Kelland, K. Children with ADHD say stimulant drugs help them. Retrieved from Reuters

Kids with ADHD (attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder) are a serious issue for schools, families and communities. Children with untreated ADHD are unable to pay attention in school and may disrupt the classroom. At home, they may be difficult to discipline and may have problems staying on task with chores and homework. Finally, in the community they may act out disruptively which may cause some people to become upset or angry with a child's parents. Typically, ADHD is treated with drugs such as, Ritalin although stimulant drugs are easy to abuse. The big problem with this Kelland's article is that children are not educators, parents, or doctors. Basing whether or not Ritalin and other stimulant drugs used to treat ADHD on the opinions of the child taking it, especially when they are interviewed right after starting treatment. ADHD can be treated and families can and do learn to live with ADHD. However, implying that Ritalin and other drugs work just because a child has changed behavior immediately is not effective in determining if a treatment works.

New England Cable News. Family homelessness is on rise. Retrieved from NECN

Homelessness affects families, communities and schools. This article argues that family homelessness is increasing in the United States. Often homeless families do not have the resources they need. It is difficult to feed one's family, to find medical care, or to find a job. Children who are homeless may not have clean clothes, or a place to do homework which affects overall school performance. Finally, family homelessness puts a strain on community resources. This is a problem for today's families. It can be argued that many families spent more money than they should have in the pre-2008 economic boom and as a result, one might assume that many of the current homeless families were not previously living in poverty. This is problematic in that unlike families that have always been working class or poor, these families have little idea how to live with few financial or social resources. This creates a situation whereby families are even more traumatized than they would be otherwise.

Associated Press . (October 14). Social Security increase for 2013 could be lowest since 1975 . Retrieved from Fox

Elders rely on Social Security for financial support. Without this support, many elders must rely upon family or continue working past the time when they should have retired. While this does not have a significant effect on schools, it can have serious consequences such as, increase financial strain on both families and communities. According to Fox News, the Social Security Cost of Living Increase for next year could be the lowest in over 30 years. This may increase the financial strain for the elderly and their families. In the face of increase homelessness unemployment and other problems for American families, this is a downright shame. The main issue with this is that elders paid in a significant portion of their income in order to have this money to rely upon in their old age. The government truly should have been better prepared for the increasing number of elderly and had money set aside to assist them since they have known since the 1960s that the Baby Boom generation is one of the largest in history.

CBC News. B.C. teen's family asks bullies to stop in wake of suicide. Retrieved from CBC News.CA

According to the Canadian Broadcasting Company, a British Columbia teen committed suicide after being consistently cyber-bullied over Facebook. Her family has requested that families and schools support the anti-bullying movement. Bullying is a serious issue; it is commonly defined as physical verbal or even sexual abuse by one's peers. This can occur at school, in the community, or even in one's home if one is bullied over the internet. Children and teens are bullied for various reasons including, families' socio-economic status, sexual preference, intellect, or extracurricular interests. Various methods have been used to deal with bullying however; awareness and empathy training seem to be the most effective methods of dealing with this problem.

Bullying of students is the one thing that schools should be zero tolerance about. If one looks at teen suicide, school shootings, and school violence, in general many of these problems can be traced back to a child or teen being bullied by their peers. While to an extent it is acceptable to teach children and teens to deal with emotional hardship not child should face bullying on a consistent basis due to things they cannot help.

The New York Times. Sunday Dialogue: Transforming Our Schools

Retrieved from NYT: This article highlights a central debate in relation to public schools. Do we teach to the test, or do we teach students critical thinking skills. The central argument is that standardized testing and No Child Left Behind have had a negative effect on public education. This is seen on having a negative effect on families (less educated means less able to support a family), communities (less educated means not contributing to the community and/or being supported by the community) and schools (schools that do not educate their children have bad reputations. This article is interesting in that both sides have good points. While teaching to the test is harmful to a child's education, standardized testing itself is merely one more educational tool that teachers can use to determine what a child is learning. The problem is that schools sometimes rely only on this tool instead of looking at other ways in which a child could be learning.

Sanchez, C. School Choice: A Subject Both Candidates Support. Retrieved from NPR

This article focuses on the idea of school choice or the right to choose what school one's child attends. Sanchez argues that both Obama and Romney support the ability of a family to choose what school in a town or city their child attends. School choice affects family's schools and communities in several ways. First, family's can choose which school their child attends thus giving them the right to pick a better school for their child. Second, school choice may have a negative effect on schools in that it gives some schools little motivation to improve the quality of education offered while putting a human resources and financial strain on other schools.

Communities are affected as well in that taxpayers in one community may pay for children from other communities to attend their schools. The main problem with school choice is that parents are allowed to pick and choose schools like one would a new videogame or book. Instead of allowing school choice money should be spent on improving the quality of every school so that parents do not have to choose to send a child out of the local area to attend school.

Murrell, D. Empathy: The Antidote to Bullying . Retrieved from Huffington Post

Murrell suggests that the cure for bullying is to teach children empathy. By understanding how others feel, children will be less likely to bully others. There are problems with this approach. First, bullying is not related only to a child's empathic skills. There are many causes for bullying of others including, child abuse and other home problems, learning disabilities and psychological problems, and being bullied oneself. Teaching empathy is helpful but it does not resolve the root cause of a child bullying others. Lack of empathy is also a problem on the part of adults in the community in that they only seek to stop the bullying not what is causing a child to bully others since in many cases, bullies are also victims.

Professional Physician - Admissions Essay

From the time I was a child I was always fascinated with the human body and the ways in which different systems work together to produce bodily functions. I have always loved science and I have always had an interest in helping sick and injured people feel better. I knew early on that I wanted to be doctor. I felt that being a doctor would allow me to be a participant in the healing process of patients.

I began my undergraduate studies as chemistry major. However in my first semester I became arrogant. I enjoyed my newfound freedom of living in a dorm and I did not take my studies seriously. In high school I was an "A" student who normally studied very little but still received high marks on exams. I thought that I could adopt those same habits in college and receive high marks. The required classes for chemistry major are primarily science classes that are mostly difficult and students need to put in more time studying in order to do well. I failed the first two exams in chemistry class. Then I studied harder for the next exam which I passed with a "C". I ended up getting a "C-"in that course. In most of my other courses that semester the majority of my grades were "Cs" and "Ds". At the end of the semester I went to my guidance counselor requesting a change of major which he granted me. My new major was biology. The counselor knew of my desire to attend medical school and he knew of my difficulty adjusting to the demands of university academics. He advised me to buckle down and study in order to do well enough to get into medical school. He also suggested that I volunteer at a nearby hospital in order to gain further insight into the medical profession and see firsthand the daily responsibilities of physicians and understand the commitment and dedication one needs in the medical profession.

During my time as a hospital volunteer I participated in various activities. Initially I was a candy striper where I performed tasks such as delivering flowers to patients, assisting doctors by giving out medical records and retrieving medical supplies. Later I worked at the cancer center where I helped patients and their families cope with their illness and treatment. It gratified me that I was able to provide some comfort to those people as they were going through debilitating treatments, even if all I did was offer words of encouragement. Their suffering was heartbreaking to me. I observed doctors performing MRI scans , colonoscopies and I was able to see some newly delivered babies and their parents while volunteering on the maternity floor. Observing these new arrivals into the world made me think that I may want to specialize in obstetrics. During my time as a hospital volunteer I also had the opportunity to observe the hematology team, who helped patients with diseases such as Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML). I learned several things from these observations. For example I was able to understand how the level of platelets affects blood clotting. I volunteered at the hospital for two years and it reaffirmed my commitment to achieving my goal of becoming a doctor. As a result of this experience I began to recognize the awesome responsibility, commitment and great patience I would need to become a physician. I learned that being a doctor involves helping people on several different levels. You are not simply helping the person achieve physical health, you may be providing emotional comfort to patients who are frightened or face an uncertain future. My experience motivated me to work harder in my studies in order to achieve my goal.

My grades improved as I continued my undergraduate studies. I would put more time and effort into my studies even while working as a hospital volunteer. There were some classes I did not excel in despite my efforts; however I continued to persevere, keeping my goal of becoming a doctor in mind. I would not dwell on my failures and I would try to focus on the positive. The science classes I have taken have taught me to ask more probing questions and not simply accept all given answers. I learned that there may be several possible theories to any given medical ailment. In several of my classes I have found that I possess leadership skills and I have been able to keep a clear head when helping others solve problems during various group activities. To further my experience in the medical field I have worked as a medical advocate, participating in several programs that have helped patients. For example I spent some time working as an advocate for elderly patients in an assisted living home. I have also been an assistant educator in an AIDS Awareness Education Program helping to teach teenagers to reduce their risk of contracting HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. As a result of these experiences I have found that I enjoy hard work and contributing to the physical and emotional well being of individuals in various communities.

I look forward to studying medicine and achieving my goal of becoming a physician. The medical profession is one that gives you many options. I look forward to exploring my options and choosing a medical specialty that is most appropriate for me. I am aware that being a physician can be a tough, stress-filled profession, but I am committed to putting in the time and effort needed to be an effective doctor.

Digital Education Questions

Q1. Are computers in school improving education?

Yes 1: New technology is saving money for schools.
Yes 2: It has the potential to radically transform schools into more effective institutions.
No 1: There is little empirical evidence on what computers can actually accomplish is education.
No 2: Too much of the new technology is being used to prepare for standardized tests.

Q2. Can computers replace classroom teachers?

Yes 1: Enrollment on online education courses is proliferating.
Yes 2: Ideally, the bets form of education is self-education, which can be done on the computer very effectively.
No 1: Most successful computer education is linked to improved teacher training.
No 2: This new technology may not be suited to education at all, as opposed to entertainment.

Q3. Are computer games effective for learning?

Yes 1: Games are a good method for engaging younger students in education.
Yes 2: They can make traditional subjects more interesting and appealing.
No 1: Developing this type of technology for student learning and education purposes is difficult.
No 2: Most successful computer learning of this type requires specialized training.

Policy Update

Gee, J.P. The Anti-Education Era: Creating Smarter Students through Digital Learning. Palgrave Macmillan.

Summary: Today there are many new virtual tools in education that have never existed before, but they are not being used correctly. Educators have access to computer tutors, multimedia, video games, digital design and production tools, social media and collaborative writing and publishing online, but "they are rarely used or are poorly used in schools and even colleges." If used properly, particularly in the first eight years of education, these tools could create new values and meaning, as books, films and television have done in the past. Use of digital media, the Internet and computers could create a "pathway toward higher-order and complex thinking skills", but for the most part this is not how they are being used today).

Evaluation: For all the propaganda about digital education, it is still not being used very extensively or properly in education, and few teachers have the training to use it correctly. It has the potential to revolutionize education, but this has not yet occurred, and all too often to new technology is being treated like an expensive toy, nor is it being made widely available to poor students in inner-city schools. If used in libraries and community centers in these areas, it could make education far more meaningful, but instead schools and society today are making people more stupid rather than smarter. This problem is being exacerbated by the growing levels of poverty and inequality in society, which are affecting the entire education system.

Policy Recommendation

What is your recommendation for each question? Briefly explain what you think about each question and why you think the way you do.

Q1: Computers have the potential to improve education in many ways, although they are generally not being used correctly today, and few teachers have the training and experience to know how best they could be used. Poor and lower-income students in the inner cities who could benefit most from this new technology are the least likely to have it.

Q2: Computers will not be intelligent enough to replace human teachers for the foreseeable future, but they will change the model of classroom instruction so that it becomes more like self-study, with the teacher acting as a guide and resource rather than a lecturer.

Q3: Computer games have the potential to actively engage students and excite their interest in learning, if they are used correctly, but there is little evidence that they have been up to now. Education can be made more interesting and entertaining through the use of games, although unfortunately this has not yet occurred on a large scale.

Student Debt Questions

Q1. Are students incurring too much student debt?

Yes 1: Student debt is now greater than credit card debt, which is unsustainable in the long run, especially in the current recession.
Yes 2: Graduate and professional school debt is even higher, at over $100,000 per student.
No 1: Students who attend public universities will have much less debt than those in private institutions.
No 2: There are newer programs such as the expansion of Pell Grants that limit student borrowing.

Q2. Does rising college debt limit who attends and completes college?

Yes 1: In a time of high unemployment, it is very difficult to repay student loans and the default rate has been increasing.
Yes 2: Student loans cannot even be discharged through bankruptcy, so this discourages low-income people from taking the risk of borrowing.
No 1: There are other limits on who attends college, such as rising levels of poverty and inequality.
No 2: The federal and state governments have been limiting funding for education at all levels.

Q3. Has the increasing availability of education loans driven up college costs?

Yes 1: Tuition have been going up faster than the rate of inflation for 30 years.
Yes 2: Many of these loans were made from banks rather than from the federal government, which benefit the banks and universities, but cannot be repaid.

No 1: Other factors are increasing college costs, such as higher expenditures for faculty, housing and equipment.
No 2: Because of the recession, state and federal aid to education has been decreasing, which also drives up costs.

Policy Update

Lynch, D.K. Educationally Screwed: Two Generations of Predatory Student Loan Fraud and its Consequences. Author House Publishers.

Dr. Lynch was a physician and surgeon who became a victim of predatory student lending by private banks that was left largely unregulated and unsupervised by the federal government in recent years, just like subprime mortgage lending. She was left heavily in debt after medical school, and even though she repaid $70,000 and never missed a payment, she was declared in default and lost her medical practice and credit rating. She points out that there was massive corruption in the Department of Education, the banks and Sallie Mae that has left students over $1 trillion in debt with a default rate near 10% (Lynch 2013, p. ix). Wall Street and corrupt members of Congress also preferred to see high levels of default on these private loans, which was even more profitable for them since the federal government repaid it all (Lynch, p. 107). This situation has been made even worse by the current recession and high levels of poverty, inequality and unemployment.

Evaluation: Students loans are a drag on the economy because so many of them cannot be repaid, yet they cannot be eliminated through bankruptcy. For students in gradual and professional schools, it is simply impossible to repay these debts, yet they are starting out life with a huge debt burden. In the last ten years they have become another credit bubble like subprime mortgages, and this is bound to collapse eventually. It would be better simply lower tuitions and increase grants and scholarships for low-income students. This system of student loans has mostly benefitted the big banks rather than students, and federal funds could be expended with much better results in other areas.

Policy Recommendation

What is your recommendation for each question? Briefly explain what you think about each question and why you think the way you do.

Q1: There is no question that $1 trillion is student debt is too high and that they will never be repaid, especially because of the recession and high levels of unemployment today.

Q2: Many students are being discouraged from attending college because of the high costs and rising levels on indebtedness, particularly in private schools, which are placing university education out of reach for many of the working class and even the middle class.

Q3: College costs have increased over 400% since 1970, which is much higher than the rate of inflation, and this is especially true in private and elite institutions. Student loans are not the only factor in these rising costs, though, since the universities have also been making higher expenditures on faculty, housing, student services and many other areas.

References

Gee, J.P. The Anti-Education Era: Creating Smarter Students through Digital Learning. Palgrave Macmillan.
Lynch, D.K. Educationally Screwed: Two Generations of Predatory Student Loan Fraud and its Consequences. Author House Publishers.

Law Firm Technology

Technology utilizes machines for data retrieval and storage and the quick and effective performance of repetitive acts. In a law firm, this technology can significantly enhance the attorney's work. Yet, it still remains one of the most underutilized tools, frequently only relied on for word processing and as a client database. Especially, with the latest mobile technology, lawyers need to recognize additional ways they can use these electronics to make their work more efficient and easier. At the same time, they also must be aware of ethical considerations and the greater risk for exposure to malpractice liability.

A strong proponent of using technology in a law office, Beall explains that his practice performs a multitude of functions from their Macs and PCs using the software tool "remote desktop connection." In addition to the traditional word processing and client database use, their computers assist with overseeing project management, developing and implementing legal strategy, connecting to the office and other staff on a real-time basis, storing documents in electronic form and eliminating paper files, and instantly accessing information.

Allen adds that technology can also provide support to attorneys when they are outside of the office. Mobile "has opened the door to virtual offices, telecommuting, easily working out of their house or even a hotel while out of town for business, pleasure or both. In today's world, attorneys can practice as efficiently and as effectively outside of their office as they can from inside the office" (p. 115). Lawyers can now easily bring with them laptop computers with high-speed connection and a digital light processor projector; smart phones; portable scanners, printers, storage devises, surge protectors and speakers; GPS units; document, still and movie cameras; digital voice recorders; digital tablets; noise canceling earphones and a variety of extension cords, FireWire, and USB, Ethernet and video and HDMI cables and connectors.

Each law office will want to conduct a needs assessment before investing in technology by determining the most pressing needs and how to improve their efficiency. Increasingly, lawyers are taking a strategic approach to defining their technology needs. This assessment will also help the attorney know how much needs to be invested over the long term. The best approach, suggests Beall, is to invest conservatively, starting with the most needed tools first and then, as the office grows, build on them as necessary. Technical improvements can also be made with little or no added investment, once having a better understanding of the tools' capabilities. It helps to see how other law firms are leveraging their technology and follow some of these best practices.

Technology can be very beneficial, but it can also open the firm up to greater risk, according to Allen. For example, technology has greatly impacted the area of data storage and management, yet data security issues present some of the greatest concerns of technology use. Attorneys must continually guard against any non-authorized use of data, because they are ethically and legally obligated to protect client confidentiality. Allen also stresses the importance of addressing risks with metadata, or the information attached to electronic files. For example, word processing eases work, but attached to these documents are electronic metadata that can give others valuable information. Other security issues and ethics considerations arise with the use of the Internet and cloud computing.

Wisely chosen and implemented, today's technology can provide law offices with new and effective ways of handling much of the work that took considerably longer in the past or could not be done at all. It also can free lawyers from having to stay within the four walls of their office, giving them much more latitude to easily and efficiently conduct their work in other environments. At all times, however, they must be aware of the impact this technology has on their ethical and legal obligations to their clients and not compromise traditional notions of professionalism, autonomy and discretion.

References

Allen, J. Techno-ethics and the practice of law. American Journal of Family Law, 24(4), 211-217. Practicing law in travel mode: A tech primer for mobile lawyers. American Journal of Family Law, 25(3), 114-122.

Beall, IV, J. A. Using technology in a law office setting. American Journal of Family Law, 22(3), 148-155.

Faulconbridge, J., & Muzio, D. Organizational professionalism in globalizing law firms. Work, Employment and Society, 22(1), 7-25.

Robert Half. Future law office: Technology's transformation of the legal field.

Tiersma, P. M. Parchment, Paper, Pixels: Law and the Technologies of Communication.

