Active Research 11 | -
Oct 26, 2016 | #1
"The traveler returning to the United States from a vacation trip in Africa, Europe, or [Asia] is often heard to comment that nearly everyone he met seemed to be able to speak some English. To such impressionist accounts of the ubiquity of English as the world language, one might also add the clearly partisan evaluations of its importance as a lingua franca offered by the promoters of English." (Fishman, Cooper and Conrad).
In a world wherein English is and has always been the global language (for the younger generations at least), the idea that people once doubted its probability seems daft. Nevertheless, few people recognised the significance of English in the modern world. Fishman et al were some of the few observers who predicted the eventual dominance of English as a global language. Many of the early professionals teaching English as a second language had expected the demand for learning the language to be limited to the specific elite of a particular country. Fishman's study in 1977, however, revealed the extent of English's reach: it was already the first language of more than 300 million people, and the second language of many more.
English became not just a global language - it became a necessary language. By the 1970s, "English was already the language of diplomacy (95 of the 126 members of the United Nations received working documents in English), the language of 70 percent of the world's mail, used by pilots to communicate with air controllers" (Spolsky). English was not only ubiquitous; it was practical. It was not simply a matter of former colonies stuck in a colonial mindset, using the language of the former masters in order to cultivate a sense of superiority. Learning English was no longer an option but a requirement. Soon enough, it would become the main means of communication in an increasingly wired world.
But what exactly brought the English language to its present position, and what does the future hold? This study aims to uncover the transformation of the English language. What are the causes and consequences of English's dominance, and will it remain a dominant language in the near future? These are some of the questions that this paper seeks to answer. This paper posits that colonialism, supported by auxiliary events such as the United States post-Cold War hegemony, planted the seeds that developed English as a global language. This has resulted in the development of many versions of English, rendering English a dynamic and universal rather than national "property". Unfortunately, its development as a global language has also resulted in problematic consequences such as language death.
To prove so, this paper shall begin with a brief discussion of the history of English, with particular attention to its spread. This shall serve as the platform through which the paper may discuss the development of the language into a universal tongue. The study shall then devote a larger part of the discussion to the causes that brought English to its present position as an international language. Finally, the study shall look at the consequences of this development, particularly the effects on other languages. Also, the study may include a brief look at the future of English. Can it be overtaken by other languages, i.e. Mandarin, given the present shifts in global politics? The paper shall seek to provide holistic answers to fulfil the reader's understanding of English's development and future as a universal language.
English was brought to Britain by Germanic hordes, a combination of Anglo and Old-Saxon dialects. Prior to the arrival of the Germanic settlers, the natives of what is now part of the United Kingdom spoke a combination of Latin and Celtic dialects, a holdover from the Roman occupation. English as a language developed with nomadic invasions, particularly seeing changes in pronunciation or the addition of new words. This is a dynamic feature of the English language - its ability to adapt and absorb when put in contact with other languages - that is particularly significant in its later development as an international language.
The "modern" form of English that serves as the basis for the contemporary form of the language began only in 1550. Shakespeare, therefore, may seem difficult to understand for contemporary readers, and yet his English is already the most familiar yet historical form of the language available. The spread of English, in a nutshell, begins with the development of British colonialism. By the time the American colonies gained independence from the Crown, English was no longer a monopoly of the British. It was, by far, a language used, adapted and embraced by millions worldwide.
Romaine writes of an error made by the remarkable Winston Churchill, who entitled his tome, "A History of the English-Speaking Peoples". His book was on a history of the English (or the British, in general) people and was published in 1956. The problem, however, is that by the time he wrote the book, "English-speaking peoples" could refer to people completely separate and different from the British/English. "The demographic shift in the English-speaking population had already moved away from Britain, and the unity of the language whose history had once centred on an island was forever broken."
By the time British colonialism ended, the language had made its way to all corners of the world. "English explorers and colonists had spread the language to the farthest reaches of the Empire on which the sun was alleged never to set." Their presence and policies had made enough of an impact to catapult the English language into its global position. Colonialism was not, of course, the end point of English's development into an international (if not "the" international) language. It was, however, a particularly significant starting point.
