you approach it from a scientific perspective?

Scientific approach to psychology is undoubtedly the best in trying to understand the human mind. According to Nevid, understanding of human mind should entail adoption of scientific study of the human behavior and not basing the arguments on the mental processes. Scientific research revolves around observable features such as response as well as reflexes. If you prick an individual's arm using a sharp object for instance, the victim will obviously react to that incident by removing his/her hand. This constitutes the reflex action. The hand will sense the danger and send a message to the brain which will in turn advise the body to move away from the source of danger. It is vivid that the victim would not choose to remain in the same position and instead ask you to remove the object. This provides a factual understanding of the human mind.

Scientific approach provides accurate results based on what can be justified upon research. For instance, a colleague who had accompanied you for a walk in the park collapses and dies on the spot. First and foremost, a hypothesis has to be developed on the possible cause of the death. Data will thereafter be collected on the scene as well as venues that might have been visited by the individual and his/her partner including people they had met before and the food they might have eaten and so on. This data will be then analyzed and interpreted by the experts and findings be availed. This approach provides reliable information as far as the cause of such death is concerned hence the necessity of scientific research.

3. State the advantages in the nervous system of having neurons fire according to the all-or-none law?

The all-or-none principle describes the behavior of neurons and other body muscles. It states that once a stimulus exceeds certain limits, a nerve impulse will occur all the way and not happen half way. This means that an impulse can only be relayed at certain thresholds and would therefore represent the object. It is an important phenomenon since the message conveyed to the brain will be a true reflection of the stimulus. Humans perceive a stimulus such as color through an electrical impulse sent to the brain. Firing of neuron happens in specificity. This means that specific neurons are tuned to respond to stimulus and convey the same message to the brain or from the brain to the specific body part. The environmental characteristics of the fire represent the same characteristics of the stimulus. Once it is fired, there is no backward movement.

4. Psychophysics: Provide original examples from your daily live of these phenomena: a. Weber's Law, b. Sensory adaptation.

Weber's law revolves around analysis of relationships between stimulus and sensation in psychological sphere. According to Weber, it is only possible for 'an individual to perceive a stimulus as greater than the other only when the greater stimulus has been increased in ratio. Weber explains that this observation is only possible when a just noticeable level of stimulus is increased. For instance, when one wants to make a difference in weight, he has to add another weight in regard to weight of the existing object. That is to say that when one has an object of 100kgs he has to add 5kgs for instance so as to make a noticeable change rather than adding 5gms.

Sensory adaptation involves the adjustments by the body organs to changes in the stimulus. For instance, when one has been occupying a dim-light room and is suddenly exposed to high levels of light the victim may close his eyes first depending on the intensity of the light and gradually open them after getting accustomed to the situation.

5. Describe one of your recent dreams (one that does not have anyobvious sexual or embarrassing content!). Use it to contrast the dream theories.

My unforgettable experience was manifested one night when I dreamt that I had just finished my evening fitness exercise when my coach came by to disclose the unbelievable news that I had been offered a football scholarship in DAAD University in Germany. From this dream I'm in a position to appreciate Freud's perception of dreams as being capable of extraordinary success in a specific area by elevating the dreamer to such level. I have been engrossed in soccer for a while now and I've been anticipating an opportunity where I would display my talent at the international football arena. The hypothesis that dreams prepare individuals for events and experience they foresee might be true in my case. I shall have fulfilled my dream! However, the other perception of compensatory function of dream that justifies the occurrence of a dream merely to offset the difference within a person is rather discouraging.

6. Analysis of Conditioning Principles in Advertisements: Describe and analyze a current T.V. or magazine advertisement.

There is this TV advertisement where a man in his thirties is seeping a bottle of Guinness while a car is driven over one of his feet. He appears to be very comfortable with the situation as cheers are heard as well as voice from the background explaining to the flabbergasted TV audiences the capability of the Guinness consumers.