Intellectual Biography Research

Situate in Scholarship:

Plato was a major philosopher in classical Greece in the 4th and 5th Centuries BC, who founded the Academy in Athens and wrote a number of important works on ethics, philosophy and politics, including The Republic. Socrates was his teacher and his works take the form of dialogues between this master and his young, aristocratic students, although how many of these ideas were actually those of Plato himself is subject to debate. He was on the authoritarian and aristocratic side of politics in Athens, and actually admired the militaristic state of Sparta far more than the relative free and open society of his own city, particularly since it was based so much on trade and commerce. He also hated the Athenian democracy for sentencing Socrates to death in 399 BC and took no further part in its political life. Indeed, he left the city for many years as a protest against the execution of his beloved teacher, and all of his writings are overflowing with hatred and contempt for rule by the masses that he regarded as ignorant, greedy and irrational. When he returned to Athens, the real purpose of his Academy was to train the new ruling class of enlightened philosophers who he believed were the only proper governors of society.

Major Questions:

In The Republic, Plato's main interest was describing the ideal or perfect type of state, which would be governed in an authoritarian manner by a group of enlightened philosopher kings or Guardians. In this hierarchical society, the soldiers would rank below the Guardians and be responsible for the internal and external protection of the state, and below them would be the masses that did the necessary work of society but had no part of its government.

Major Metaphors:

Plato was an Idealist and dualist who has been very influential in the history of philosophy, including on early Christianity, especially through Augustine, and on into the early modern period with such philosophers as Descartes. For Plato, the ideal or perfect world was spiritual and eternal, while the material world was corrupt and transitory. Only the educated elite had the time and resources to become truly enlightened, which meant contemplating the eternal Forms of God and the soul, while most of the masses were slave-like, child-like and concerned only with money, material things and their own narrow self-interests and physical pleasures. For this reason they could never be trusted with the government of the state, given their limited capabilities, and only the enlightened elites should rule. Every member of The Republic would be trained for their proper duties from childhood.

Significance to the Study of Philosophy of Communication

Plato disdained democracy as government by mobs and slaves, and his view was the standard one in history, at least up to fairly recent times. He lived long before the era of modern mass communications, of course, in a time when the majority of people were illiterate. Even in the West before modern times, this was typical and the common people were controlled by force or the skillful use of religion. For the most part, any 'communication' with them was in the form of commands, orders and edicts issued by the monarchs and ruling elites, and Plato would certainly have agreed that this was the best way to govern society. Bluntly speaking, he thought that the man function of the masses was to work, obey and keep quiet, and that the rulers were like the captains of a ship whose word was law. In politics at least, his ideal of an authoritarian and hierarchical society was the norm in most times and places, as was slavery in its various forms, although whether the ruling elites were necessarily enlightened is highly debatable. Even many of the Founders of the U.S. in the 18th Century also had this assumption that gentleman of property and refinement, with the wealth and leisure time to devote to important questions of state, were the natural ruling class of society. Disdain for the supposedly ignorant and uneducated masses was also common in the authoritarian and totalitarian regimes of the 20th Century, which ruled by brute force and coercion, but also through the use of mass propaganda. All governments used the new electronic media to manipulate and control the masses to some degree, just as large corporations employed them to sell products to consumers. These developments all took place over 2,000 years after Plato's lifetime, however, and used technologies that he would not have been able to imagine. In his world, where printing did not even exist, communication was far more simple, direct and verbal, although he did expect his Guardian caste to be able to deliver effective speeches to explain their policies.

Section Theses and Synopsis:

The Republic is divided into ten chapters in which the first four describe his view of the just and perfect society as one organized along authoritarian lines with a rigid caste system. He explains that the human soul (nous) is also divided into three parts, just as the larger society, with the rational part responsible for government, the timocratic or courageous part that desired glory, honor and power, than the slave-like part that was ruled by lusts, passions and material desires. Since the vast majority of humanity consisted of the third type, they could not even govern themselves much less the larger society. All authoritarians in history have agreed with Plato on this point, including the mass media propagandists and manipulators who employ modern communications systems.

In the next three chapters, Plato describes the Guardians or philosopher kings, the qualities necessary for their selection and the type of education that would be provided to them at state expense. First and foremost, they had to be rational, enlightened men (and women) who were not motivated by money, material needs or desire for military glory. Those were only for the lower castes, while the elites would have knowledge of God, the soul and the perfect or ideal Forms that were the true basis of the universe. All of this perfection came from God in fact, even though only a privileged few could comprehend it, and therefore real knowledge was also eternal and unchanging. As he pointed out in his allegory of the cave, most people were simply blind to these higher truths, and lived like fools trapped in darkness. Most of the masses would never have superior wisdom and consciousness, but only of the physical-material world, which was doomed to death and decay.

In the last two chapters, he insists that his philosopher kings will not be tyrants, since they will rule justly for the greater good of every member of society, and unlike dictators will not be in love with power for the sake of power or the desire to accumulate money and material things. Since the Guardians are spiritually, morally and intellectually superior, the masses will also be more likely to willingly accept their rule, although those who do not will be exiled or executed. He also warns that those souls who do good (as he defines it) will be rewarded in the afterlife while sinners will be punished even after death. Of course, the highest rewards will be reserved for the Guardians who spent their lives as wise and enlightened rulers of other people.

Social Studies Class

The following lesson spans a 2 week period and includes 10-50 minute classes. The format of the lesson is divided by Day and Lesson Number, however, the unit can begin on any day and following the respective 10 class pattern in the case of scheduling anomalies. The final formal evaluation of the unit will be given on the last Friday or last day of the unit. The results of the tests will then be analyzed by the instructor in order to determine if re-teaching is necessary. If re-teaching is deemed necessary, the unit would then be expanded to go back over critical material that was not grasped by the class.

Overview

The student will understand the process of Supreme Court opinion forming and Constitutional interpretations and how this evolves to fit social and political climates through the exploration of several landmark cases spanning various relevant thematic. [The lesson will build on a previous lesson that fully explored the Constitution] Aims

*The students will be able to see how the Constitution, though drafted Centuries prior, is still of sufficient elasticity to be relevant to modern standards of governance (critical thinking)

*The students will understand the salient characteristics of the landmark Supreme Court cases and be able to identify them

*The students will work in groups to develop cooperation team working skills.

*The students will work in groups to give a presentation and complete a 2 page paper.

Content

The cases that will be analyzed include are those that are considered of the "landmark variety" as designated by the Supreme Court Historical Society:

Marbury v. Madison (1803)
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
Dred Scot v. Sandford (1857)
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
Korematsu v. United States (1944)
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Mapp v. Ohio (1961)
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)
Roe v. Wade (1973)
U.S. v. Nixon (1974)
Regents of CA v. Bakke (1978)
New Jersey v. TLO (1985)
Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeir (1983)
Texans v. Johnson (1989)

Since it is impossible to include every Supreme Court Case, the following list has been determined as being of sufficient scope to demonstrate the key thematic related to the Supreme Court and how it has ruled on Constitutional issues. Particularly care will be taken to examine how some opinions can change previous rulings. The evolutionary dimensions of the Supreme Court in this capacity will demonstrate to the students how the Constitution is still adaptable to modern standards. In terms of Civics, this should increase their confidence in their government and how their government is equipped to deal with Constitutional subjects as they arise in the future.

Materials

The materials necessary for completing this unit include the following [Some of the items are necessary and others are luxury]: Code: *necessity material item **luxury material item

* American Government Text Book- Standard student issue text for the course

* Landmark Cases Handout - This handout will include a list of all the aforementioned landmark cases with brief explanations of each one.

** Computer Lab - If a computer lab is available, the instructor will book two days (best case scenario) or one day for the groups to research their assigned cases.

** Library - The library can be used in addition to or instead of the computer lab if the computer lab is unavailable as a place to gather research and information for their respective projects.

* Standard classroom accessories including desks/tables and chalk/white board.

** If students need them for their visual aids, the teacher can also reserve smartboards, overhead projectors or alternate means of disseminating power points. Such technology is not required to complete the unit so if these types of items are not available in a district the unit can still retain its salient characteristics.

Monday Day 1 [Introduction]

The first class introduces the topic of the Supreme Court and Supreme Court decisions. The anticipatory will lead in covering past information in which they are familiar in addition to looking ahead by thematically tying in some of the more debated issues of our time. The discussion will include a reiteration of the salient characteristics of the Constitution, the Supreme Court and it will also define the concept of "Landmark" cases. This will be an instructor led class and consist mostly of lecture combined with question and answer. The students will be using a textbook and handout. The handout will include all of the landmark cases with a brief explanation for each.

Tuesday Day 2 [Assignment]

Students will get into groups preselected by the teacher through a random numbering system. Each group will be assigned two landmark Supreme Court Cases. Each group will be responsible for researching the cases, preparing a one page paper for each case and a presentation of the cases. For the presentation, every student is required to speak so no one in the group can not participate in all levels of the assignment. The assigning of the projects will not take the entire class. Prior to splitting the student up into groups, the instructor will present the assignment to them and the expectations of the assignments. Once they split off into groups, they can begin to delegate tasks and establish group dynamics to complete the assignment. The group component of the research is keeping in theme with the new organizational models that emphasize group and team work rather than individualized tasks (Acona et al. 2005). As a result, in addition to the subject, the unit will also be developing group work skills and task completion work skills that will serve them upon exit from high school at the conclusion of the year.

Wednesday Day 3 [Research]

The teacher will have prearranged computer lab and/or library time for the groups to research their two cases. Supervised by the instructor, the students will be able to use this time to gather all the information for their report, potentially start writing their report and also prepare their presentations.

Thursday Day 4 [Research/Rehearsal]

The students will have access to the computer lab to continue writing or they will be able to use the time to get their presentations together. The presentation requirements are: (1) each group member speaks (2) The presentation should last 10-12 minutes [5 per case] and (3) one visual aid. At the conclusion of the presentation the instructor will ask several questions and the answers the group provides to the questions will be part of their (understanding of the cases portion of the evaluation)

The presentation and papers should demonstrate the following: (1) an understanding of the cases and (2) an explanation of how those cases are relevant to modern times.

Friday Day 5 [Presentation Round 1]

1/2 of the class will present their projects. Students will already be aware on which day they are scheduled to present their material. The order in which they will present on that day will be determined by volunteers on the day of. Students will either be in group 1 (meaning they present on Friday) or group 2 (meaning they present on Monday).

Monday Day 6 [Presentation Round 2]

The final portion of the projects will be presented (The Group 2 portion)

Tuesday Day 7 [Critical Exploration Part 1]

This teacher led activity will cover all of the cases presented by the students and give the historical and social background of the material. The lesson will draw from the textbook and the key pages that correspond with what the instructor is presenting will also be designated to the students. Essentially, these lessons will be filling in the holes left by the student presentations and drawing parallels to critical thematic related to the case. The teacher will also delve into stakeholder positions on the topics as many of the cases were deemed "controversial" in their respective eras. Students will also have a chance to voice their perspectives on the subject with a greater informed perspective.

Wednesday Day 8 [Critical Exploration Part II]

This will be a continuation of the Day 7 information presentation. It will also go further into the implications of the cases in modern times and also ask the students their perspectives on possible issues that may become landmark cases in the future. In terms of current events, if there is something that is related to the Supreme Court or a landmark case in the current events at the time of the lesson the instructor could bring in material to show the connectivity between the current event and the subject in which they are learning. This may not always be possible depending on when the unit is being conducted and what is going on in the media at that time.

Thursday Day 9 [Review]

The class will review all of the material that has been presented in the previous days with particular attention to material that will be on the examination. The formal written examination will announced for the next day.

Friday Day 10 [Formal Examination]

The final unit examination will consist of a written test where students must be able to identify the salient characteristics of each of the landmark Supreme Court Cases. The test will be a combination of short answer, multiple choice and essays. Strong scoring on the test will necessitate that students are familiar with the cases and the implication of the cases.

Unit Evaluation

At the conclusion of the unit there will be 2 grades for each student. One grade will be the collective presentation grade and the other grade will be the individual test score. The final test will have 3 versions to stagger in case that there are multiple 12th classes doing the same unit at the same time.

It is also important to note that informal evaluations will be going on throughout the development of the unit. While the students are working in groups and while the instructor is presenting material, questions will be asked and the students progressed will be routinely inquired about. In those cases where the instructor feels that something unclear is proliferating the group, time will be taken accordingly to clarify the subject in question.

References

Acona, D. Et Al. 2005. Managing for the Future. New York: Thomson. Kownslar, A. & T.L. Smart. Civics, Citizens and Society. New York: McGraw Hill.

U.S. Government: Constitution and the Supreme Court Unit

1. Rationale

"We are surrounded by other people [and] We depend on other people and others depend on us" (Kownslar & Smart). This statement, taken from Civics and Citizenship textbook, may seem rather elementary; however, it provides the foundations on which humans have developed societal systems in order to promote safety and cooperation. As American citizens, understanding the intricacies of how the U.S. system of governance operates is of the utmost importance for its citizenry. Through working according Federal and State standards, these foundations should have already been firmly entrenched in the minds of public school students, as by the time students reach 12th grade they are at their final phase of public school. For both students going on to college and those going directly to the job market or the armed forces, having a more complete idea of how the Constitution works for them and has evolved over the course of U.S. history is the next obvious level necessary for a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

To help complete the transition from understanding the basic concepts of Civics as designed in 9th Grade curriculum to a more in depth study of Constitutional law, the following 2 week unit [See Unit Portion of Discourse] has been proposed to teach how the Supreme Court has ruled on Constitutional issues over the years. While the sheer size of Supreme Court cases makes it impossible to examine every case, major issues of historical and contemporary importance will be analyzed thematically so students can understand how the laws and political subjects today have gotten to the point at which they are currently resting. From search and seizure questions to the Patriot Act and from human rights questions to abortion, this unit is not of sufficient scope to be considered comprehensive, but of sufficient scope to offer general highlights of constitutional law, how the Supreme Court operates and how opinions can change with societal expectations. The students will be able to see how the Constitution, though drafted Centuries prior, is still of sufficient elasticity to be relevant to modern standards of governance.

The proposed U.S. Constitution and Supreme Court Case Unit for a 12th grade U.S. government class is firmly within the realms of the National Council for Social Studies Standards as well as the New York State Social Studies Learning Standards. On the level of the 10 thematic Federal Standards, the following categories have been identified for academic curriculum development: culture, time, people/places/environments, individual development/identity, individuals/groups/institutions, power/authority/governance, productions/distribution/consumption, science/technology/society, global connections and civil ideas and practices (National). The proposed unit directly interacts on the following thematic levels: (A) time, (B) power/authority/governance and (C) civil ideals/practices.

While these are the foundations of the unit, the cases described will indirectly interact on the following levels: people/places/environments, individual development/identity, individual groups/institutions and science/technology society. In this regard, the unit on the basic foundational level and on the indirect foundational levels cover 7 of the 10 thematic with exception to culture, production/distribution/consumption and global connections. Even in the case of the exceptions, there could be a case made for them with the correct perspective. On the New York Social Studies Learning Standards level, the unit is firmly set on the History of United States and New York Standard as well as the Civics, Citizenship and Government Standards level (New York). Holistically, the proposed curriculum is designed within the scope and spirit of both Federal and State expectations of Social Studies classrooms. By understanding how the Supreme Court works and how the Constitution has been interpreted on matters of historical and contemporary consequence, students will be better equipped to understand how the judicial process works in the United States.

Holistically, the unit works on two levels, those of Piaget's concrete operations stage of development and those of the formal stage of development (Piaget). Being that the class is of a heterogenous grouping with some included students, it is possible that the learning curve for all students may not extend into the formal stages and the advanced considerations that would be a part of this process. The way in which the unit is designed, however, makes it possible for either stage level to get something important from the unit. On the concrete operations level, the identification of the landmark Supreme Court cases will be foremost. Using the landmark cases as designated by the Supreme Court Historical Society, all students at the conclusion of the unit will be able to identify the cases and what the result of each case was. For example, if a student were to come across Marbury v. Madison, he/she would know that this case established judicial review in the U.S.

On the formal stages of operation, students would be able to see more complicated thematic. For example, they would understand how these Supreme Court cases shaped U.S. history, how they keep the Constitution relevant to modern consideration and how some of the cases are directly linked to current events today. This phase requires abstract thinking (Piaget) and not all of the students will be able to make the connections. Being a 12th grade class, however, it is estimated by the candidate that most of the students will be able to make some degree of formal connections related to the topic. A full concrete and formal connection would be the level of achievement that will have the greatest score. For examples, students that meet the operational and formal objectives of the unit will be those who receive the highest scores and vice versa. The expectations of the presentation portion will be clearly articulated to the students in the form of a grading rubric so they know exactly how they are being evaluated. The test that will come at the end of the unit will be a standard evaluation method that employs a combination of short answer, multiple choice and essays. Strong scoring on the test will necessitate that students are familiar with the cases and the implication of the cases.

Though the unit thematically addresses important issues related to being a United States citizen, the cooperative aspect of the project also will help to facilitate: spoken communications, written communications, teamwork and deadline oriented task completion. It is recognized that the modern organization is now one where team work is the norm rather than the exception (Acona et al.). Furthermore, it is recognized that communication skills are a valuable part of any job and the success rate of the individual at that respective job. In terms of communication skills, the students will be working in groups to give a presentation and a submit a written paper. As a result, they will have to communicate to group members and then ultimately to the professor and class through a paper and oral communication. In terms of the latter, as indicated in the unit, each group member will be required to speak in the presentation. In terms of team work and deadline oriented task completion modalities, it will be up to the respective teams to delineate tasks and make sure that they have their product and presentation ready by the necessary due date. This atmosphere simulates a typical modern workforce scenario with the teacher playing the role as the supervisor. In terms of preparing for life after high school, the project does so on a concrete level (the team work aspect) and on the aforementioned thematic level (civic).

The lesson is also quite flexible and could persist with modifications to extend it and also to go back and re-teach if this is required after the final formal evaluations are examined by the instructor. Technology could be implemented into the presentation and research portion of the project if it is available. Computers, smart boards, powerpoint, projectors and general multi media could all easily be part of the teacher presentation portions and the student presentation portions. With the availability of such devices differing from school to school, even if they are not included, the necessary flexibility exists for the unit to retain its value and objectives.

It is the perspective of the candidate that the most interdisciplinary and life preparing mechanisms that can appear in a unit that is already based on the Federal and State standards the better. The proposed unit is firmly within most of the Federal Paradigms and on two critical levels of the New York State social studies paradigms. As a result, the unit exceeds the expectations of both the Federal and State guidelines. If every unit could extend beyond the Federal and State guidelines the quality of education in the country could drastically be improved. The lesson also addresses the three types of learners: Audio, Kinesthetic and Visual. The unit will have lectures, visual aids and hands on activities in its two week run to ensure that each type of learner has their needs met.