Continuing from the earlier discussion, it cannot be denied that British colonialism was undoubtedly one of the primary causes behind the transformation of English into a global language. Ferguson argues that, "the spread and decline of languages is causally linked to the power and the fortunes of their speakers rather than to any properties of the language code." It is not that English is particularly pleasant to the ears, or easier to study. Its spread can be chalked up to the power that was and still remains in the hands of its primary speakers: the British colonial masters and the present day American behemoth.
When the British established a settlement in the "New World", there were approximately five to seven million speakers who had English as their mother tongue. Between that period and the years following the 2nd World War, however, the number had swelled to about 150 million, four-fifths of whom are not living in Great Britain. The period in between - the height and eventual decline of the British Empire and colonialism in general - was particularly crucial to the spreading of the English language from the isles to millions of speakers abroad.
The idea that British colonialism was the catalyst behind the spread of English cannot be incorrect. However, it is wise to point out that it is by far not the first (or potentially the last) language to be spread to other cultures by virtue of conquest. The Romans brought Latin to the ancient world, influencing the choice of language of the local elites for centuries. Aramaic, Arabian, Spanish, Mayan and French are but a few examples of military conquests resulting in the spread of the dominant party's lingua franca. That English lasted more than the other languages of conquerors can be viewed as largely tied to the fact that the United States remains the world's greatest superpower to this day.
There are two primary ways by which the British Empire contributed to English's development as a world language: "firstly, through the export of speakers to territories in Australasia and North America, where they established permanent settlements and subjugated indigenous populations, forming in due course new communities of native speakers; and secondly, through the colonisation of territories in Asia, Africa and Oceania, where indigenous populations - or at least an elite sector of them - learnt English not so much because they were compelled but mainly because they perceived its acquisition as socially and economically advantageous."
The lengthy quote above simply notes that the English language travelled primarily through the export of native speakers overseas, as in the case of settlers and overseers brought to new colonies. Second, English became a necessity and a symbol of social status within native circles in colonies. The native elite learned to align themselves with the colonial masters, and learning the language is therefore a significant tool to get ahead. Given these two reasons, British colonialism truly planted the seeds that made English a global language. Without the power of the Crown and the arrival of settlers in nearly every corner of the world, the distribution and evolution of English into an international language would not have been possible.
Kachru describes this spread of English using the "Three Circle" model. He explains that there are three concentric circles: the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle and the Expanding Circle - circles that represent "the type of spread, the patterns of acquisition and the functional domains in which English is used across cultures and languages." Essentially, the countries that have English as the primary native language are in the Inner Circle, while those in the Outer Circle are countries that have colonial histories with the British and the Americans. English is not necessarily the only language here; the natives are often bilingual though English remains significant and used in majority of literature, culture and professional fields. Lastly, the Expanding Circle refers to the significance of English as a language for international communication, knowledge and technology.
Speaking of science and technology, here is another cause behind the spread of English and its development as an international language. Whether or not the United States and Great Britain lose their "power" and "prestige" on the global stage in the coming years, it is true that English will remain a significant and important language. This is due to the fact that it is currently already the language of choice for science and technology, and anyone who wishes to understand and utilise this knowledge will have to know English. Sano calls it the lingua franca of science, as the last decade has seen as increase in the use of English as the language used in journal papers, reports, theses, etc.
But English does not end with simply its presence across continents. It has not remained static; rather English all over the world has developed into several different "versions". Mesthrie and Bhatt noted that these are now known as "New Englishes", with particular reference to the use of the plural term for "English". This is to show that though the base may be English, these hybrid forms possess each of their own distinct characteristics that make them different. They may all have English in common, but linguistic and cultural factors affect the adaptability of the language and often result in borrowed words and different pronunciation.
Specifically, these "new Englishes" refer to in non-traditional English-speaking areas such as the Caribbean, Africa and Asia. Asian Englishes are particularly known, i.e. Hong Kong English, Singapore English, Philippine English, etc. These former colonies (the Philippines was colonised by Americans) received English instruction, and have been inevitably marked with the necessity of the language. Crystal notes, however, that, "We must expect to find an evolving linguistic distinctiveness in China, Egypt, Sweden and the other 120 or so countries where English has status only as a 'foreign language'". This simply means that English's dynamism has enabled it to exist in countries beyond the original circles, due perhaps to necessity or interest, and that in each country it is able to find distinctiveness as the natives mix the language with its own tongue and culture. This is the reason why "world/new Englishes" exist at all.