This advertisement is trying to persuade those who have not made up their mind on the brand of beer they are supposed to consume to do so. It also influences the youths who view power as something positive and they would feel proud of being associated with.

The important people in the advertisement include the holder of the Guinness bottle, those cheering the fellow as well as the commentator.
The outcome for consumption of Guinness according to the advertisement is that it makes an individual stronger and more powerful than before. The advertisement associates the product with power and strength.

This Advertisement tells us how the advertisers exaggerate the capability of their product thereby deceiving consumers who might believe their statements of being powerful and strong after consumption of Guinness hence influencing their behavior in a way. It also tells us how far the advertisers can go in an attempt to sell their product.

7. What is memory per the textbook? Explain at least two kinds of memory.

Memory involves the process by which an individual stores skills and knowledge that one has learnt for future use. There are three types of memories namely; working and immediate memories for temporary storage of information as well as long-term memory that aids in the permanent storage of information. Sousa explains that the former type of memory involves storage of knowledge or skill for a short period of time such as seconds or few minutes and repeating as well as revising that information to accomplish a certain task. Long-term memory on the other hand involves the ability to permanently store information for a longer period of time such as months, years or even for a lifetime.

8. Define the difference between algorithms and heuristics.

Algorithm involves a method of solving a problem using predetermined directives as applied either in mathematics or computer science. Heuristics on the other hand is a hurried method of getting solutions to a problem. The former provides an effective means of finding a solution to a problem while the latter does not provide the exact answer to a problem but rather expected to be close to the solution. Algorithm is systematic while Heuristics is rapid.

9. What makes a good intelligence test? Explain.

Intelligence tests involve observation of an individual's personality through assessment of his/her intellectual ability. Good intelligence test should produce information that is relevant to the practitioners. These tests should also be reliable and valid. The methods that have been adopted to measure the intelligence quotient must be precise by producing results that are consistent with previous ones. On the other hand, the measurements should also be valid in that it serves the purpose it was meant for.

10. Explain Maslow's theory of self-actualization.

Maslow's model states that human beings always desire something and will always be interested in growing rather than remaining in the same position and restoring balance. He says that in a bid to fulfill his potential, an individual proceeds to meet his needs, grow and be happy. Maslow classifies needs in a hierarchical manner in which satisfaction of a need in one level opens up individual's mind to realize the importance of the needs in the next level in the hierarchy. He therefore concludes by reiterating that human beings will always attempt to fulfill their highest potential hence self-actualization.

11. Summarize the findings on gender differences in personality and cognitive abilities. Discuss the extent to which the observations in the text on these gender differences correspond to your own experiences.

According to Halpern the cognitive performance of an individual is entangled between the biological, psychological and social influences an individual has been subjected to. Halpern argues that if a process in a society for instance creates a situation in which males get a biological advantage (such as higher hormone concentrations) over females in performing a certain task, and that a society such as African society which values men more than women in terms of gender roles, prioritize male roles, then the ability of female in such circumstances is under-estimated. Generally, the psychological, societal as well as biological factors function together to greatly influence the personality and cognitive performance of an individual.

These findings are actually the true phenomena on the ground. The perception that women are weaker sex is absolutely outdated. On a leveled ground, women have proven to be psychologically equally important just like their male counterparts. It is time to judge women not by what is between their legs but what is between their ears!

REFERENCE LIST

Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.. Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior (12th Ed). Cengage Learning.

Engler, B.. Personality Theories (8th Ed). Cengage Learning.

Halpern, D.. Sex differences in cognitive abilities (3rd Ed). Routledge.

Marnat, G.. Handbook of Psychological Assessment (5th Ed).John Wiley and Sons.

Nevid, J.. Psychology: concepts and applications (2nd Ed). Cengage Learning.

Portillo, S. & Pastorino, E.. What Is Psychology? Essentials. Cengage Learning.

Sousa, D.. How the gifted brain learns. Corwin Press.