References

Acona, D. Et Al. Managing for the Future. New York: Thomson. Kownslar, A. & T.L. Smart.

Civics, Citizens and Society. New York: McGraw Hill. National Council for Social Studies. 10 Thematic Standards.

New York State. Social Studies Learning Standards.

Piaget's Stages of Development. San Diego State University.

Supreme Court History Society. Landmark Supreme Court Cases.

Learning Concepts and Intelligence

Introduction of Concepts Learning can be defined as "gain[ing] knowledge or understanding of or skill in by study, instruction, or experience" (Webster's 425). Closely tied into our current understanding of intelligence, the process by which students learn is of immense consequence to all stakeholders in the education process. Classroom instruction methodologies should reflect the most efficacious processes for information transfer. Since intelligence is not a static phenomenon and not all students learn the same way, it is necessary for educators to employ a variety of teaching mechanisms in each unit to ensure that all learning styles are being met and all types of intelligences are being nurtured. In an effort to explore these contexts, this work will examine learning and intelligence theories and articulate how they affect the learning process. Among the theorists that will be explored are Bruner, Rogers, Vygotsky, Kolb, Bandura, Gardner and Fleming. As an applicational example of learning style and practice, the personal learning style of the researcher will be used to demonstrate relevant concepts. Once the theories and concepts have been illustrated, the work will present suggestions for meeting a learner's needs that has the outlined characteristics of the researcher's learning style and experience.

Multiple Intelligences

Intelligence is not a static concept and therefore the learning processes has different mechanisms for influencing types of intelligence. There are some standard intelligence measurements like the Intelligence Quotient (IQ). On the other hand, these types of tests can be considered controversial because the skills in which they measure are not universally accepted dynamics for what constitutes being "smart." For example, what is a valuable or smart skill in one culture or profession could be quite useless in another. Intelligence is far more than being book or mathematically smart and according to famed theorist, Howard Gardner, there are eight types of intelligences that include: linguistic, logical mathematical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic.

Obviously, each type of these intelligences could more useful to one profession than another. Whereas bodily kinesthetic intelligence would be useful to a dancer or athlete, logical/mathematical would be useful to a scientist. Multiple intelligence is not a value judgement on validity, but an acknowledgement that there's different types of intelligences that are more desirable in some professions than others.

As an English as a second language (ESL) student, it is also important to note that multiple intelligence theory, particularly on the linguistic level, can also demonstrate ambiguity in its designations. For example, as a child living Poland, the researcher's move to the United Kingdom resulted in a significant language barrier problem. In Poland, it was generally considered that my linguistic skills were above average when compared to other children in my age bracket. When a new language entered that equation, however, my grades and the linguistic perception of the UK would not have designated my talents as being high in the linguistic category of intelligence. Linguistic intelligence, therefore, has some potential to be tongue specific. Grades in English class that would typically reflect linguistic intelligence, were actually average to below average for me despite my previous success and designated linguistic intelligence when using my own native speaking language.

Learning Styles and Theories Congruent to different types of intelligence designations, there are also different types of learning mechanisms. Traditional education is primarily based on oral information being transmitted to the student. Though lecture based learning is practiced in most secondary classrooms and most college classrooms, this is actually only covering one portion of learning styles. Specifically, learning styles can be designated as auditory, visual, reading/writing preference and kinesthetic (Leite, et. al. 2). Strong lessons by teachers would have to mix in elements of all of these learning style preferences. Though applicable to all learners to varying degrees, individuals that have deficiencies in hearing may logically gravitate toward oral learning methods. Similarly, individuals who have trouble with focus and concentration may be better served through kinesthetic mechanisms of learning. On an auditory level being an ESL student, pure auditory mechanisms of information delivery can sometimes be difficult when the person is speaking too quickly, using regional slang or using pop cultural examples specific to the UK in which I am not familiar. As a result, having a visual and/or written component to the auditory information dissemination process is often critical for me to fully understand the concepts being presented. Without such supplements, I often miss critical details. In my native tongue, I would designate myself an auditory learner, however, studying in the UK has made me more attracted to written/writing type learning and visual mechanisms. Though kinesthetic learning would accomplish a similar goal, I prefer non kinesthetic learning mechanisms though I understand their importance in the teaching/learning process.

To leave the conversation about learning within the spectrum of preferred learning methods would be an oversimplification of the learning process. Kolb, for example, explains learning as a process of concrete experience, observation of and reflection of that experience, formation of abstract concepts based upon that reflection and test the new concepts (Kolb & Fry 23). This is fairly standard learning mechanisms and the aforementioned learning styles would be applicable to the concrete experience spectrum of this process. How one has the concrete experience could be through any number of mechanisms. In a history class we were presented with the topic of indigenous people's struggles in the United States. An overview of the relationships between the U.S. government and the indigenous people from colonization to the present was demonstrated to the class through a video. The information dissemination reflected visual and auditory mechanisms for the concrete experiences. After we had watched the video, we broke into smaller discussion groups where we reflected on that experience with our peers through guided questions from the instructor. After this, the groups formed abstract concepts based on these reflection. The final portion of the unit, which was testing new concepts, had us do outside research to compare the concepts of U.S. indigenous relations with other industrialized nations to see which information was regionally specific or more universal. Through the unit process, the Kolb learning evolution was completely accomplished.

Though the teacher guided us in this particular example, the students both alone and through groups discovered the concepts on their own. The discovery elements of the learning process are consistent with the theories presented by Bruner. Bruner's discovery learning theory "Is a method of inquiry based instruction, discovery learning believes that it is best for learners to discover facts and relationships for themselves" (Learning Bruner 1). Self discovery of information and the Kolb process allows for more meaningful methods of learning to occur. Information can be transmitted from one individual to another without actual real learning occurring. Rogers, in his experiential learning theory, suggests that their are two types of learning: cognitive (meaningless) and experiential (significant) (Psychology 1). In learning, there is a degree of cognitive learning that has to occur before significant learning can take place. Standard cognitive information includes vocabulary learning, multiplication tables and applied knowledge (1). Referring back to the history lesson on U.S. indigenous relations, had the video been the only process of that unit, the facts presented would have been cognitive only and therefore meaningless as they would not have translated to experiential learning without the other components. Qualities of experiential learning include: personal involvement, self-initiated, evaluated by learner, and pervasive effects on learner (1). These mechanisms largely occur through discovery type processes.

Learning, however, should not only be viewed as an individual experience because of the social aspects related to mastery learning. According to Vygosky's social development theory, "Social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior" (1). This theory ties in heavily to Bandura's social learning theory. Bandura emphasizes the role of modeling in social learning and designates the necessary conditions for effective modeling as: attention, retentions, reproduction and motivation (Bandura 1). Attention can be increased or decreased depending on a variety of contexts including but not limited to: distinctiveness, complexity, functional value and an individuals sensory capacities (1). In regards to the sensory capacities, the learning styles previously mentioned again come into the equation. For example, if a visual learning is only being presented with auditory prompts, it is quite likely that they would have difficulty paying as much attention as if it were being conducted in a method congruent to their own preferred learning style. According to Bandura, the world and a person's behavior cause the other and behavior can cause the environment (1). For teachers, the way they are behaving and the way in which the students are behaving can be conducive to a strong learning environment or detrimental.

In terms of behavior influencing the learning environment on Bandura theoretical level, a reflection on a secondary school incident immediately is conjured. In one particular instance, there was a secondary level course where the teacher was quite informal and without any formal boundaries or guidelines for classroom behavior. The instructor modeled an informal position and the students in the class too behaved in an informal way. In some instances this resulted in good exploratory conversations, however, when it was time for more formal learning or designed lessons promoting other learning styles beyond auditory discourse, the result was a great deal of anarchy. Though some many students enjoyed the chaos and welcomed it as a break from the more formal types of teaching in which they were used to, very little learning took place thus making it not an efficacious learning model. Personally, the additional chaos made it difficult to follow the speaking of the instructor and the peers. Though many other students who did not normally do well in school got good grades in the class, my personal position was one of struggle as the environment fostered was so informal it made concentration quite difficult.

Suggestions for Meeting Student Needs

For a student such as myself, the outline of my profile in consideration of the learning and intelligence theories would be as follows: An ESL student who prefers writing/reading and visual learning methods to compensate for problems related to complex language understanding (i.e. rate of speech, slang and popular culture). In addition, the type of intelligence demonstrated by the student is linguistic in the native tongue and interpersonal in most situations. The following types of interventions would be appropriate for meeting a student's needs in this particular situation:

(1) Attention to visual and written aids in addition to oral methods of information dissemination. This would assuage informational gaps that are caused by ESL comprehension issues. In addition, it will help to scaffold a better understanding of the English language thereby performing an interdisciplinary task.

(2) Using guided group work with clear parameters. This process would allows for the student to build on their interpersonal skills while also facilitating social, discovery and experiential learning.

(3) Modeling behavior that encourages free thought and exchange of ideas while at the same time keeping clear boundaries for behavior and classroom conduct. This would discourage the "anarchy" described in the example of a poor learning environment. By having the teacher and the student exhibit certain behavior that is conducive to a good learning environment, the learning environment will be positively affected.

While these three variables would be beneficial to a student fitting the researcher's personal profile and learning styles, they are also generally universal mechanisms for productive learning environments based on scientifically backed theory. As a personal intervention, however, they are still incomplete. In order to make the process more efficacious for all students, each of the learning styles would have to be addressed and arguably, the most difficult of these in certain courses would be kinesthetic. While kinesthetic learning is easy in physical education, it is far more different in mathematics. Obviously some courses will have more opportunities than others and it is important that the instructors use these opportunities to meet all of the student's learning demands. Though the profile presented is not focused on kinesthetic variables, there is a social mechanism to kinesthetic learning that would nurture interpersonal intelligence dynamics. Mechanisms that instructors would want to avoid in regards to the profile presented would be:

(1) Singular information dissemination methods (example: only using oral information dissemination or drill and practice).

(2) Using unnecessary amounts of slang and popular culture references that would be unfamiliar to ESL students (thinks connects with informality #5).

(3) Overemphasis on cognitive learning with no connection to prior knowledge or abstract concepts (meaningless fact memorization and recall)

(4) Being too structured so discovery learning cannot occur (eliminates social learning mechanisms)

(5) Being too unstructured to the degree that the behavioral influence on the learning environment is negative.

(6) Modeling behavior to the rest of the class that would influence them to behave in manners that would proliferate concept mechanisms 1-5.

Like the appropriate needs articulated, this list of things to avoid is fairly universal and would be applicable to basically all learners based on the theoretical information presented. As a result, these six dynamics could be labeled general pitfalls for instructors to avoid in consideration of our current knowledge on the way in which student's learn.

Conclusions

Learning and intelligence are two closely related educational variables that necessitate critical attention and understanding by teachers and policy makers to craft the most efficacious learning environments possible. When teachers understand the respective needs of individual student situations and apply these conditions to learning theories, it is possible to make learning environments that meet the unique demands of all learners as best possible. A classroom cannot be everything to everyone at all times. As a result, simply being cognizant of the different needs and learning theories enables instructors to create lessons where all students needs are met in terms of singular concepts. If a lesson is on fractions, each of the learning styles should be considered so instructors can model the correct behavior conducive to a strong learning environment, facilitate discovery learning and help students make meaningful connections. Learning is a social mechanisms and the control of the social atmosphere is critical. From an individual perspective, there are a number of strong educational practices that could have made my transition to UK schools much easier had some basic principles of learning been considered by instructors and curriculum designers.

Works Cited

Armstrong, T. "Multiple intelligences." Thomas Armstrong.

Bandura, A. "Social Learning Theory." Learning Theories.

Bruner, J. "Discovery Learning." Learning Theories.

Kolb, D.A. and R. Fry. "Toward and applied theory of experiential learning."

Theories of Group Processes. Ed. Cooper. London: John Willey.

"Learning." Webster's Intermediate Dictionary. Mass. J.C. Merriam. Leite, W., Et al.

Argumentative Research Paper:

Students Should Not be Home-Schooled Instead of Being Sent to Traditional Schools.

There has been an ongoing debate as to whether or not students should be homeschooled as opposed to attending traditional schools. The aim of this paper is to explore the manners in which homeschooling is found to be insufficient and lacking. To this extent, it is the position of this paper that traditional school is a better choice with regard to education and that traditional schooling is the wisest choice for parents to make for their children's learning future. Card stacking (Multiple reasons for the paper's position to be advisable, each of the following paragraphs is at least one reason): There are multiple reasons to consider traditional school as a super alternative to homeschooling.

Pathos (Playing on the emotional tendencies of the readers): Parents are often concerned about their children and the futures of their children. While they want to keep them safe and protected, they also want them to be able to explore all that the world has to offer. When it comes to the question of education, parents want to know that they are make the right decision to pursue a traditional route for their child in order to have the most profitable and fulfilling future, which may or may not include traditional schooling (Whelan). Obviously without the right education, it will be difficult for children to succeed as adults and function properly in society ("The Cons and Arguments Against Homeschooling").

Ethos (What kinds of people are homeschooled? Would respect be shown towards those who are homeschooled or those who attend traditional school? Which seems more 'professional'?): To this extent, it is important to consider what children will be learning when they are home schooled versus what they will learn when they are able to pursue an education at a traditional school. Many people choose homeschooling over traditional schooling because of the controlled environment. In one study conducted in 2007, parents indicated that the reason they chose homeschooling was for "religious or moral instruction" as the most important factor ("Research Center: Home Schooling").

According to one popular homeschool organization, Time4Learning, a Christian based Homeschooling program, there was concern over children learning about evolution, a concept which the scientific community wholly embraces. Time4Learning contends, "We believe in a literal 6 day creation and disagree with the theory of evolution" and continues "when...young, I only teach them a biblical worldview. As they approach middle school I begin to share what other people believe, but continue to share why it...may not line up with scripture" ("Christian Home Schooler"). It would be awkward to start a job and learn that one's boss or co-worker does not ascribe to the theory of evolution. While homeschooling might be advisable for religious fanatics who fear their children learning about evolution, traditional school would obviously be a preferred choice for parents who want to expose their children to other cultures and a broader spectrum of experiences in life.

Logos (Appeals to the readers requirement for rational proof about the matter): Before assuming that religious fanatics might be too harsh a term for those who are religious and homeschool, consider the fact that the majority of individuals who choose to homeschool, according to a study by Lawrence Rudner in 1999, were found to be Christian ("Research Center: Home Schooling"). In addition to this, the majority are predominately white and do not accurately represent communities at large. Such extreme isolationism of one religion or culture could definitely be perceived to have an effect on the socialization and adaptability of those children later in life ("Research Center: Home Schooling").

Ethos and Pathos (Appealing to the emotions of the audience while plying their respect for certain individuals in society): People get along best with those whom they relate. It can be very difficult for homeschooled children to interact with those who were taught in a traditional setting, not just because of the practice others have had interacting with diverse groups of individuals, but because some have not even been exposed to the theories that are so embraced by doctors, scientists and scholars. Homeschooled individuals often reference the extreme social disconnect that they feel with others, once they enter college or join the workforce ("The Cons and Arguments Against Homeschooling"). "Others, whose teaching was steeped in religious ideology, note astonishment and even anger towards their parents because they were shielded from scientific learning...subjects like evolution, the big bang theory or even the existence of dinosaurs" (Whelan).

Additionally, it is important to note that children whose families are not well off financially could be struggling if they are homeschooled. This is because there can be a more limited curriculum when resources are not available (Marten). The reason individuals apply to prestigious colleges is because they have extensive experience and educational opportunities. Homeschools limit themselves when it comes to the material they have to teach, as well as the experience. Parents are often not skilled in education. They, more often than not, do not possess teaching degrees and therefore are not as well equipped or prepared as professional teachers ("The Cons and Arguments Against Homeschooling"; "Arguments Against Homeschooling").

Rhetorical Question (Asked to make the readers think about their own situations): Would you want your child to live such an uncertain future? The society in which we now live places an emphasis on notoriety and prestige. Schools such as the various Ivy League colleges are interested in attracting candidates who have an understandable and defined education under their belts, preparing them for the rigors of college and professional success later in life. Most states do not have a systematic approach to regulating homeschooling, making it unpredictable and difficult for more prestigious schools and employers to trust. Society members unfamiliar with the specific homeschool will not have any emotional or statistical connection with what may or may not have been learned, making the inclusion of such individuals at a school or place of employment risky at best. Do you really want to gamble in such a manner with the futures of your children?

Works Cited

"Against Homeschooling." Homeschool Companion. N.p., n.d. Web.

"The Cons and Arguments Against Home Schooling." EducateExpert.com. N.p., n.d. Web.

"Christian Homeschooler." Time4Learning. N.p., n.d. Web.

Marten, Melanie L.. "Overview of Common Arguments Against Homeschooling - Yahoo Voices.

"Research Center: Home Schooling." Education Week. N.p., n.d. Web.

Whelan, Corey. "Just The Facts: The Pros & Cons Of Homeschooling." CBS Sacramento. Web.

Non-Native English Speaking Parents in an English-Speaking School

CAPSTONE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Setting

Epstein, Coates, Salinas, Sanders, & Simon reported that there are six areas of parental involvement that can stimulate children to higher academic achievement. These areas cover nearly all areas of a child's life: parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, making decisions, and collaborating with the community. It can be difficult to stimulate parental interest in participating as partners in their children's education, but it can be doubly difficult to engage non-English speaking parents or parents with limited English-language ability. Federal law now mandates that progress reports be sent to parents of limited English capacity in their native language, so that they can monitor their children's progress. The question arises as to what other initiatives might stimulate parental interest if the student has non-native English speaking parents.

The literature is abundantly clear that parental involvement equals better student outcome. Vygotsky (1978) suggested that children learn from the community around them; learning is a social activity scaffolded by those around them. Interactions of parents and children are critical to the learning process. Kozulin, Gindis, Ageyev, and Miller pointed out Vygotsky "emphasizes the importance of sociocultural forces in shaping the situation of a child's development and learning and points to the crucial role played by parents" (p. 2). School involvement is but one of the factors in this crucial role. Interaction between parents and teachers is another critical factor (Brien & Stelmach). This interaction can be very difficult when one of the parties does not speak English well.