Most important of all, globalisation played a particularly significant role in solidifying the status of English as a global language. The Internet, in particular, has been very important in the development of English as a world tongue. Despite recent changes in the profile of the ordinary Internet user (i.e. no longer concentrated in European and North American countries), English remains one of the primary online languages, as nearly every site offers an English language equivalent in order to cater to a larger market. The opening of the world to new avenues of communication has further solidified English's status as a global language.
Having discussed the role of British colonialism, necessity and globalisation in the development of English as a global language, it is now time to discuss the consequences of such a status. There is, of course, the positive outcome of such a status; English has become near universal and it has helped bridged many different nations with varying backgrounds and native languages. Unfortunately, English's status as a global language also has negative and potentially dangerous consequences. There are considerable risks and actual existing problems that have resulted from English's status as a global language.
One particular consequence is the dichotomy of languages according to the social gap. As the colonial era has left the local elite more inclined to study English, it may result in a purely monolingual elite class that looks down on the local language. The Philippines, for example, has a local elite that would prefer to speak English than the national language, Filipino. Many, in fact, are sent to preparatory schools that focus on "English only" campaigns that train the tongue towards a more "American" accent. English becomes a social symbol, and the local language is left in the dust. People who cannot speak English (or speak only Philippine English) are made fun of and viewed as lesser in social status.
Another serious consequence is language death, which Crystal emphasises. "A person needs only one language to talk to someone else." This saying points out the reality that although bilingual (or even multilingual) countries exist, eventually, speakers will favour one language over another, resulting in the eventual demise of the language. Granted, this is a more sinister and overt possibility during the earlier colonial times, when the forced instruction of English left children in colonies unable to use their native tongue to learn.
Conclusion
English's status as a global language is a product of several factors. It was spread throughout the globe by British expansionism during the colonial period. The "fortune" of its native speakers determines its longevity, and as the United States remains a global superpower, English remains a significant language, particularly in international diplomacy, science and technology, education, etc. More importantly, globalisation and the development of the Internet have also contributed to English's present status. With English as a "common ground" for many people regardless of nationality, it becomes the unifying language online that nearly ever Internet user can understand. Consequences of too much "English" can be dire, but only if the natives agree to sacrifice their own tongue for a global one.
References
Bolton, K. "World Englishes," The Handbook of Applied Linguistics, A. Davies and C. Elder, eds., West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp.367-396.
Bruthiaux, P. "Squaring the Circles: Issues in Modelling English Worldwide," International Journal of Applied Linguistics, vol.13 no.2, pp.159-178.
Crystal, D. English as a Global Language. Massachusetts, USA: Cambridge University Press.
Crystal, D. "Into the Twenty-First Century," The Oxford History of English. L. Mugglestone, ed. New York, USA: Oxford University Press, pp.394-413.
Evans, S. "The Introduction of English-language Education in Early Colonial Hong Kong," History of Education, vol.37 no.3, pp.383-408.
Evans, S. "The Medium of Instruction in Hong Kong Revisited: Policy and Practice in the Reformed Chinese and English Streams," Research Papers in Education, pp.1-22.
Evans, S. "Business as Usual: The Use of English in the Professional World in Hong Kong," English for Specific Purposes, pp.1-15.
Fennell, B. A History of English: A Socio-linguistic Approach. MA, USA: Blackwell Publishing.
Ferguson, G. Language Planning and Education. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press.
Free Writing Help. Seven Secrets of Perfect Academic Writing and School Research. Online: https://freewritinghelp.com/secrets-school-writing
Graddol, D. English Next. UK: British Council.
Mesthrie, R. and R. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Massachusetts, USA: Cambridge University Press.
Rajadurai, J. "Revisiting the Concentric Circles: Conceptual and Socio-linguistic Considerations," Asian EFL Journal, vol. 7 issue 4, pp.111-130.
Romaine, S. "Global English: From Island Tongue to World Language," The Handbook of the History of English. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los, eds. West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Sano, H. "The World's Lingua Franca of Science," English Today, 72 vol. 18 no. 4, pp. 45-49.