Schools must also be very careful to obey any existing state or federal laws on involving parents who have limited English capabilities. The federal mandate to provide parents with progress reports in their native language was a good first step, but the courts have consistently ruled that parents have the right to information about their children's education. In Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925) the Court ruled that "the fundamental liberty upon which all governments in this union repose excludes any general power of the State to standardize its children by forcing them to accept instruction from public teachers only." Thus, parents have the right to participate in teaching their child, and with that right comes responsibility. Neither can be ignored by the school system.

Proposed Research Question

How can teachers make it easier for non-English speaking or limited English proficiency parents to communicate and participate in their child's school activities?

Possible Benefits

With large numbers of non-English speaking or limited English speaking children (and their parents), communicating with these parents can be challenging. Yet, it is clear that better communication contribute to better educational outcomes. The results of this project could benefit any school with non-English speaking or limited English speaking populations.

Research Proposal

The type of research proposed is Ethnographic research.

Proposed Activities

The researcher proposes to meet with groups of non-English speaking or limited English speaking parents, with the assistance of a translator. The researcher will observe non-English speaking parents who attend school activities and open houses, and will interview parents regarding their feelings about school communications and their level of participation in activities. This ethnographic research will be triangulated (interviews, observations, literature research) to reach conclusions about improving the level of participation by non- or limited English speaking parents.

Once the study has been completed, suggestions for future research and for integrating findings into the classroom will be presented in the research report. The proposed study has the potential to contribute significantly to the body of knowledge on the subject of non-English or limited English parental engagement in student learning experience.

References

Brien, K. & Stelmach, B. Parent-teacher interactions with schools and schooling: Legal and cultural contexts. EMSA.

Epstein, J.L., Coates, L., Salinas, K.C., Sanders, M.G., & Simon, B.S. School, family, and community partnerships: Your handbook for action.

Essay Coupons. Writing a Capstone Project (Student Tutorial). Web. https://essaycoupons.com/research/capstone-project-writing/

Kozulin, A., Gindis, B., Ageyev, V., & Miller, S. Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Pierce v. Society of Sisters, 268 US 510 (1925). Oyez Project. Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Linguistics

Part A

Introduction

Significant empirical attention has been devoted to the analysis of the media's role in reporting, articulating, and shaping the financial crisis of 2008. Across multiple genres, the implications of discourse were weighted and varied with respect to the sources, construct, and outcomes associated with the crisis. The following inquiry examines a meaningful written text contextualized at the height of the financial crisis, applying the principles of critical discourse analysis (CDA) in order to demonstrate the core discourse features of the text. Initially, this report outlines CDA principles and highlights the principal objectives of this work before discussing the context and genre of the written text. The inquiry concludes by analyzing the coherence and cohesion features of the text as well as applying description analysis.

Background and Objectives

CDA is a form of analytical research which seeks to examine the ways in which social power mechanisms manifest, are reproduced, and countered with respect to discourse (Tenorio, n.d.). Researchers conducting CDA seek to comprehend, reflect upon, and generally oppose the inequities inherent to contemporary society. CDA applied to written texts is particularly meaningful, as it addresses the link between the social context and relevant scholarship; political forces are acknowledged for their power to shape discourse, with CDA seeking to counter sociopolitical inequities by first evidencing their existence in written text. According to Van Dijk, several, core aspects of CDA exist; these are the notion that discourse constitutes society and culture, that discourse is ideological in nature, that discourse analysis must be both explanatory as well as interpretive, that discourse is centrally a social interaction, and that power in relationships manifests in discourse. Van Dijk highlights further that "language use, discourse, verbal interaction, and communication belong to the microlevel of the social order. Power, dominance, and inequality between social groups are typically terms that belong to a macrolevel of analysis. This means that CDA has to theoretically bridge the well-known "gap" between micro and macro approaches" (p. 255). If written texts represent an amalgamation of microlevel and macrolevel social forces, then CDA aims to address both levels in the identification and dissolution of social inequities.

The objectives of this inquiry are two-fold; primarily, this work details an analysis of a newspaper editorial text applying genre analysis, implicature, and discourse grammatical features of cohesion and reference to an opinion-editorial (op-ed) piece written by famed capitalist Warren Buffet. Additionally, this inquiry will discuss the sociocultural and sociopolitical implications of the text by extending the CDA principles to draw relevant conclusions. In essence, this work will apply CDA to a brief op-ed piece in order to objectively analyze the written text and surmount common criticisms relative to CDA; these include the inability of the researcher to extricate him/herself from the cultural field, thereby merely deducing research conclusions from a predetermined perspective of social inequalities.

Text Background and Genre Analysis

Published in October of 2008, the text serving as the subject of this analysis was written by Warren Buffet, entitled "Buy American. I Am" (Appendix). Specific conventions and schematic patterns exist relative to the news genre, with these typical patterns relevant to analysis of Buffet's piece. Van Dijk (1993) writes that "it is empirically and theoretically warranted to assume that news schemata exist. They can be described as abstract structural properties of discourse, as representations, and as socially shared systems of rules, norms, or strategies.... [N]ews is perhaps the type of written discourse with which they are confronted most frequently, and insight into its structures is therefore an important task of discourse analysis" (p. 155-156). Van Dijk articulates these core patterns relative to the news media as essentially categorized according to narrative news or argumentative news, citing that the latter category embodies the schema of setting, complication, resolution, and several premise categories.

The purpose of the text is very streamlined and concrete. Buffet's article focuses on the implications of the financial crisis for stockholders, with the primary assertion, or core premise according to news schemata, being that equities should be maintained. Additional premises include that the author does not seek to predict how the stock market would perform in the short-term, but, drawing from past financial crises including the Great Depression, he can assert the following:

A simple rule dictates my buying: Be fearful when others are greedy, and be greedy when others are fearful. And most certainly, fear is now widespread, gripping even seasoned investors. To be sure, investors are right to be wary of highly leveraged entities or businesses in weak competitive positions. But fears regarding the long-term prosperity of the nation's many sound companies make no sense. These businesses will indeed suffer earnings hiccups, as they always have. But most major companies will be setting new profit records 5, 10, and 20 years from now. The central conclusion is that buyers should not fear long-term losses even though short-term volatility is likely, with equities being largely trustworthy in the long-term.

The setting of the text, specifically the New York Times newspaper and the historical background of the financial crisis within which the nation was entrenched at the time the article was written, is significantly relevant to any meaningful CDA of the text. The New York Times has won more Pulitzer Prizes than any other news organization and has emerged as a trustworthy news source since its inception in 1851. The newspaper devoted considerable attention to the 2008 crisis, which was catalyzed largely by poor lending policies and unscrupulous behavior on the part of mortgage brokers and large banking organizations. Widely deemed the Great Recession, the financial crisis quickly spread globally, weakening the economies of many fully developed, wealthy nations. The crisis generated a wide spectrum of poor economic transitions, including high levels of unemployment and plummeting stocks, with the American people affected significantly by trepidation regarding their financial future.

Warren Buffet, the article's author represents a largely trusted capitalist with an international audience. The relationship between the audience and writer of the text is then significant, as Buffet is not merely an unknown op-ed writer; he is a wealthy and successful investor who presumably is cognizant of necessary investment behaviors during a financial crisis. New York Times readers are generally liberal and progressive, hailing from a socioeconomically fortunate background; they are thus precisely who Buffet seeks to reach, as they are the investors who were making difficult choices in 2008. Buffet wrote the text to charge investors to keep investing and maintain a long-term perspective.

Application of Other CDA Principles

In applying the principles of backgrounding, foregrounding, topicalization, cohesion, connotations, description analysis, and intertextuality, theme, and rheme, CDA of Buffet's article reveals that key social issues and power disparities are inherent in the text. With respect to backgrounding, Buffet assumes that his readers are cognizant of multiple financial terms, including cash equivalents and equities: "Today people who hold cash equivalents feel comfortable; they shouldn't. They have opted for a terrible long-term asset, one that pays virtually nothing and is certain to depreciate in value. Indeed, the policies that government will follow in its efforts to alleviate the current crisis will probably prove inflationary and therefore accelerate declines in the real value of cash accounts." The author excludes definitions of many terms integral to his central thesis; this is done in order to isolate the audience. Emphasized in the text through foregrounding are parallels between the 2008 crisis and the Great Depression, particularly with respect to fear, and the relationship between the short-term market fluctuations which Buffet highlights he cannot predict and long-term stability of equities: "I don't like to opine on the stock market, and again I emphasize that I have no idea what the market will do in the short-term..." The agent-patient relations of the text relate largely to the agency of investors, with buying options serving as the patient; this emphasizes the autonomy of people over money, which highlights and aligns with Buffet's central thesis.

Conclusions

The text is connoted with sophisticated financial terms as they relate to the emotion of fear, which the author suggests is ultimately unfounded. Buffet suggests that the climate of investment is one marked by fear, with the tone of the author largely patronizing and dismissive. The theme of Buffet's work is financial investments, with the rheme grounded in the need to continue investing despite the current crisis. CDA of the text reveals the irrefutably powerful position of the author, as he is well-known and inordinately financially successful, and the exclusion of those to whom the behavior of the stock market was largely irrelevant. Buffet is positioned above his audience from a class perspective, though the audience is generally upper to middle class, and the text highlights a dismissal of the audience's prevalent fears; in doing so, it maintains a power imbalance between the very wealthy and moderately wealthy whilst entirely marginalizing those who conform to neither category.

Part B

1. What is an achievement test? Its purpose?

The purpose of achievement tests is markedly distinct from that of diagnostic tests with respect to language. According to Brown, "achievement tests analyze the extent to which students have acquired language skills which have already been taught" (p. 47); it is distinct from a diagnostic text in that in that it may not highlight areas which students need to address in the future, or, more specifically gaps in existing knowledge structures. Achievement tests are generally summative in nature, seeking to highlight whether students have acquired predetermined language features or met goals associated with the given lesson or subject matter.

2. Why test reading?

Reading is an integral literacy skill that warrants testing for several reasons. Brown posits that an educator, particularly a second-language educator, cannot automatically assume that readers are forging the necessary connections between letters, words, and phrases, comprehending these disparate structures as meaningful, cohesive bits of information. Reading tests allow for literacy skills to be tested and, if necessary, addressed in order to ensure that comprehension is sufficient and strategic pathways are being formed. In essence, reading is a complex endeavor that represents a multidimensional skill. Testing reading successfully evaluates the level to which reading skills both exist and can be meaningfully applied across multiple settings.

3. Why is genre important in testing reading? What are common genres for academic reading?

Genre is a critical feature of reading tests; this is true because each type of written text is structured, and therefore read, according to specific and unique conventions (Brown). Common genres include academic, job-related, and personal reading. Under these categorical umbrellas fall sub-genres, with academic reading including articles of general interest, technical reports, textbooks, essays, test or homework directions, and opinion-based writing. Contrasting with academic reading, job-related reading might include that of memos, emails, or transcribed phone messages. Brown highlights that "a reader must be able to anticipate those conventions in order to process meaning efficiently. With an extraordinary number of genres present in any literate culture, the reader's ability to process texts must be very sophisticated" (p. 186). By extension, literacy is inextricably bound to being able to read across multiple genre lines.

4. Discuss the first five implications of testing.

Alderson (n.d.) lists several implications of reading testing; these include that reading tests must be content-focused, that students must tested for a range of skills and strategies rather than narrow or single concepts, that students must read longer texts rather than short passages which might preclude accurate assessment of comprehension, and that background knowledge must be viewed as influential of comprehension with attempts made during the testing process to allow background knowledge to support reading performance. Finally, Alderson (n.d.) notes that "tests should be open to the possibility multiple interpretations. Test designers should be as open as possible in the range different interpretations and understandings they accept."

5. Describe Popham's test specification format.

Test specification represents a key consideration during the evaluation of test validity. Popham's test specification format consists of five components; these are general description, or a statement of the behavior being tested, prompt attitudes, or the description of what is likely to be encountered by the student, response attributes, or the way in which the student will provide a response, sample item, and specification supplement. The response attributes can be framed as what will represent a failure or success. The sample item is the illustrative item that reflects the specification, while the specification supplement is the explanation of additional information required for the construction of any given specification.

6. Define Validity.

Validity is the extent to which an assessment measures what it aims to measure; this then translates to the worthiness of an examination. Fulcher writes that "the codes and guidelines all place the concept of validity at the centre of the testing enterprise. It is the concept of validity that guides our work in testing and assessment" (p. 36). A range of considerations apply to the validity of a test, with these considerations concurrently and inextricably bound to those relevant to reliability.

7. Define reliability. Why use descriptive statistics or standard error to calculate reliability?

Reliability relates to the dependability and predictability of test-scoring in the absence of intervention. Specifically, a highly reliable test will yield the same results without much fluctuation, with a student who receives a score on the test one day likely to receive the same score if the test were taken the following day, in the absence of any intervention. Descriptive statistics and standard error can be used to calculate reliability in order to ground reliability-related conclusions in quantitative evidence. Fulcher describes standard error as follows: "One of the most important tools in the armoury of standardised testing is the standard error of measurement. If we assume that a test taker has a 'true score' on the test, which genuinely reflects their ability on the construct of interest, their observed score might be different because of error.... This statistic is therefore much more informative for interpreting the practical implication of reliability" (p. 46). Ideally, a reading assessment is both valid and reliable.

References

Alderson (n.d.). Publication Information Unknown.

Brown, D. Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices. Pearson Education.

Coffin, B. Buffet: The Making of an American Capitalist. Risk Management, 55(7), 22.

Fulcher, G. Practical Language Testing. Hodder Education.

Schechter, D. Is the Financial Crisis Also a Crime Story? What Happens When Reporters Pursue the Wrong Narrative in Covering Financial News? It Is a Personal Story with Deeper Implications. Nieman Reports, 65(3), 66-78.

Tenorio, E.H. (n.d.). Critical Discourse Analysis. Publication Information Unknown.

Van Dijk, T. Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis. Discourse and Society 4(2), 246 269.

Wallison, P. J. The True Story of the Financial Crisis. The American Spectator, 44(4), 12-19.

Women Education in Saudi Arabia

In an analysis on women's education in Saudi Arabia, Roudi-Fahimi and Moghadam suggested that education is the key to improving individual well being and society's economic and social development. In the Middle East, access to education has improved drastically in the last few decades. Women's education is also on the rise and the gender gap in education has disappeared with more and more people likely to enroll in universities than in the past. Despite the optimistic progress in attitudes towards women's education, there are many hurdles, including mindsets and government policies.

Al Rawaf and Simmons noted that the Government in Saudi Arabia provides free education to all up to the secondary school level. In 1990, more than 29000 men and 25000 women graduated secondary school and at any time, there are more than a million men and women attending school. This would suggest that women in Saudi Arabia have equal opportunity in education when compared with men.

Yet the statistics change when higher education is considered and the differences among men and women are profound at the University level. Only 5.5% of the total female population are in paid employment and 5% attend university or higher level education. There was no concept of formal education for women before the 1960s and it is only after 1960 that women's education became a social and political issue in Saudi Arabia. There was lukewarm reception to the news that girls would be able to attend schools and most households were reluctant to send their women to attain formal education. Women's role in Saudi Arabia was seen at home as social attitudes do not encourage a public role for women.

There are however several changes expected as reformists have been demanding political, social, educational and economic change in Saudi Arabia. There is a growing demand to implement comprehensive structural reforms and this includes educational reforms with equal rights of education for women. However real reforms would only be possible when women have equal rights to work. Women's rights to work could redefine labor market dynamic and this is important as labor force is closely related to economic growth of a region. Lincove analyzed the link between labor market participation and economic growth. The study focused on the intervening relationship of female education in facilitating labor force participation and economic growth. The study suggested that investing in female education could help in economic growth as more women will be available for work when equipped with the right skills. Saudi Arabia needs more women in the workforce and investing in women's higher education could help in revitalizing the economy.

Women's position in Saudi Arabia can be understood from a historical socioeconomic and political perspective. Saudi society is now under increased scrutiny as the persistent exclusion of women from public life remains a controversial social policy. Although higher education is now open to women, University women can study only those subjects which would not require them to interact with the men. Several studies have emphasized on the achievement of women in Saudi Arabia although higher education and paid employment opportunities are not always available to women and discrimination remains a major deterrent in the progress of women's education, graduate-level learning opportunities, and employment.

Doumato highlighted the plight of women who remain unemployed despite attaining higher education in Saudi Arabia. Doumato argued that it is in the interest of the government to keep women economically marginalized and in control of men, as this has political implications and broad public appeal. With low state subsidies and higher education, women have become more demanding about their opportunities to work. Saudi reformists and writers have been vocal about women's participation in law as judges and advocates and women have been increasingly employed in healthcare as medical technicians and physicians.

Women have been strictly segregated and the segregation has become more conspicuous in recent times as this has led to the development of female sphere of activities. The Saudi government has been allowing freedom to women by segregating them and as Le Renard argued, women not only remain spatially segregated, but are also legally discriminated. Women activists who are more aware and educated, have been challenging the government and status quo, demanding equality in the family and society, calling for women's economic, political and social empowerment. This trend is visible even in relatively conservative nations like Saudi Arabia.

In a paper on Saudi higher education, Prokop discussed the influence of religion in shaping the Saudi educational system and attitudes towards women. The evolution of education in Saudi Arabia is expected to preserve the religious foundations of the regime and women are marginalized educationally and economically because they are considered lesser mortals in the Islamic tradition. By religion, women are not entitled to equal rights or opportunities. This attitude prevails in all section of Saudi society and women remain significantly deprived of opportunities in education and employment, despite their abilities.

This thesis on the higher education and employment opportunities for women relates to the legal, social, political, religious and economic environment in Saudi Arabia. Despite significant changes in attitudes towards women, there are religious and social deterrents that prevent women from enjoying complete freedom to attend work or University in Saudi Arabia and the Middle East. This thesis looks at several dimensions of the problem and analyzes the reasons why women continue to remain deprived in education and employment with inadequate opportunities. A broader analysis with an extensive literature review is necessary to examine the educational and social reforms in Saudi Arabia to understand how women could seek equal opportunities at employment and higher education despite the social obstacles. The next section will consider review, analysis and study of research papers, journal articles and reports on women's education and employment in the Middle East as also the social and legal implications of the findings.

Bibliography:

Al Rawaf Haya Saad and Simmons Cyril. The Education of Women in Saudi Arabia Comparative Education. Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 287-295

Doumato Eleanor Abdella. Women and Work in Saudi Arabia: How Flexible Are Islamic Margins? Middle East Journal. Vol. 53, No. 4, pp. 568-583

Hamdan, Amani. Women and Education in Saudi Arabia: Challenges and Achievements. International Education Journal, v6 n1 p42-64

Jacobs Jerry A. Gender Inequality and Higher Education. Annual Review of Sociology Vol. 22, pp. 153-185

Le Renard. Amélie "Only for Women:" Women, the State, and Reform in Saudi Arabia Middle East Journal. Vol. 62, No. 4, pp. 610-629

Lincove, Jane Arnold. Growth, Girls' Education, and Female Labor: A Longitudinal Analysis The Journal of Developing Areas .Volume 41, Number 2, pp. 45-68

Prokop, Michael. Saudi Arabia: The Politics of Education. International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs) Vol. 79, No. 1, pp. 77-89

Raphael Nimrod. Demands for Reforms in Saudi Arabia. Middle Eastern Studies. Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 517-532

Roudi-Fahimi Farzaneh and Moghadam Valentine M. 2005. Empowering Women, Developing Society: Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa.

Population Reference Bureau United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Arab Human Development Report (New York: UNDP): 54.

For almost 150 years, the labour movement in Canada has endeavoured to communicate the value of justice, hard work, and overcoming oppression. By virtue of this communication, it may be said that every activity and campaign the labour movement has undertaken revolve around the notion of learning. The labour movement has made multiple contributions to capitalist societies the world over in which competition, individualism and inequity co-exist side by side. Under this perspective, unions have historically strived to "value and build community;" to be aware when inequality takes place so that it may be addressed; to promote unity in the face of adversity such as discrimination as well as to establish "inclusive organizations" (Labour Education Centre 10). In light of these, unions proactively encourage learning that identifies and generates appropriate actions to act against systemic barriers so that a more equitable future may be gained. One of the most progressive and comprehensive undertakings by the Canadian labour movement has been in the field of education. Yet, it is surprising that the milestones in such endeavours are hardly recognized, much less written about. It cannot be denied that the Canadian union movement used to be perceived in a negative light. Unions in Canada were among the most misunderstood entities and understandably, there was little interest or sympathy towards their efforts. Quietly but determinedly, the labour movement in Canada undertook extensive measures in order to provide or enhance education for its constituents. By mid-1994, labour education has evolved to become the most widely-used, non-vocational, non-formal method of educating adults in Canada (Spencer). Since then, labour education has continued expanding and progressing, such that it now encompasses distance learning, more universities providing Labour studies, formal and informal methods and other innovative means of delivering learning. As a result, not only has labour education addressed the needs of its constituents but it has also been accepted as a cultural expression of Canada's working people.

Overview of Labour Education in Canada

Unions in Canada represent at least 4.5 million workers in practically all of the labour market sectors as well as occupational groups. Currently, education is delivered by unions through different programs such as "literacy; workplace programs; apprenticeship, pre-apprenticeship and work skills training; labour education" (Labour Education Centre 10). There are times that some of these programs are closely interlinked as a result of integrated initiatives. The creativity at how these lessons are delivered is admirable. Most weekends, classes converge at unions halls, civic centres and even hotel rooms so that "practical and innovative adult education" can take place. However, many community members and stakeholders in the field of education are hardly aware that these are going on. Apart from this non-formal method of delivering learning, there is also a broad spectrum of informal learning by means of union campaigns, meetings, strikes and other labour movement activities. It must be noted here that the term "non-formal" refers to courses that are provided external to the formal educational system. Just as importantly, for labour unions, activities such as collective bargaining agreements or strikes are stages for informal learning processes due to the knowledge acquired by participation or observation.

Decades of story-telling among unionists have cultivated channels through which information learning may take place (Martin 6). Currently, this tradition has transformed into a more formal structure, akin to mentoring programs at regular universities. What makes the mentoring taking place at unions is that insights are based on a combination of facts, inspiration, political and social perceptions, and the ever-relevant technical skills. Unions have always been advocates for education of those marginalized members of society that have little alternative in schooling other than staying out of it. Union education has had a long history. Working people who have spent long hours volunteering for union activities have been among the first recipients of both formal and informal adult, union education. Way before it became legal for unions to accept memberships in 1872, labour councils have already been sponsoring reading classes for workers. In succeeding decades, initiatives by the Workers Educational Association, in collaboration with their allies in the community as well as several political organizations ascertained that "knowledge, skills and will" required to "seek economic and social justice were developed among activists" (Labour Education Centre 12). The challenge for contemporary unions is to serve as channel for learning for their members.

The direction that labour education takes is usually based on collective goals that are motivated by service to 'fellow workers, to the working class, to society, for social and economic justice" (Labour Education Centre 12). As may be seen here, this is in direct contrast with the goals of mainstream education in Canada. In alignment with other union activities, labour education enhances solidarity, encourages critical thought as well as democratic participation and seeks changes, starting from the working environment. Moreover, unions are motivated with the realization that mainstream education is not able to provide the necessary knowledge that will make lives productive for people. Labour education prefers to see learners become competent and engaged adults who are equipped with a broad range of experiences and capabilities. Because of the structure and content of mainstream education, many workers feel that they have been left behind. It must be noted that in other countries such as the United Kingdom, universities used to be active in providing trade union-oriented education. The goal of such universities was to address broader liberal, political, and social questions intended for trade unionists as both decision makers and social activists (McIlroy and Spencer). It is noteworthy that the number of universities offering such education started to decline after the Second World War. This decrease was mainly as a result of new directions that universities that started to take, and which sought to tap into the student market composed of middle-class people. The United Kingdom was one of the spearheading countries that provided labour education. In 1979, almost half of the universities offered specially designed courses that would appeal to trade unionists, particularly, workplace representatives. The national trade union centre in the United Kingdom, the Trade Union Congress (TUC) was a partner in the provision of almost half of these courses. The rest were composed of programs developed in collaboration with "different trade unions and certificate or diploma courses in Trade Union Studies offered to workers generally" (McIlroy and Spencer 63). Things changed in the 1980s when many educators started to believe that students are shortchanged if they study only purely trade union content. These educators believed that it was necessary to teach the basic industrial relations skills as well as lessons encompassing broad political and economic issues. Little by little, labour education in the United Kingdom became diluted with mainstream course contents.

The Canadian experience is quite unlike that of the United Kingdom. In Canada, there is no specific union objective, aim or methodology when it comes to union learning practices. Certainly, the student community has always been diverse. However, unions in Canada generally design their education programs using the adult education framework, which shows that they truly understand how workers learn best. Rather than taking the approach in which all of the knowledge is invested in the instructor, so that all the student has to do is listen and be passive, union education instead cherish active learners who share as much about their experiences and knowledge as the course topic is explored. Worker-centred education optimizes upon what people already know and then focuses on the entire person. The differences there may be in experience and identity are valued so that ultimately, a supportive and respective learning environment is built. As seen here, rather than the typical lectures and text, union education depends upon different activities that are appealing to the learners' "eyes, ears and hands" (Labour Education Centre 13). In union education in Canada, there is much use for trained peer instructors. This peer level approach usually encompasses seeking a fit between workers and trainers, or tutors with staff facilitators or even instructors from the public education system. Moreover, the popular education approach has recently been added to union education because this also optimizes upon adult education. To note, popular education is the approach in learning in which there is a conscious collective action for change. Lessons usually critically analyze inequality in terms of race, gender, disability, heterosexism or ageism. It has been observed that popular education pursues "a positive social vision" that seeks transformative education so that power hierarchies are transformed to social and economic equality (Labour Education Centre 13).

Current Prospects of Labour Education in Canada

One of the most significant breakthroughs in labour education in Canada was the establishment of the Labour College of Canada in the early 1960s. The College received funding from the labour movement and the government but given its focus on university-accepted approaches and the priority of training leaders for the collective bargaining system, there emerged a tension in terms of ideological perspectives. Nevertheless, the Whitelam administration was supportive of the Canadian Labour College. It must be noted, however, that the College did not really count on government support most of the time but was guided by two current intellectual streams. The first was a need for practical tools courses for leaders and second, the notion of an abstract liberal arts-type philosophy in other components of the curriculum.

In spite of the establishment of several formal learning institutions intentionally meant for labour education, by principle, Canadian unions typically eschew partnerships with universities because they prefer to educate their own workers and officials. This attitude is in direct contrast with their American and British counterparts. An example of this is the Canadian Workers' Centre in at Port Elgrin in Ontario (Nesbit 683). Nevertheless, one of the most extensive training provision is given by the Canadian Labour Congress (CLC) through a five-week Residential Program that is delivered in two parts: a national four-week component at the Labour College of Canada and an added week in one of the CLC locations. This standard course is made up of five subjects, namely, political science, sociology, economics, history and law (Nesbit 683). The aim of this program is to develop leadership by enhancing the ability of unionists to comprehend, analyze and deal with the daily issues encountered at work, in unions as well as in the community. Currently, several Canadian universities are offering a type of labour studies certificate or degree program. Understandably, these programs take a more academic approach to labour issues, practices and organizations. Hence, they are not specially designed for union workers or officials. It is noteworthy that there are more recent course designs that are intended for union leaders. For example, Simon Fraser University in British Columbia has several successful nine-month certificate programs intended for senior provincial labour leaders. These courses strive develop the theoretical foundation understanding regarding management of labour issues while at the same time, broadens the learners' knowledge and awareness of practical tools that may be used for efficient and effective management and leadership of unions (Nesbit 683). The following is a description of the current labour education landscape in Canada.

1. Adult Education Approach

Malcolm Knowles' seminal work on program design takes a paradigm shift from focus
on the educator to the learner. It was Knowles who coined the term "andragogy" to refer to "the art and science of helping adults learn" in direct contrast with "pedagogy" which refers to the "art and science of teaching children" (Newman 83). Therefore, andragogy as used by labour education emphasizes "learner learning" instead of "teacher teaching" and equally encourages respecting and utilizing experiences that adults bring to their learning (Newman 83). Therefore, in adopting this paradigm, labour education seeks to address the need of adults to solve problems and play new roles by means of encouragement of self-direction. To facilitate all these, Knowles promotes the use of a "learning contract" which is dramatically different from mainstream frameworks used n education. A learning contract is an individualized, highly personal project that is negotiated between the learner and the adult educator. Through this contract, the learner sets his or her own objectives, identifies the methods that he or she wants to use for learning so that these objectives are met, and then identifies the resources he or she wants tom use. Such resources typically include videos, visual materials, colleagues or books. The learner also sets the criteria through which both the learner and the adult educator can measure progress. Through the use of these contracts, learners are encouraged to design learning that is closely associated with real-life concerns, workplace problems and personal interests. It is expected that this learning contract will also generate outcomes that are directly applicable to the working or personal life of the learner.

2. Labour Education Programs

Through the years, a clearer definition of labour education has emerged. Labour education ranges from half-day to eight-week sessions, including courses at the Labour College of Canada residential school (Spencer 20). These courses are controlled by labour unions, are targeted at their members, union representatives and officials. Labour education courses seek to improve union effectiveness and develop union consciousness and thus encompasses all courses using the adult education approach for union members. Specific job training is not included in this definition. The essential components of current labour education are:

- Social education: A crucial component of union-controlled education is that it must be social, and therefore in opposition to the "personal" approach of mainstream formal education. Hence, current labour education emphasizes constructs such as service and representation and in these contexts, that union members be educated so that they can better serve their fellow members and the union within the workplace.

- Goal of labour education is to "advance or build the union, and to advance the interests of working people and the labour movement" (Spencer 21),.

- Tool Courses: Majority of union education courses aim to prepare its learners for union activities or possible leadership roles in the union. These are typically offered in-house by specific labour unions themselves. Sometimes, these tool courses are provided in collaboration with labour councils or the CLC. Seldom are they offered through or with a formal educational institution.

- Issues Courses: These courses aim to raise awareness about relevant labour union issues. These focus on the socio-political environment as well as on problems that impact union members and their families. Examples of these issues are privatization, outsourcing, free trade, new management principles, racism, and the like. It is notable that issues courses move onto tool training wherein unionists are provided with the skills and knowledge that they need to be able to effectively deal with such issues.

- Labour Studies: This type of learning means to widen the awareness of unionists of the context and nature of labour unionism. The flagship course is the aforementioned eight-week course at the Labour College of Canada at which selected activists are provided with university-level training in five disciplines, namely, history, economics, sociology, labour law, and politics (Spencer 21). As early as 1993, the Labour College of Canada had entered into an agreement with Athabasca University so that labour studies may be studied online.

- Dedicated Programs: There have been instances when unions or labour centrals have entered into agreements or partnerships with formal post-secondary schools so that courses ranging from tool to labour studies may be offered to union members. However, although the union takes part in decision-making regarding the courses, the union does not control these programs.

- Worker Education: This is a variation of labour studies that focuses instead on learning needs of workers. Hence, these courses cover areas such as literacy, basic skills development and workforce adjustment training.

- Union Leadership Training: Many labour unions such as the Sasketchewan Government Employees Union have designed leadership courses that will prepare members for union leadership. Such courses focus on the operation of a public sector union that covers various provinces and populations.

- Steward Training: Steward training is a hallmark of labour education (Gereluk, Briton and Spencer). Therefore, it is also the most developed and well-documented. The reason for this is largely because stewards play crucial roles in labour unions, and their training is centered around specific needs and organizational priorities in mind, such as skills in negotiating for collective bargaining agreements, legalities as well as grievances, among others.

- Other Forms of Union Learning: Labour unions have developed technologically and thus, are able to harness media in delivering their training instead of relying on traditional classrooms or courses. Therefore, there are self-help publications, factsheets and other article published over the Internet (Spencer 22). There are even some unions that have produced radio and television programs focusing on labour education.

3. The Learners

The only measure used in assessing efficacy of labour education is the degree to which they prepare activists and member to deal effectively with the different issues that they face in the workplace, the union as well as the community. For instance, the stewardship component of labour education pertains to handling grievances, leadership, education and communication effectiveness, among others. To note, leadership may be measured according to the responses of leaders help provide to union issues. This encompasses providing direction to the organization, and if it is the approach being used by a specific union then to lead resistance. Because of these combined factors, access to labour education is limited only to those who meet the requirements pertaining to duties and responsibilities that they will be asked to undertake on behalf of the union. For instance, majority of unions require that an individual must first have stewardship training before becoming a full-fledged steward. Similarly, those who are accorded position in collective bargaining teams are required to first have the necessary knowledge and skills acquired through labour education before they can take part in negotiations. Hence, it may be said that only those who have demonstrated their commitment to the labour movement are given access to labour education. Commitment may be measured through attendance of meetings, election to office, volunteer work, participation in picket-line duty and other types of activities that are service-oriented (Spencer 128).

4. The Educators

Just as there are limits as to who may become a union education learner, unions have clearly identified standards and expectations for those who are tasked with providing and guiding these learning activities. These requirements are both formal and informal and the balance is truck between these two elements by considerations of expertise and continuity. It must be noted that the "organization and mobilization of the rank-and-file requires volunteer membership involvement in education" (Spencer 135). These requirements have led to the development of an entirely new segment within labour education that is devoted to the training of instructors through the help of "plain language" manuals and materials. Typically, the roles of the instructors are to (i) develop education strategies and guidelines for courses; (ii) encourage and help members create education committees to work with national education departments to assess learning needs and implement programs; (iii) collaborate with the labour movement in order to build educational resources; and (iv) provide a resource center for education initiatives Spencer 135). It is seen here how instructors at labour education programs have responsibilities and duties that are quite different with mainstream instructors.

Future Prospects of Labour Education in Canada

Jeffrey Taylor explains that the direction labour education takes is aligned with the political purposes that the labour movement has established for itself (Taylor). For instance, when labour education first started, its orientation was on social issues largely as response to the radicalism of the 1930s and 1940s. Then, this transitioned into a service and training orientation, this time, as a response to conservatism after the Second World War. Currently, the prospects of labour education are aligned with the context of revived social movement. It has been noted that there have been declining enrolments in labour education programs (Taylor). During the 1970s, a tension between post-secondary schools and the labour movement started to emerge. It was during this time that universities and colleges started signalling willingness to make available educational resources to unions and their members. However, because many labour unions were feeling highly self-sufficient as a result of large grants to the CLC from the government that led to the establishment of the Labour Education and Studies Centre, these unions started rebuffing the offers of universities and colleges. In 1997, the CLC sent out letters containing guidelines to every Canadian university and college, stipulating that any labour education program must be controlled by the labour movement. In particular, post-secondary programs had to be managed by a committee designated by the relevant labour council or federation - taking responsibility for every aspect of the program including the selection of the instructor, fees to be charged, as well as course content and materials. Many post-secondary school officials warned unions that the control they were requiring was illegal in many jurisdictions but the unions did not pay attention. On the other hand, the 1970s were the "glory days" of labour studies programmes in universities and colleges in spite of the "general hostility" that unions were showing to post-secondary schools. Taylor explains that this hostility is very unfortunate because without it, labour education would have been much stronger today.

In spite of these, there have been significant developments in the field of labour education that bode well for the future. Collaborations between the labour movement and universities have improved such that these entities have become comfortable with their spheres of control. Universities are not very interested in offering tool courses, which is just fine as labour unions feel that this is their responsibility and forte. Although unions have been generally disinterested in the skills trainings offered by colleges and universities, they have consistently sought the help of these when it comes to research assistance. Colleges in particular have been offering a combination of tool and issues courses in compliance with their institutional mandates, but the labour movement continues to be wary because they do not have control over such programs. At the very least, labour unions seek joint control of course contents. Overall, by virtue of these persistent frictions, if the gap between labour studies programs and the labour movement continues, then "the prognosis is not good" (Taylor 38). However, if these stakeholders maximize upon their strength which is collaboration, then the future could be bright for labour education. The key here is having a vision for labour education, and this vision hinges upon the development of a labour learning agenda that links different public institutions with unions, labour councils, federations of labour as well as the CLC (Taylor 38).

This new learning agenda will be achieved if labour unions sit back, and take time tor review their existing education and training programmes. Then, unions must consider the current state in internal education and training so that a long-range education and training strategy may be designed. Crucial to this strategy would be the setting of principles and framework "negotiating articulation agreements and brokered arrangements with colleges and universities" so that unionists learning is on a broader scope. For example, a union may negotiate with universities or colleges to provide credits for learning that has already been gained under union education. There could also be involvement of peer educators within the universities or colleges so that the missions and aims of labour education are followed through. It is also preferable if technology is properly harnessed in order to make such a program accessible to all members regardless of geographic distance or time constraints. A dynamic online platform may be further developed to achieve this goal. Taylor suggests that there should be closer integration between the CLC's Education and Campaigns department and the Labour College of Canada to ensure national and cross-union coordination "of labour's internal education and training programmes as well as its brokered arrangements with external provider" (Taylor 40). The first step that may be taken here is to review the relationship between internal union education programmes and distance education courses to make sure that they are aligned. These two entities could also collaborate to help make sure that affiliates are able to infuse technology into their programs so that there is progression from basic courses to more advanced course contents. It would also be beneficial if colleges and universities collaborate among themselves as they work with local and national labour unions (Taylor 40).