Spolsky, B. Language Policy. Massachusetts, USA: Cambridge University Press.
English Language Transformation
In a world wherein English is and has always been the global language (for the younger generations at least), the idea that people once doubted its probability seems daft. Nevertheless, few people recognised the significance of English in the modern world. Fishman et al were some of the few observers who predicted the eventual dominance of English as a global language. Many of the early professionals teaching English as a second language had expected the demand for learning the language to be limited to the specific elite of a particular country. Fishman's study in 1977, however, revealed the extent of English's reach: it was already the first language of more than 300 million people, and the second language of many more.
English became not just a global language - it became a necessary language. By the 1970s, "English was already the language of diplomacy (95 of the 126 members of the United Nations received working documents in English), the language of 70 percent of the world's mail, used by pilots to communicate with air controllers" (Spolsky). English was not only ubiquitous; it was practical. It was not simply a matter of former colonies stuck in a colonial mindset, using the language of the former masters in order to cultivate a sense of superiority. Learning English was no longer an option but a requirement. Soon enough, it would become the main means of communication in an increasingly wired world.But what exactly brought the English language to its present position, and what does the future hold? This study aims to uncover the transformation of the English language. What are the causes and consequences of English's dominance, and will it remain a dominant language in the near future? These are some of the questions that this paper seeks to answer. This paper posits that colonialism, supported by auxiliary events such as the United States post-Cold War hegemony, planted the seeds that developed English as a global language. This has resulted in the development of many versions of English, rendering English a dynamic and universal rather than national "property". Unfortunately, its development as a global language has also resulted in problematic consequences such as language death.
To prove so, this paper shall begin with a brief discussion of the history of English, with particular attention to its spread. This shall serve as the platform through which the paper may discuss the development of the language into a universal tongue. The study shall then devote a larger part of the discussion to the causes that brought English to its present position as an international language. Finally, the study shall look at the consequences of this development, particularly the effects on other languages. Also, the study may include a brief look at the future of English. Can it be overtaken by other languages, i.e. Mandarin, given the present shifts in global politics? The paper shall seek to provide holistic answers to fulfil the reader's understanding of English's development and future as a universal language.
Background - A Brief History of English Language
English was brought to Britain by Germanic hordes, a combination of Anglo and Old-Saxon dialects. Prior to the arrival of the Germanic settlers, the natives of what is now part of the United Kingdom spoke a combination of Latin and Celtic dialects, a holdover from the Roman occupation. English as a language developed with nomadic invasions, particularly seeing changes in pronunciation or the addition of new words. This is a dynamic feature of the English language - its ability to adapt and absorb when put in contact with other languages - that is particularly significant in its later development as an international language.
The "modern" form of English that serves as the basis for the contemporary form of the language began only in 1550. Shakespeare, therefore, may seem difficult to understand for contemporary readers, and yet his English is already the most familiar yet historical form of the language available. The spread of English, in a nutshell, begins with the development of British colonialism. By the time the American colonies gained independence from the Crown, English was no longer a monopoly of the British. It was, by far, a language used, adapted and embraced by millions worldwide.
Romaine writes of an error made by the remarkable Winston Churchill, who entitled his tome, "A History of the English-Speaking Peoples". His book was on a history of the English (or the British, in general) people and was published in 1956. The problem, however, is that by the time he wrote the book, "English-speaking peoples" could refer to people completely separate and different from the British/English. "The demographic shift in the English-speaking population had already moved away from Britain, and the unity of the language whose history had once centred on an island was forever broken."
By the time British colonialism ended, the language had made its way to all corners of the world. "English explorers and colonists had spread the language to the farthest reaches of the Empire on which the sun was alleged never to set." Their presence and policies had made enough of an impact to catapult the English language into its global position. Colonialism was not, of course, the end point of English's development into an international (if not "the" international) language. It was, however, a particularly significant starting point.
Causes
Continuing from the earlier discussion, it cannot be denied that British colonialism was undoubtedly one of the primary causes behind the transformation of English into a global language. Ferguson argues that, "the spread and decline of languages is causally linked to the power and the fortunes of their speakers rather than to any properties of the language code." It is not that English is particularly pleasant to the ears, or easier to study. Its spread can be chalked up to the power that was and still remains in the hands of its primary speakers: the British colonial masters and the present day American behemoth.