Conclusion

Labour unions were regarded with suspicion for more than a century and a half. Indeed, there was generally negative perception of unions during this time. Nevertheless, the labour movement in Canada continued to persevere and in so doing, communicated values to society that include justice, hard work and overcoming oppression. These efforts are essentially the origin of labour education in Canada. Every activity and campaign undertaken by the labour movement taught lessons to its members. By taking part in pickets, strikes and meetings at union halls, members learned about competition, individualism and inequality and how these could exist side by side within the microcosm of the working place. Thus, labour education took form and over the years, have transformed into a non-formal learning system based on the belief that there is always more room for learning in the case of working adults. This transition period has been wrought by triumphs and failures. Today, it cannot be denied that not much is written about labour education. However, union learning has dramatically transformed such that there are currently comprehensive stewardship, tools and issues programs that not only address the learning needs of workers but also adhere with labour union values. Through the years, the labour movement has persistently fought for an education framework that it feels will better equip members as they strive to be productive in their personal and work lives. The progress of union education has been admirable and many learning programs now even have online delivery of education. The future is not that certain for labour education largely due to the unwillingness of mainstream educational institutions to handover control to the labour movement for their labour-oriented course contents. At the other end of the spectrum, experience shows that collaboration can be possible for these educational institutions and the labour movement. As long as this strength is optimized, then the future will be bright for labour education.

Works Cited

Friesen, Gerald. "Adult Education and Union Education: Aspects of English Canadian Cultural History in the 20Th Century." Labour / Le Travail 34: 163-188. Academic Search.

Friesen, Gerald. H.C. "Pentland and Continuing Education at the University of Manitoba: Teaching Labour History to Trade Unionists."

Friesen, Gerald and Lucy Taska. "Workers' Education in Australia and Canada: A Comparative Approach to Labour's Cultural History." Labour History, 71: 170-197. Web.

Gereluk, Winston, Derek Briton and Bruce Spencer. "Learning About Labour in Canada." 1999. Centre for the Study of Education and Work.

Labour Education Centre. "Integrating Equity, Addressing Barriers: Innovative Learning Practices by Unions."

McIlroy, John, and Bruce Spencer. "Despatches from a Foreign Front: The Decline of Workers' Education In U.K. Universities." Labor Studies Journal 17.3: 53-77.

Martin, D'Arcy. Thinking Union: Activism and Education in Canada's Labour Movement. Toronto: Between the Lines.

Nesbit, Tom. "Educating Labour's Professionals." Relations Industrielles / Industrial Relations 56.4: 676-700. Business Source Complete.

Newman, Michael. The Third Contract. Sydney: Stewart Victor Publishing.

Spencer, Bruce. "Labour Education in Canada Today." Centre for Work & Community Studies.

Spencer, Bruce. "Workers' Education for the Twenty-First Century." In, Learning for Life: Canadian Readings in Adult Education. Toronto, Thompson Educational Publishing.

Taylor, Jeffrey. "Linking Labour Studies and Unions: Past Lessons and Future Visions."

Taylor, Jeffrey. Union Learning: Canadian Labour Education in the Twentieth Century. Westmount: Thomson Educational Publishing.

School Climate

1925 13 According to Bossert, Dwyer, Rowan, and Lee, the concept of educational leadership was developed after several poor urban communities began to exhibit excellent academic attainment, virtually against all odds. The schools were studied; the success was not due to money nor to demographics of the teachers and leaders, or to the equipment that was, or was not, available within the schools. Rather, the success of the schools could be linked to the quality of leadership of the principals of the schools. It was more than 25 years ago when Bossert et al. conducted their studies. Their studies utilized four variables: the contexts of the schools, including the composition of the students; leadership at the schools, processes at the schools, and student achievement at the schools. In the Bossert et al. model, the community and institutional context feed into the principal's leadership, as do personal characteristics. Once the principal's leadership is established, it affects the school's organizational processes and as a result the school outcomes.

This paper investigates school climate/culture and its impact on the development of school improvement. The impact of school culture on the development of positive and negative successes is reviewed. The reasons that it is important to have a strong school culture are investigated, and the role of the principal in making positive change within the school is reviewed. A plan of action for improving the situation in a local middle school is presented.

Discussion

As far back as 1994, Stolp questioned what school culture really is. At that point in time no real definition had been established. Instead, education borrowed the term from business, perhaps believing that it would provide direction for the learning environment. The definition of culture that Stolp adopted reflected an understanding developed by himself and Smith in which the concluded that school culture was a historically transmitted pattern of meaning, one which included traditions and rituals, ceremonies, beliefs, values, norms, and even myths that had been adopted by the school community. Waller may have proposed this meaning as far back as 1932, when he stated that "schools have a culture that is definitely their own" (p. 103). As Stolp and Smith (1994) pointed out, this meaning shapes what people think and impacts or even determines how they act. Thus, school culture can be a critically important ingredient in the development of a dynamic and effective school system.

Although there was still debate in 1994 as to what, exactly, constituted school climate or culture, there was already evidence that school culture stimulated and supported learning. As Stolp and Smith pointed out, "the implementation of a clear mission statement, shared vision, and school wide goals promote increased student achievement" (p. 2). At the same time, they also found a correlation between a strong school culture and the teacher's attitudes towards working in the school and teaching. In short, schools with stronger cultures have teachers that were better motivated, had higher satisfaction with their jobs, and higher productivity. Stolp and Smith suggested that in order to change the school's culture, and thus to increase teacher motivation, job satisfaction, productivity, and student achievement, one first had to understand what the current culture was.

One observation relating to innovation and change in the school system was constructed by Noordewier, Korthagen, and Zwart. They pointed out that many times, teachers feel they are not taken seriously in their profession and that they are not an inspiration for the profession of teaching. Goals in the school system are frequently established without consulting teachers, which only reinforces the idea that teachers are not taken seriously. If the individuals who are setting the goals are not involved in classroom education, it is likely that the teachers will have different ideas about what is good, what is adequate, and what needs to change. Thus, innovation that comes from the top down (administration --? teacher) puts pressure on the teachers.

Noordewier et al. suggest that this may lead to flight, fight, or freeze syndrome. In flight, teachers try to leave; in fight, they may actively resist, and in freeze, they become very tense and stressed. Implication for meaningful change is strong: teachers who experience fight or flight may simply put innovation on the back shelf and refuse to participate, or may even bad-mouth the innovation and the principal which wishes to innovate. At the same time, the teacher who freezes may simply try to stay out of everyone's way and as a result will accomplish nothing. According to Noordewier et al. (2009), top-down thinking described herein is prevalent in today's educational culture.

The overall picture, according to Noordewier et al. is rather hopeless: top-down approach to innovation puts stress on teachers, but principals who attempt this by promoting the concept of ownership in an effort to have the teachers "own" any innovation are still pressuring the teacher, which just confirms to them that they are at the mercy of the principal. Thus, innovation can be difficult to achieve simply because the knowledge that innovation is needed or desired can cause teachers to feel insecure and to subconsciously resist intervention.

Hallinger may have revealed the solution to this issue when he suggested that it is not individuals teachers upon which principals should concentrate. Rather, the focus of educational leadership should be on systemic change in student outcomes and in overall improvement of school conditions. According to Hallinger, for many years the concentration in education was on instructional leadership, based on the principal's leadership style. Today, however, the concept of transformational leadership by the principal is taking center stage. Transformational leadership concentrates on establishing collective vision and motivating the members of the organization by this vision.

Covey and Gulledge provide information on business leadership. It may be helpful to consult the business model because the scientific approach to business has been utilized for so long and so effectively that there is a rich body of data on management. Covey and Gulledge suggested that utilizing concepts of principle-centered leadership helps develop the vision that can be used to transform. By concentrating on principles, leadership is able to accommodate smaller changes within the organization that might otherwise cause disruption. Covey and Gulledge refer to this as adapting to the ebb and flow that is typical of schools. By concentrating on the principles behind the leadership, it is easier to determine methods that can be used to change problems into solutions, addressing them using the framework of goals and visions.

According to Covey and Gulledge (1992) each organization has four levels. The organizational level considers the systems and structures that relate to value and missions. The next level is the managerial level, which is the level in which the management forms the actions that impact upon staff. The interpersonal level establishes a relationship between management and staff on a human level. The final level emphasizes the personal levels of responsibility within an organization, in which self-management and self-mastery play a strong role (Covey & Gulledge, 1992). Covey and Gulledge believe that this holistic approach to the organization allows the leadership to concentrate on leadership that will transform. This environment establishes a culture in which the school itself can excel as a whole, while all of the individual components within the school have the independence to allow them to excel.

Wayne Hoy (2010) established a research instrument that could be utilized in developing a description of organizational climate for use in instituting change. The OCDQ-RM instrument for middle schools was given to 42 teachers at a faculty meeting. The principal was asked to leave so that teachers could respond to the survey anonymously. The results address a number of dimensions related to leadership and behavior within the organization. The results and the plan are discussed below.

Plan of Action

Survey

The results of the survey are summarized in the table below. The details of how the results were calculated are included in Appendix A.

Dimension Score Relative Positioning Nationwide

Supportive behavior 578 Principal has an average amount of supportive behaviors

Directive behavior 705 Principal is more directive than 97% of other principals

Restrictive behavior 164 The principal is less restrictive than 99% of other principals

Principal openness 570 The principal is more open than half of the other principals

Collegial behavior 158 Teachers are less collegial than 99% of other teachers

Disengaged behavior -156 Teachers are less committed than 99% of the teachers

Committed behavior -37 Teachers are less committed than 99% of other teachers

Teacher openness 425 Teachers are slightly less open than average

Supportive behavior sub score is related to social needs and the task achievement of a facility. According to Hoy, a supportive principal is helpful and concerned with the teachers, provides constructive criticism, and sets an example by working hard. This principal has an average number of supportive behaviors. The level of directive behavior for the principal is very high. Directive behaviors are rigid and domineering and include close and consistent monitoring over every one of the teacher's actions. Restrictive principal behavior hinders teacher's work and places demands on teachers that interfere with their work. A low score shows that the principal is not restrictive. The principal is slightly above the national average in terms of openness, whereas the teachers are slightly less open than the average school. The teachers in this school have a very low score on collegial behavior. This indicates that they do not support open interactions among teachers and they do not particularly like or respect each other. The disengaged behavior score indicates that the teachers are very disengaged; there is a lack of meaning and focus to what they do and many are simply putting in their time. They are critical and they do not accept behaviors of their colleagues. They are also far less committed to their students than are most teachers; they don't work particularly hard to ensure that their students will succeed in class.

Discussion

Clearly there are issues with the way things are being handled in this school. One might argue that the principal ties to direct everything because the teacher's attitudes are so poor, but a directive principal behavior is counterproductive and leads to poor attitudes. Peck pointed out that being highly directive is an exhausting and undue burden both on the leader and on the team. It results in employees who are so dependent on the leader for direction and guidance that they exist to make sure the leader gets what he wants, rather than to do their jobs. Peck pointed out that if you "Tell a strong performer what you want done and how to do it, watch them closely, and have them come back to you to make the key decisions" then they become demotivated, they feel unvalued, and they are no longer able to do their best work (Peck, 2008, The Impact). This is the situation that currently exists at the middle school.

Plan

Peck suggests, and I recommend, eight steps to change the leadership process that poisons the culture. They are adapted as an action plan for the middle school principal at this school:

- Evaluate how much time the principal spends in the staff activities
- Set a new lowered "percentage of time spent in staff activities" goal and establish a timeline
- Carefully review and assess what should be delegated - not what the principal feels can be delegated.
- Meet with individual staff and ask them what they can do to be more on their own, and ask what items they have been given the responsibility to do, but not the authority.

- Use these two lists to assess what each person could eventually do with the items that should be delegated, even if it seems a stretch at the present time.

- Make a new list of items to turn over to each person.
- Turn some of the items over and set a follow-up time to ask them if they are doing okay or if they need more assistance.

- Check in with each person at the 30 day point and see if they like the new delegation, but also remind them that they can come to you with issues.

Finally, the principal will need to remember that he or she created these issues and that teachers will make efforts to suck them back in as they all seek a new work balance. Peck recommends letting the teachers figure it out for themselves. Peck also points out that this problem did not occur in a day and will not be undone in a day. Measure progress by re-utilizing Hoy's evaluative progress survey to see how things are progressing at the six month point. By then, changes in the school's culture, and atmosphere, should be obvious. As Wheatley and Frieze have pointed out, "the world doesn't change one person at a time. It changes as networks of relationships form among people who share a common cause and vision of what's possible" (para. 1). Relationships cannot form and common cause and vision cannot develop if the principal is dictating everything. This plan for action should change the relationship between principal and teachers and in so doing, change the school culture for the better.

References

Northouse, P. Leadership theory and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Bossert, S., Dwyer, D., Rowan, B., & Lee, G. The instructional management role of the principal. Educational Administration Quarterly, 18(3), 34-64.

Stolp, S., & Smith, S.C. (1994). School culture and climate: The role of the leader. OSSC Bulletin. Eugene: Oregon School Study Council.

Stolp, S. (1994) Leadership for school culture. ERIC Digest 91. June 1994.

Noordewier, S., Korthagen, F.A.J. & Zwart, R. C. (2009, August). Promoting quality from within: Towards a new perspective on professional development and changes in school culture. Paper presented at the EARLI Conference, Amsterdam.

Waller, W. (1932). The sociology of teaching. New York: Wiley.

Lindahl, R. (2006). The role of organizational climate and culture in the school improvement process: A review of the knowledge base.

Brooks, J.S., Scribner, J.P., & Eferakorho, J. (2004), "Teacher leadership in the context of whole school reform", Journal of School Leadership, No.14, pp.242-65.

Hallinger, P. (2003). Research on the practice of instructional and transformational leadership: Retrospect and prospect. Cambridge Journal of Education, 33(3), 329-351.

Covey, S., and Gulledge, K. (1992). Mission, vision, and quality within organizations: Principle-centered leadership. Journal for Quality and Participation. July/August 1992.

Hoy, W. (2010) OCDQ-RM. The organizational climate description for middle schools (OCDQ-RM). Wayne K. Hoy.org.

Peck, D. (2008) You really need to fire yourself: 8 steps to kick the directive habit. Leadership Unleashed.

Wheatley, M., & Frieze, D. (2006) How large scale change really happens - Working with emergence. The School Administrator, Spring 2007. Reprinted at Margaret Wheatley.

INSTRUCTIONS:

A 500 word reflection on the issues and ideas explored in the reading. The purpose of the response assignment is to encourage deep engagement with the readings, the ideas and any opportunities that you see may connect to your future practice as a teacher. You may raise questions, critique or synthesize the ideas that inform each reading.

Assignments will be marked to cohesion and fluency. Please establish the focus of your response in the introduction; cite examples and ideas that you take directly from the readings and please follow proper APA citation for direct quotations.

Please proofread your work for grammar, spelling and mechanics; misspellings, shifting verb tenses, fragments, run-ons, etc. are considered to be significant errors.

Double space and include a reference list when applicable. You are not expected to use resources outside of the assigned readings. You may write in the first person ("I").

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Reading Reflection: Chapter One

The Rise of International Education: Expanded Opportunities, New Complications

In this first chapter, Tarq provides a compelling justification for his critical focus upon the role of intercultural contexts in shaping the pedagogy of the international education movement. When individuals discuss globalization, they are often primarily concerned with issues such as politics or economics. However, the internationalization of education creates new connections for people that transgress national and cultural boundaries.

I also appreciated his identification of the many manifestations of internationalization within the educational context. He listed "study abroad, aboriginal education, multicultural education, international schooling" as examples (p. 3). This list points to the diversity within the international education movement. Study abroad is certainly not a new phenomenon. However, multicultural education and aboriginal education are more recent developments. Each of these modes of international education provide a fertile landscape for critical inquiry and discussion.

I also found his identification of education as a business remarkably surprising. As academics, we have a tendency to focus upon the pure motivation of education, aiming to expand the minds of the students. However, education is also a business and international students are a powerful consumer class. Schools aiming to recruit international students must develop marketing strategies to generate interest and gain their financial commitment. Within this context, intercultural competency integrated seamlessly into the overarching pedagogy becomes a significant business advantage.

Tarq's identification of the opportunities for international education have direct applications to my own life. As he explains, "For those so positioned, never before have the opportunities for international education been as pronounced as in the present movement" (p. 6). As an international student myself, I recognize how my education at a Canadian institution provides me with many important advantages. At a Canadian university, I am being exposed to a culture that is new to me. My instructors offer perspectives, knowledge and experiences very different from the instructors in my home nation. I am also learning by interacting with students who are not Korean and do not share my culture. I also have the opportunity to advance my professional skill set with international experience, which will help me to get a good teaching job and earn a living.

Tarq also identifies some issues with international education that I have also experienced. For example, education has often traditionally functioned within a nation as a means for crafting a national identity. The presence of international students can disrupt, undermine and challenge that function. At times, I have felt not entirely comfortable within the international classroom. I have definitely experienced a feeling of homesickness and I have struggled with feelings of marginalization.

After completing this reading, I started to see how international education's impact can be limited by other factors, particularly ethnic cues such as language mastery or accent. After graduation, I believe my opportunities will continue to be impacted by the dualism of opportunity and challenge. As a Korean, I will have the opportunity to return to Korea and teach students with that nation. My experience in Canada will enhance my personal pedagogy and hopefully make me a better teacher. However, I am not certain that simply being a student in Canada would prepare me for a career to teach in Canada. I would still be at risk of hardships stemming from a language barrier because English is not my first language. I am left wondering what other educational opportunities exist in Canada and how I might find them.

Reference: Tarq. (n.d.). Chapter One The rise of international education: Expanded opportunities, new complications.

The Nature of Intelligence - Argumentative Paper

The ensuing paper looks at intelligence and at the competing notions that intelligence may be unitary and/or multiple in nature. Are there different types of intelligence? Or should intelligence be understood as something that wholly holistic, with no ability on the part of experts or researchers to distinguish pieces or parts from the whole? Overall, there are compelling cases to be raised on behalf of both schools of thought. However, the mere fact that people otherwise dismissed as "dull" can possess talents in specific area that can only be described as prodigious (for instance, the musical prodigy who cannot spell or who struggles with logic-based examinations) seems to suggest that intelligence really is nuanced and that generations-old IQ tests simply do not adequately measure human intelligence in all its manifold manifestations.

To begin this study, a review of the notion favoring unitary intelligence is in order. It may be said that unitary theories about human intelligence cohere around the idea that IQ tests can definitively prove who are intelligent and who are not nearly so bright. Guenther (2002) insists that IQ tests are strong proof of the idea that intelligence in humans is unitary. He notes, for example, that different subtests in IQ examination inventories that measure similar competencies in human beings have shown themselves to possess powerful correlations when examined using factor analysis; such correlations are seen as evidence that IQ tests have internal validity and should not be dismissed outright. Additionally, Guenther (2002) writes that IQ tests have proved quite adept at measuring human proficiency and performance in a wide array of different contexts and situations. In essence, the fact that IQ tests are persuasive and efficacious at capturing high levels of human performance under different situations and in the face of different exigencies is proof that people who have a high IQ (as defined by conventional testing) have widely transferable proficiencies and competencies that must be associated with global intelligence instead of with proficiency only in limited, specific areas (Guenther, 2002, p.784). The best way to sum it up is that smart people are smart people, and IQ tests are strong predictors of an individual's capacity to thrive in a host of different circumstances and when confronted with a diverse array of challenges or problems. However, such thinking may not stand up to cross-examination.

Proceeding from our discussion of unitary intelligence, it is worthwhile to look at the concept of multiple intelligence. Not least of all, there appears to be rather compelling evidence that multiple intelligences exist in all individuals. In some respects, this appears to be rather intuitive: different parts of the brain do different things, and - to the extent structural differences and divergences exist within the human brain - it may be argued that no one should be surprised if the brain also bequeaths diverse intelligences. According to Armstrong (2009), Howard Gardner challenged the idea that intelligence can be simplified to a single, unitary IQ score. For him, human intelligence comprises at least eight dimensions or categories: linguistic; logical-mathematical; spatial; bodily-kinesthetic; musical; interpersonal; intrapersonal; even naturalist. For Gardner, his entire conceptual framework is informed by the fact that people can be exceptionally talented in different things while relatively struggling in other areas. Simply because one is not proficient in one area of intelligence, he argues in his work, does not mean that one is "stupid" (Armstrong, 2009, pp.7-8). For instance, one can struggle with mathematics, but be a talented writer; one can struggle with words when writing, but be a talented architect or engineer. Since the diversity of human beings is vast, and since the structure of the human brain is not unitary itself, it stands to reason that human intelligence should not be conceived of in unitary terms.

It would appear as though the scholarship, increasingly, sides with the idea that humans possess the capacity for multiple intelligences. Researchers sympathetic to Gardner's work emphasize that the brain is broken into discrete sections that house specific functions (Parker, 2007, p.47). Chiefly, the brain is now recognized to be a structure comprised of innately specialized modular structures that are integrated in ways which appear dynamically linked to the vagaries or experiences of individuals (Parker, 2007, pp.47-48). To give one example of different areas specializing in specific functions, consider emotional intelligence and the capacity to abide by the rules of society both appear linked to the processing areas of the cerebral cortex and temporal lobes (Parker, 2007, p.48). This insight by Parker (2007), is actually a useful entrée into more detailed explorations of how different parts of the human brain perform different tasks.

Notably, the midbrain contains the tectum, which is devoted to auditory and visual processing. It is the area of the brain that gives one the capacity to orientate oneself in space and is the part wherein control of eye movements is housed. For its part, the Middle Frontal Gyrus is noteworthy for supporting higher level cognitive functions such as personality, insight and foresight. Moving along, the Interior Parietal Lobule is characterized by being the location wherein visual, auditory and somatosensory functions are integrated for the purposes of written language. The Inferior Frontal Gyrus, as an addendum, is the place that makes possible the production of spoken language. Furthermore, the Hippocamus is the region of the brain that controls learning and memory, emotional behaviour, and regulates the autonomic nervous system. Lastly, the Cerebellar Vermis is where attention, motivation and autonomic activities are controlled (for the contents of this paragraph, please see Orrison, 2008, pp.7-20). As far as the cerebral cortex is concerned, it is noteworthy that the superior middle and inferior frontal gyri are both locales that are responsible for executive functions such as abstraction, cognition, language and emotion (Ikezu & Gendelman, 2008, p.11). If different parts of the brain are connected proximately to different functions, and if human beings are astonishingly diverse as thinkers and learners, then it is a small step to conclude that different people will have different levels of development in these different parts or structures of the brain. Ultimately, human intelligence - like the human brain - cannot be conceived of in a simple unitary fashion.

Many academics are beginning to discern that human intelligence cannot be lumped together as a holistic, unitary phenomenon. After all, a child that struggles mightily in one academic area - to the point of being perceived as "slow" or "backward" - may be prodigiously gifted in still another area. Particularly, savants are noted for having extraordinary talent in one specific area while having only average abilities in other areas of human endeavor; additionally, autistics are characterized by having exceptional talents in specific areas (writing, or mathematical skills) but sub-standard competencies in other basic areas (Baum et al, 2005, pp.12-13). In a telling passage, Baum et al (2005) report that many autistic children exhibit great talent in the areas of calculation and musical performance, but possess severe impairment in the realms of communication, language, and sensitivity to others (p.13). A single IQ test subsumes qualitative differences in various intellectual endeavors into a single clumsy number that fails to differentiate between those who may actually not be intellectually acute and those who have exceptional talents - but who happen to lag behind their peers in other certain critical "scholastic" subjects or areas. To put it another way, a child who is an exceptional writer - which does require higher-level thinking - may be dismissed as "dull" because he or she struggles with mathematics or logic-based problem-solving. To the extent that teachers convince themselves that failure in one area is indicative of global intelligence, an otherwise gifted child may spend his or her formative years being convinced that he or she is "dumb". What Gardner's research does, as much as anything, is give back to unconventionally gifted children their potential and dignity.

The mere fact that children can be strong in some areas - including areas demanding considerable creativity, lateral thinking, organizational prowess, and insight - while being deficient in other areas, argues in favor of the idea that there are different types of intelligence. Of course, our capitalist society does tend to value some skills more so than others: financial wizards are more cherished and desired than brilliant writers - and are usually paid substantially more. Individuals blessed with unique muscle memory and kinesthetic talents which allow them to dominate in athletic competitions are usually far better paid than those who possess exemplary interpersonal skills. This basic inequality may explain why so many people associate one's intelligence with how well one is paid: the presumption is that the free market distributes goods in accord with one's actual merits, and those who can barely eke out a living (because they are artistically inclined) are somehow not as intellectually acute as those who are math whizzes working in a prominent financial house or brokerage firm. A staunch belief in unitary intelligence assumes that, because some skills are more suited to the capitalist system than are others, those that possess those specific skills must, de facto, be brighter than people whose talents lie elsewhere. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there is a more nuanced way of looking at human intelligence and capability.

In the end, it does appear as though many different types of intelligence can exist in the same human mind, or that some people can have one type of intelligence while others possess another type. The focus on global intelligence overlooks the fact that many talented people can flourish in one environment but struggle in another one; it is entirely possible to be a genius in the creative arts but be deficient (or only ordinary) in the mathematics or sciences (the reverse can also be true). To suggest that a simple IQ test can capture all dimensions of human intelligence overlooks the rich diversity of the human mind and the breathtakingly varied ways in which humans can interact with their environment or milieu.

References

Armstrong, T. Multiple intelligences in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Publications.

Baum, S. Viens, J. & Slatin, B. Multiple intelligences in the elementary classroom: a teacher's toolkit. New York: Teachers College Press.

Guenther, R.K. Individual differences in cognition. In D.J. Levitin (ed.), Foundations of cognitive psychology: core readings (pp.779-816). Boston, MA: MIT Press.

Ikezu, T. & Gendelman, H. (eds.). Neuroimmune pharmacology. New York: Springer.

Orrison, W. Atlas of brain function. New York: Thieme Medical Publishers.

Parker, C. An examination of the interrelationship between social demographic factors and multiple intelligences among college students. Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest LLC.

Power/ Distance Individual/ Collective Uncertainty Avoidance Career/Life Confucian Dynamism Universalistic Particularistic
Amisi - 21 year old female (Egyptian) High Collective High Life Low Particularistic
Julie - 51 year old (Chinese-Singapore) High Collective High Life High Particularistic
Jinsoo - 27 year old male (S. Korean) High Collective High Career High Particularistic
Harpreet - 30 year old female (Indian)
High Collective High Life Low Particularistic
Tom - 33 year old (Irish)
Low Individual Low Career Low Individualistic
Akemi - 25 year old male (Japanese)
High Collective High Career High Particularistic
Felipa - 28 year old female (Mexican) High Collective High Life Low Particularistic
Henri - 33 year old male (French) Low Individualistic Low Life Low Universalistic
Vlad - 40 year old female (Russian)
High Collective High Career Low Particularistic

Cultural analysis: Leading 'Henri,' a 33-year-old French male

Rather than viewing leadership as a finite, stable cross-cultural concept, a number of new philosophies of leadership have suggested that truly effective approaches tailor the leader's methods to the needs of the task and the personality of the employee. For example, the path-goal approach to leadership suggests that both the task's complexity and the attitude and the knowledge level of the subordinate should affect the approach a manager takes to leadership. Directive leadership may be appropriate in scenarios where subordinates possess very little knowledge about the task at hand while more participative leadership strategies may be demanded when there are higher levels of task complexity and ambiguity. Supportive leadership is appropriate when followers need to be mentored and a pleasant work environment is required because of dull and repetitive tasks; other motivational strategies are needed to increase employee enthusiasm. Achievement-oriented leadership is best for highly motivated employees who embrace challenging tasks. However, when managing individuals from a different cultural context from one's own, it is important to factor in their perceptions of the situation and leadership approach, not simply the formula of the theory.

For example, in France, leadership decisions are generally dispensed in a decisive fashion and leaders are assumed to be people who can give clear, directive statements (Adler & Gundersno, 2007, p. 50). Open-ended approaches to decision-making are seen as weak and frustrating and a manager who leaves a subordinate like Henri to "figure things out himself" is reneging on his duties as a leader. An American business leader accustomed to attempting to make subordinates more enthusiastic about their work by providing them with greater autonomy might encounter unexpected roadblocks in France. This goes contrary to a U.S. business culture where organizations such as Google are praised for giving many employees leeway to pursue their 'pet' personal projects and where high-performance teams with relatively little designated hierarchies are being used at many organization (Jackson 2013). But "French companies follow a very clear, vertical line of command, with upper management always having the final decision that is then delegated to subordinates in information-disseminating meetings. If you're planning on discussing long-term strategies and important business decisions, be sure you are dealing with the CEO (PDG, in France) before you begin" (Jones 2011). Although respect must be shown to an employee like Henri, addressing him as an equal or sending someone of the same hierarchical status as himself within the organization to give direction would be a mistake and would not necessarily be viewed in a beneficial fashion.

When providing managerial direction, orders must be justified with reasoning, not with a simple appeal to one's position or paternalistic emotions (in contrast to the more familial atmosphere at many East Asian firms). The French appreciate logical argumentation versus viewing the organization like an extended family, in contrast to some other types of high-context cultures: "the French conversation style, especially in business, puts an emphasis on being direct and questioning. The French are most receptive to rational presentations that are well organized and presented, and will respect a low-key manner (avoid yelling, hand-waving or hyperbole) used to clearly highlight benefits" (Jones 2011). This emphasis on argumentation also means that there is an expectation of eloquence, once again tying in with the French expectation for clarity of language. "Eloquence is seen as a cardinal virtue in France, and French managers have been known to rise to their positions, and run their businesses, in part through the force of their rhetoric" (Jones 2011). Although France is a high-context culture to some degree in the sense that relationships are of great importance in interpersonal relationships, there is also more of a stress on meaning what one says than in other high-context cultures (for example in Japan or the Middle East) where the surface meaning seldom communicates the speaker's true intentions.

Informal socializing, which is also often encouraged at U.S. companies through events such as complementary fitness classes (once again, with Google leading the way), work 'outings' and the tendency to elide the barrier between work and one's personal life is not practiced in the same manner in France. It is said that: "cultural cues are especially important in France however, because of the rigid barriers most Frenchmen and women draw between their public and private lives, and the hierarchical system in which France's business world operates" (Jones 2011).While American organizations tend to boast of the lack of hierarchy at their institutions, and the fact that ideas versus the titles of workers are more important when evaluating the quality of an idea, at French organizations this is not the case. When negotiating with a French organization, sending someone of sufficient power to have clout in the eyes of the management team would be essential. It would be seen as profoundly disrespectful to send someone of lower status. Similarly, sending important messages via email or other informal means of communication to a valued team member like Henri would not carry the same weight as conveying the words directly.

To effectively manage a French employee, operating from a position of strength would be vital. This does not mean that all participative approaches must be permanently eschewed and only directive styles would be acceptable but rather that a more directive approach might be needed, even when dealing with a relatively open-ended problem with an experienced employee in a manner that might be considered overly intrusive in the U.S. Participative strategies might be used eventually but only after a hierarchy has been established. Supportive and coaching methods of leadership must be clearly given in a work context and not couched in the language of friendliness. Formal diction, dress, and 'correct' behavior are required. Out-of-work socializing is certainly practiced, but in a more reserved manner than in the U.S., often over a restaurant dinner, which has a ritualistic significance in the French context. Being invited to a business associate's home is a very rare occurrence. "Business lunches are often very long, running two hours or more, and may not even involve discussing business at all. Instead, they are often used as a way to build the close relationships that sustain business ties, or perhaps to discuss the finer points of an argument or contract detail" (Jones). In this instance, the stereotype of the French being more obsessed with food and wine than other nationalities is true; however, it is not merely a question of taste but also a respect for the heritage and the time that it takes to prepare and enjoy a meal.

Simply because meals might take longer in France, however, does not mean they are not business lunches. The French view of time is far more elastic than in the U.S. Coming late to meetings is not viewed with nearly as much disdain as it is in America where time is literally seen as money. But this does not mean that the actual content of the meeting is viewed as unimportant. The French can be just as individualistic and achievement-oriented as the U.S. but have a higher expectation that the needs of one's personal life will be respected by one's employers. Setting goals in a competitive atmosphere for top employees in a manner which would force them to constantly work overtime and give up vacation hours would not be well-received in a French place of business, in contrast to the U.S. where such an attitude is often expected in certain industries like investment banking and sales.

These examples illustrate the subtle differences between American and French culture. Americans cannot assume that simply because the French are Europeans that they share the same set of cultural assumptions as themselves, simply because the culture and language may seem less foreign than that of Japan or China. On the other hand, even though France may be more high-context in its orientation and more tradition-bound than the U.S. in terms of the hierarchical nature of its relationships, expectations of obedience to authority, it is not as wedded to tradition and protocol as some non-European high-context nations. "Beneath the surface of this simple, orderly system however, is a web-like network of personal relationships and alliances that actually shape day-to-day business within the French model. Although socializing across hierarchical lines is almost unheard of, within each level is an important emphasis on getting to know one's colleagues and where they stand" (Jones). The French might embrace formality and hierarchies but there is still jockeying for power and influence within different vertical levels of that system.

Finally, the commonalities between the two cultures should be acknowledged as a point of connection. One value shared between both U.S. and French organizations is that both are highly individualistic. "Personal ideology is also welcome in discussions, and the French appreciation for individualism carries through to a sincere admiration for freedom of opinion and knowledge of the intricacies of one's beliefs, allowing for impassioned discussion that will strengthen, not limit, a professional relationship with your French colleagues" (Jones). The French also have a very low tolerance for bribery and corruption, as might be expected in a highly rule-bound society. "France is ranked in the top 25 countries (on the Corruption Perception Index of government organisations) in the world for being perceived as least corrupt compared to 176 other countries. There are laws, regulations and penalties to reduce and prevent corruption in France" ("Business etiquette"). Doing business in France is not wholly foreign and yet French culture is quite distinct from that of American culture; balancing these similarities and differences is one of the cognitive challenges for every manager seeking to broach the divide.

References

Adler, N. & Gunderson, A. International dimensions of human organizational behavior. Cengage.

Business etiquette. Passport to Trade.

Jackson, L. The real secret of Google's corporate culture. Corporate Culture Pros.

Jones, M. Doing Business in France: 8 Cultural Cues That Make (or Break) a Deal. International Business Times.

Aboriginal Students in Canada

People have long been aware that education is one of the pathways to future success in life, particularly at a time when skills and knowledge acquired from studies can help individuals become more competitive in the labour force. In developed nations in particular, the aim of the governments is to provide not only basic education but also the kind where students are equipped with skills they can use as productive members of society. Considering that most societies are multicultural in nature due to the movement of people from one region to another, it is expected that the education system of a nation should also be created in such a way that all cultures are taken into account when making the school curriculum. Canada has a highly-diverse society comprised of people from various cultures that came to the country as immigrants. While the educational system has made provisions for the integration of these new students, there seems to be a sector of society that has not been give enough attention - that of the native communities. To note, the aboriginal groups in Canada are comprised of the First Nations, the Inuit, and the Metis. It was probably assumed in educational curriculum that these groups can easily fit into the system considering that they are natives of the country; or, like many other things, the welfare of the aborigines are not again considered because they mean little to those who are in position. It is not accurate to assume that the aborigines would fit in since these groups have their own ways of educating their children. As such, their education can differ from what is being taught in the mainstream educational system. It is not a secret that aboriginal groups are marginalized in many respects and their education is one of these aspects where they are not receiving what is rightly their due as citizens of the country.

The question arises of what will happen to these marginalized members of society who have limited access to education? What if they do have access to education, but this education is not sensitive to the differences arising from the fact that they come from another culture? Just as importantly, what if the curriculum of their education is not inclusive? These questions highly apply to the experience of Canadian aborigines who are besieged not only with problems about their lands but also about how their youths could survive in the future when they are not properly equipped with the right education. In spite of avowals from different government officials regarding the diversity of education in Canada, a number of studies have evidenced that historically, aboriginal students have not had access to education that is inclusive, culturally sensitive, equipped with adequate and relevant resources, supportive of their unique indigenous knowledge, as well as other indications of social inequality in education (Toulouse; University of Alberta; Battiste). Hence, it may be said that the major problem of education among Aboriginal communities in Canada is that pedagogy is meant to reflect the social, political, cultural, and economic characteristics of Eurocentric societies (Agbo). This discriminative reality leads to several problems that have implications not only for the future of Aboriginal people but also their self-esteem, worldview as well as their identity. Indeed, poor educational outcomes for the Aborigines in Canada also threaten the prosperity of the nation as a whole (Mendelson). This paper critically analyzes the social inequalities generated by the Canadian educational system as experienced by the First Nations students.