When the British established a settlement in the "New World", there were approximately five to seven million speakers who had English as their mother tongue. Between that period and the years following the 2nd World War, however, the number had swelled to about 150 million, four-fifths of whom are not living in Great Britain. The period in between - the height and eventual decline of the British Empire and colonialism in general - was particularly crucial to the spreading of the English language from the isles to millions of speakers abroad.
The idea that British colonialism was the catalyst behind the spread of English cannot be incorrect. However, it is wise to point out that it is by far not the first (or potentially the last) language to be spread to other cultures by virtue of conquest. The Romans brought Latin to the ancient world, influencing the choice of language of the local elites for centuries. Aramaic, Arabian, Spanish, Mayan and French are but a few examples of military conquests resulting in the spread of the dominant party's lingua franca. That English lasted more than the other languages of conquerors can be viewed as largely tied to the fact that the United States remains the world's greatest superpower to this day.
There are two primary ways by which the British Empire contributed to English's development as a world language: "firstly, through the export of speakers to territories in Australasia and North America, where they established permanent settlements and subjugated indigenous populations, forming in due course new communities of native speakers; and secondly, through the colonisation of territories in Asia, Africa and Oceania, where indigenous populations - or at least an elite sector of them - learnt English not so much because they were compelled but mainly because they perceived its acquisition as socially and economically advantageous."
The lengthy quote above simply notes that the English language travelled primarily through the export of native speakers overseas, as in the case of settlers and overseers brought to new colonies. Second, English became a necessity and a symbol of social status within native circles in colonies. The native elite learned to align themselves with the colonial masters, and learning the language is therefore a significant tool to get ahead. Given these two reasons, British colonialism truly planted the seeds that made English a global language. Without the power of the Crown and the arrival of settlers in nearly every corner of the world, the distribution and evolution of English into an international language would not have been possible.
Kachru describes this spread of English using the "Three Circle" model. He explains that there are three concentric circles: the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle and the Expanding Circle - circles that represent "the type of spread, the patterns of acquisition and the functional domains in which English is used across cultures and languages." Essentially, the countries that have English as the primary native language are in the Inner Circle, while those in the Outer Circle are countries that have colonial histories with the British and the Americans. English is not necessarily the only language here; the natives are often bilingual though English remains significant and used in majority of literature, culture and professional fields. Lastly, the Expanding Circle refers to the significance of English as a language for international communication, knowledge and technology.
Speaking of science and technology, here is another cause behind the spread of English and its development as an international language. Whether or not the United States and Great Britain lose their "power" and "prestige" on the global stage in the coming years, it is true that English will remain a significant and important language. This is due to the fact that it is currently already the language of choice for science and technology, and anyone who wishes to understand and utilise this knowledge will have to know English. Sano calls it the lingua franca of science, as the last decade has seen as increase in the use of English as the language used in journal papers, reports, theses, etc.
But English does not end with simply its presence across continents. It has not remained static; rather English all over the world has developed into several different "versions". Mesthrie and Bhatt noted that these are now known as "New Englishes", with particular reference to the use of the plural term for "English". This is to show that though the base may be English, these hybrid forms possess each of their own distinct characteristics that make them different. They may all have English in common, but linguistic and cultural factors affect the adaptability of the language and often result in borrowed words and different pronunciation.
Specifically, these "new Englishes" refer to in non-traditional English-speaking areas such as the Caribbean, Africa and Asia. Asian Englishes are particularly known, i.e. Hong Kong English, Singapore English, Philippine English, etc. These former colonies (the Philippines was colonised by Americans) received English instruction, and have been inevitably marked with the necessity of the language. Crystal notes, however, that, "We must expect to find an evolving linguistic distinctiveness in China, Egypt, Sweden and the other 120 or so countries where English has status only as a 'foreign language'". This simply means that English's dynamism has enabled it to exist in countries beyond the original circles, due perhaps to necessity or interest, and that in each country it is able to find distinctiveness as the natives mix the language with its own tongue and culture. This is the reason why "world/new Englishes" exist at all.
Most important of all, globalisation played a particularly significant role in solidifying the status of English as a global language. The Internet, in particular, has been very important in the development of English as a world tongue. Despite recent changes in the profile of the ordinary Internet user (i.e. no longer concentrated in European and North American countries), English remains one of the primary online languages, as nearly every site offers an English language equivalent in order to cater to a larger market. The opening of the world to new avenues of communication has further solidified English's status as a global language.
Consequences
Having discussed the role of British colonialism, necessity and globalisation in the development of English as a global language, it is now time to discuss the consequences of such a status. There is, of course, the positive outcome of such a status; English has become near universal and it has helped bridged many different nations with varying backgrounds and native languages. Unfortunately, English's status as a global language also has negative and potentially dangerous consequences. There are considerable risks and actual existing problems that have resulted from English's status as a global language.
One particular consequence is the dichotomy of languages according to the social gap. As the colonial era has left the local elite more inclined to study English, it may result in a purely monolingual elite class that looks down on the local language. The Philippines, for example, has a local elite that would prefer to speak English than the national language, Filipino. Many, in fact, are sent to preparatory schools that focus on "English only" campaigns that train the tongue towards a more "American" accent. English becomes a social symbol, and the local language is left in the dust. People who cannot speak English (or speak only Philippine English) are made fun of and viewed as lesser in social status.
Another serious consequence is language death, which Crystal emphasises. "A person needs only one language to talk to someone else." This saying points out the reality that although bilingual (or even multilingual) countries exist, eventually, speakers will favour one language over another, resulting in the eventual demise of the language. Granted, this is a more sinister and overt possibility during the earlier colonial times, when the forced instruction of English left children in colonies unable to use their native tongue to learn.
Conclusion
English's status as a global language is a product of several factors. It was spread throughout the globe by British expansionism during the colonial period. The "fortune" of its native speakers determines its longevity, and as the United States remains a global superpower, English remains a significant language, particularly in international diplomacy, science and technology, education, etc. More importantly, globalisation and the development of the Internet have also contributed to English's present status. With English as a "common ground" for many people regardless of nationality, it becomes the unifying language online that nearly ever Internet user can understand. Consequences of too much "English" can be dire, but only if the natives agree to sacrifice their own tongue for a global one.
References
Bolton, K. "World Englishes," The Handbook of Applied Linguistics, A. Davies and C. Elder, eds., West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp.367-396.
Bruthiaux, P. "Squaring the Circles: Issues in Modelling English Worldwide," International Journal of Applied Linguistics, vol.13 no.2, pp.159-178.
Crystal, D. English as a Global Language. Massachusetts, USA: Cambridge University Press.
Crystal, D. "Into the Twenty-First Century," The Oxford History of English. L. Mugglestone, ed. New York, USA: Oxford University Press, pp.394-413.
Evans, S. "The Introduction of English-language Education in Early Colonial Hong Kong," History of Education, vol.37 no.3, pp.383-408.
Evans, S. "The Medium of Instruction in Hong Kong Revisited: Policy and Practice in the Reformed Chinese and English Streams," Research Papers in Education, pp.1-22.
Evans, S. "Business as Usual: The Use of English in the Professional World in Hong Kong," English for Specific Purposes, pp.1-15.
Fennell, B. A History of English: A Socio-linguistic Approach. MA, USA: Blackwell Publishing.
Ferguson, G. Language Planning and Education. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press.
Free Writing Help. Seven Secrets of Perfect Academic Writing and School Research. Online: https://freewritinghelp.com/secrets-school-writing
Graddol, D. English Next. UK: British Council.
Mesthrie, R. and R. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Massachusetts, USA: Cambridge University Press.
Rajadurai, J. "Revisiting the Concentric Circles: Conceptual and Socio-linguistic Considerations," Asian EFL Journal, vol. 7 issue 4, pp.111-130.
Romaine, S. "Global English: From Island Tongue to World Language," The Handbook of the History of English. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los, eds. West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Sano, H. "The World's Lingua Franca of Science," English Today, 72 vol. 18 no. 4, pp. 45-49.
Spolsky, B. Language Policy. Massachusetts, USA: Cambridge University Press.