The Aborigines: Education-Related Problems

The First Nations Aborigines in Canada are increasing in number, and are younger than the average Canadian. Moreover, the First Nations population residing in reserves has been increasing (Mendelson). The implication of these facts is that the younger generations need to receive education that will allow them to thrive as individuals albeit their own unique backgrounds. They can only do this if the kind of education available for them is one that is culturally-sensitive.

The importance of culture in education is not something that can be shelved since people need to understand their own identities and be confident about them in order for them to fully realize their potentials. If they are not secure in who they are and their parts in society, they would not feel that it is necessary for them to stay and finish getting educated in schools that do not remotely have any similarity with their own. In relation to this, it is notable that 60% of students living in reserves have not been graduating from high school, which shows that educational attainment of First Nationals lag in comparison with national averages. In short, these individuals do not see the importance of a high school diploma, or they do not feel comfortable in the educational set-up available to them. Also, their high schools may not be the type to make young people like going back since they feel excluded and even non-existent in an environment that emphasize the welfare of the white majority. Others may even feel that immigrant get better consideration in the educational system as compared t hem. Most would also look at the experiences of other members of their group who have failed to make a career in mainstream society or at least get a college degree. These negative examples are not encouraging for the younger generations.

Another reality facing the aborigines in terms of education relates to funding. Studies evidence that funding for education for the First Nations is significantly lower than the regular school system (Mendelson). There are currently 518 schools on reserves, all of which are the responsibility of the federal government - from funding to curriculum handling. However, funding for these schools are about fifty percent less as compared to other regular schools. The discrepancy in funding could result to many things, such as the inability of these schools to attract high-calibre teachers because they cannot pay high salaries. This can also mean that students will lack school resources that others have, like books and computers, and this can even affect the food they have in the school cafeteria. Without enough funding, some services may not be provided while school administration tries to make do with what is available.

Aside from these, First Nations educational system is not guided by any policy or legislative framework (Ontario Government; Mendelson). As a result, majority of schools on reserves are based on a village school model that has not only become dated but also isolated in terms of professional support (Mendelson). As already mentioned, schools on reserves are supposedly the responsibility of the federal government; yet, there is little effort in terms of improving the educational curriculum of these schools. This means that during achievement exams, these schools and their students will not likely reach the national average. It cannot be denied that various problems relating to pedagogy and multiculturalism in education is rooted in the lack of governmental support and initiative. The government seems to be indifferent to the plight of the aboriginal children.

It is apparent that there is an issue of social inequality here. And, when social inequality is present, it is not unreasonable to assume that associated problems are not far behind. For example, the lack of opportunity for quality education among Aborigines has been associated with escalating crime rates attributed to this population (Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission). Poor education, or the lack of formal education, and alleged criminality of the First Nations are both attributed to "the poverty and marginalization of Aboriginal people" (Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission). It has been proven in many studies that poverty and lack of education can be determinants of criminality. Since many young aborigines are suffering from poverty and lack of education, doing deviant actions can be their means of earning income or expressing their frustrations over a system that puts very little regard for their future.

It is important to note that currently, First Nations people have had a long history wherein their education has been a tool of cultural assimilation. This means to say that First Nations students are expected to adapt to the prevailing culture in Canada. They are taught in a second language, pedagogy is culturally biased as most materials and subjects used for teaching are mainly designed for and by non-Aboriginal people such that there is little regard for the "cultures, histories and realities of Aboriginal life" (Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission). As a result, the current education of young First Nations people, because of its shortcomings, has resulted in poor self-esteem and sense of identity that a culturally-sensitive pedagogy could have achieved (Toulouse). While it is understandable for the federal government to want to assimilate every culture into mainstream society, it should not attempt to obliterate the rich histories of the minorities. Without a culturally-sensitive curricula, the young First Nations children may begin to consider their heritage with disrespect and even grow ashamed of their own identity.

Traditional Aboriginal Education

Aborigines have historically had a different pedagogy than is currently practiced now. Among First Nations people, their traditional manner of imparting lessons to students is story-based, as is evident in their rich oral culture, tradition and literacy (Yunkaporta; University of Alberta). Other characteristics of First Nations pedagogy that make it different from mainstream education are values-based; centred on the role of nature; it is communal, emotional and responsive; holistic, based on landscapes; ritualistic; spontaneous, inquisitive; experiential; and, nonverbal, among other things (Yunkaporta; Battiste). These pedagogical characteristics are inextricably entwined with First Nations culture and indigenous traditions, values and belief systems. If one look closely at these characteristics, there are many of them that can positively affect the present curricula. For instance, the holistic approach that includes the environment is one of the things that young people should learn so that they become more sensitive to nature and other creatures in the environment. Some of these characteristics will have to be modified, particularly the rituals, if they do not contribute to the development of the growth of the individual not only as a member of the First Nations but also as a Canadian citizen. In essence, the education system of the First Nations is rich in terms of how it can mould individuals into responsible adults; what needs to be integrated here are the contents from the regular school system so that the children know and get the best of both worlds. It can never be just one for these children because they have a unique background.

One important thing to note that the First Nations place high importance on stories of Creation and this is where their educational pedagogy is rooted. Their stories of Creation as well as their "psychological connectedness to their cosmology" determine the direction of instruction of students (Battiste 14). Hence, for the First Nations people, knowledge has never been secular. Pedagogy is derived from the story of Creation and thus, has a sacred purpose. Learning is connected to all of nature, its creatures and to human existence. Taking away one's relationship to nature and its creatures will essentially change the young generations as these are the important elements of who they would become as adults. Learning is also perceived as a life-long responsibility so that they understand the world around them and to animate their personal abilities. Obviously, this kind of teaching is not exactly emphasize in regular schools as the focus is on learning theories, concepts, and skills that allow the individual to understand society better. This difference in perspective can be bridged to create a more meaningful curricula for young children belonging to the First Nations.

For First Nations people, education helps them take responsibility for their own lives, develop their sense of relationship to others so that they can model competent and respectful behaviour (Toulouse). This is not different from what the regular school system wants to impart to its learners. However, traditions, rituals and daily observation are all fundamental aspects of the learning process among the First Nations. Moreover, learning is a process that is deeply connected with the spirit that empowers the person with gifts, visions and spirituality. To note, these are the ones missing from the regular educational system. Rituals and visions will probably not find any place in the regular school curricula but these can be replaced with other meaningful activities that will still make the young people understand their importance to their culture.

Contemporary Aboriginal Education

The education of Aboriginal youth has been one of the responsibilities of the Canadian government, inherited from the Crown as part of the terms of Confederation. The Department of Indian Affairs established residential schools to assimilate Aborigines into the mainstream Canadian society, culminating with the Indian Residential School system. Although this system closed in 1980, education that is available to First Nations people isolates them from their Aboriginal language, culture, beliefs, and attitudes (Centre for Social Justice; Agbo; Mendelson; University of Alberta). Therefore, the major problem of education among the First Nations people is that prescriptive statements as well as ideological references "assume discussions about the purposes of schooling in these communities" (Agbo 333). This purpose is not necessarily favourable to the First Nations' culture.

In current educational systems to which First Nations students have access, course contents more often than not suggest implicitly and explicitly that the ideal condition for effective education must reflect the social, political, cultural and economic characteristics of Eurocentric societies, which means that aboriginal students are expected to adapt this trend even if it means setting aside their own heritage. This has been the dilemma in Aboriginal education for almost two decades now, and Aboriginal students are measured through a Eurocentric gauge and are expected to successfully attain Eurocentric standards. It is not unusual and unsurprising for the government to expect the aboriginal students to assimilate to the Eurocentric society because they are, in fact, in a society whose majority of the population belongs to a different culture. One thing that educators forget, however, is the importance of building children's self-esteem in order for them to actually maximize their potentials and to fully develop their talents. These children learn different things while at home and it would be ideal for them to actually see some of their values and traditions being translated into educational content. However, what they experience in schools is different. It is even possible that there are course contents that disparage their cultures or provide inaccurate and inappropriate reference to their history. The dropout rate is not unusual then if these students believe that they are facing mockery for who they are as a group. Being young and impressionable, they may not fully understand the reasons behind the currently implemented curricula. Being marginalized, their self-esteems are not as well-established as their peers from other cultures because up until the present, there are many stigmatizing labels placed on aboriginal members of society.

Although there have been significant discussions as to how Aboriginal education must be carried out effectively, these discussions are virtually useless as the voice of the Aborigines are not heard at all during these meetings. People from other cultures can sympathise with them but it is different when someone from the concerned group will actually be heard and make proposals as these are going to be insightful and appropriate for their own youths. Therefore, whatever concepts or theories regarding Aboriginal education during these discussions - usually within the government - cannot be effective for First Nations students because they deviate from traditional learning that provides meaning to indigenous existence and way of life. By implementing educational models and pedagogies based on these discussions, the cultural, social, economic, political and traditional values of the First Nations students are cast aside.

Recommended Pedagogy

It is imperative that pedagogy applied to First Nations students be modified in order to be more culturally sensitive. The delivery of education to First Nations people must be guided by two principles. First, it must be recognized that education and learning must serve to increase awareness and appreciation of Aboriginal peoples' cultures within the non-Aboriginal setting (University of Alberta). In other words, these young people should be given back their pride in their own heritage and this can happen when the educational system integrates their own practices and teachings in the curricula. If these are continually ignored, many of the younger generation will continue to have low self-esteem because they would think that there is nothing to be proud of in who they are as a group. They would continue to feel different from the rest of society. Second, education curriculum reviews need to "make space for Aboriginal culture within the traditional institution" (University of Alberta 2). Therefore, Aboriginal people have to take part in course content design and delivery. However, there are no aboriginal inputs during course content design as the trend is to implement a uniform content across all cultures. What the federal government believes to be best for them turns out differently. Making the younger generations overlook their history is not the way to properly assimilate them into the larger Canadian social context. They cannot be separated from who they are; hence, the need to mesh the two cultures into one. Moreover, Aboriginal language and literacy must be integral components of these course contents and the evaluation of students' performances must be from the Aboriginal perspective along with that of the regular standards established by mainstream society (Agbo; Chartrand; First Nations Pedagogy).

It cannot be denied that aboriginal students are disadvantaged in accessing educational programs (Mendelson). Another reality is that educational programs that incorporate Aboriginal values and traditional knowledge have always been successful for First Nations people. The problem here is that this type of education is currently available only from Aboriginal elders (University of Alberta). The challenge here is for the national educational system to be able to create a model of such education so that curricula - particularly at higher learning institutions - would be inclusive for First Nations people. It must be noted that to be able to integrated authentic forms of Aboriginal knowledge, teaching and learning practices, teachers have to understand that this represents a different way of knowing, teaching and learning. Therefore, if educational institutions are really serious about creating inclusive curricula for Aborigines, then the training of such teachers must be part of that curricula. Training has to cover Aboriginal knowledge, languages, traditions, cross-cultural and anti-discrimination education (Chartrand; University of Alberta).

Hearing from Aboriginal students, it is very sad that they seek and value formal education that teaches them about mainstream economic activities and entrepreneurial lessons so that they will be equipped as they strive to compete in the real world. It is just as sad that these students have difficulties in such learning contents and barely pass, simply because these course contents are dramatically different from their traditional way of learning. Hence, for the benefit of Aboriginal people and Canada in general, it is of utmost importance that education in Canada be culturally sensitive to Aborigines. After all, who knows if the next talent from such an educational system would be the next successful national leader or entrepreneur coming from the First Nations.

Conclusion

The Canadian educational system is not unique in its inability to accommodate the needs of those young people who belong to the aboriginal groups. The educators have to think about how to create a system wherein it provides an inclusive environment for all minorities in the country. This is commendable except for the part where the unique culture and background of the native people are shelved and not even considered in course contents. Even in schools in reservations, the course content is predominantly Eurocentric in the desire of the federal government to turn the young learners into individuals who would totally embrace a culture that is not their own. There is nothing wrong with wanting to assimilate the young aborigines into mainstream society but this can only be successfully implemented if they are secured and assured of their places in society. Ignoring their traditions in the course content is counterproductive as this leads to individuals who lack self-esteem and pride on who they are. The solution for this problem is not exactly complex because the aboriginal leaders know what should be included in the curricula of these students. Aside from the usual contents that are centred on Eurocentric values and perspectives, the students should also learn in school about their own culture, their language, and their own heritage so that they become proud of their history. Having a healthy self-esteem will lead to individuals who are not afraid or embarrassed to be among other groups. They can be empowered by making them understand who they are and where they are in the great scheme of things. Making this change will require time and effort. More significantly, this will require legislators, educators, and the federal government in general to allow the aboriginal leaders to actively take part in designing an educational system that is inclusive and culturally-sensitive.

Works Cited

Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission. "The Justice System and Aboriginal People."

Agbo, Seth A. "Conformity and Rationality in Indigenous Schooling: The Education Situation on First Nations Reserves." Interchange: A Quarterly Review of Education.

Battiste, Marie. "Indigenous Knowledge and Pedagogy in First Nations Education: A Literature Review with Recommendations."

Centre for Social Justice. "Overview: Struggling to Escape a Legacy of Oppression."

Chartrand, Rebecca. "Anishinaabe Pedagogy: Deconstructing the Notion of Aboriginal Education by Illuminating Local Anishinaabe Pedagogy."

First Nations Pedagogy. "Best Practices."

Mendelson, Michael. "Poor Educational Outcomes for Aboriginal Students Threaten Canada's Prosperity."

Ontario Government. "Ontario's Equity and Inclusive Education Strategy."

Toulouse, Pamela Rose. "Integrating Aboriginal Teaching and Values into the Classroom."

University of Alberta Aboriginal Services. "Aboriginal Education: A Research Brief for Practitioners."

Yunkaporta, Tyson. "Aboriginal Pedagogies at the Cultural Interface."

Politics Study and Scientific Methodology

Politics can be studied based upon the facts presented or based upon defining the theories behind the facts presented. A more comprehensive approach to a study of politics can be illustrated by viewing the components through a scientific analysis in an inquiry into political phenomena. With that said, a close look will be taken into the science behind politics to define a scientific methodology for the study of political phenomena and to expound upon the debate that the focus of political science should not confined to choosing a party to support.

To begin with, "classical political thought understands that the ultimate aim of political life is 'a life devoted to contemplation, to philosophy'" (Sahni). In these words, a study of politics becomes a parallel to a study of the inherent value systems and multivariate represented within. The argument, then, comes down to utilising a scientific methodology to enhance an understanding of political phenomena. One such approach "encourages a more serious consideration of the interaction of the environment with the innate side of human nature" (McDermott & Monroe) to dilute the traditional studies of learning and socialization into something of scientific value. It can be proposed, then, that to study political phenomena in a scientific manner, a researcher will find value in analysing political behavior, events, and systems to reveal a construct which identifies the world of politics through more general principles. The breakdown of this scenario requires an understanding of current political events and the actions of political parties, to define relationships and parallels inherent within that cannot normally be seen by an outside observer which would alter the way in which such political decisions are made and deliberated. Categories could be created to define political behaviors and correlations, with projected assignments to include irrational behavior of politicians, classify objective world-views, and identify the outcome of future events based upon patterns of behavior found from a scientific study.

The primary difficulty with this form of scientific methodology in a study of political phenomena is the unavoidable bias of the researcher. One academic article cites that "partisanship is unavoidable, even when one seeks to be nonpartisan. But there is a way, albeit difficult, to be partisan and also philosophical-- relentless self-scrutiny by squarely facing facts" (Machan). Thus, a researcher can start a thesis with an opinion, but they must be cognizant that their discoveries might be tainted by current political values, however inconsiderable they may seem. This requires a researcher to absorb and define all facts presented, irregardless of whether or not they share those beliefs, and form an unbiased thesis and discussion based upon the analysis of political behavior.

Further, "political scientists can [pose] critical questions concerning human social and political behavior, including bias against out-groups...and the function of emotion in decision making" (McDermott & Monroe). This is critical in such an analysis due to the nature of politics and the outward appearance of political decision making. It would be easy to say that many people, whether or not they follow political agendas or actions, believe that the decisions made by the country's leaders are made through careful thought and a cognizant view of the entire situation or big picture. However, political leaders are humans, at their core, and might (more commonly than people believe) make decisions to create certain appearances or based upon a fear-notion that they might not hold the people's trust. Such decisions would not necessarily be in the best interest of the country and could be looked at in a scientific manner as a principle of political behavior based upon the irrational.

Overall, taking a comprehensive, scientific approach to the study of politics allows for a better analysis or inquiry into political phenomena. More, after taking a close look into the boundaries and theories of modern political phenomena, a scientific methodology can be defined to illustrate that the focus of political science goes far beyond a simple selection of political parties. Studying politics with a scientific methodology would allow for categorical definitions of the irrational behavior of politicians, classify objective world-views, and identify the outcome of future events based upon patterns of behavior found from a scientific study-which would grant far more in terms of behavioral understanding than viewing politics as an unchanging, partisan-only discussion.

Bibliography

Machan, TR, "The Reckless Mind: Intellectuals in Politics." Ideas on Liberty, pp. 57-73.

McDermott, R and KR Monroe, "The Scientific Analysis of Politics: Important Contributions from Some Overlooked Sources," Political Research Quarterly 62, no. 3, pp. 568-596.

Sahni, IP, "Nasser Behnegar, Leo Strauss, Max Weber, and the Scientific Study of Politics," Canadian Journal of Sociology 31, no. 3, pp. 379-391.

Storing, HJ., ed, Essays on the Scientific Study of Politics. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

The Bullying Concept

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH PAPER

The concept of 'bullying' can take on a number of different forms from that of bullying at school, bullying in the workplace, cyber bullying etc. A bully is essentially someone who tries to enforce his / her will over another person by means of coercion. This can be by means of intimidation, threat or even physical violence. People engaging this activity often have psychological issues i.e. control freak, loss of self-esteem, inferiority complex, troubled home life etc. This paper examines the motivation factors of bullying and what causes people to respond in this way.

MOTIVATING FACTORS

Early forms of bullying often start in childhood at school days. Some people have attributed bullying as a part of a child's natural development. Nevertheless, this is not the case for the victims who can be terrified, feel unsafe and end up being socially insecure. The child bullies often carry these tendencies into adulthood and as such this makes them more prone to criminal behaviour and developing predatory tendencies.

Bullying at school can also impact the victim's ability to learn and places them under conditions of stress that lead towards illness and more time off school. Overall this can lead to serious psychological concerns for the victim and in worst case scenarios can lead to suicidal tendencies of the victims. .

The motivating factors of the child bully can be attributed to a number of different reasons, for example:

Frustration - the bully is frustrated over a condition of impairment i.e. a stammer, deafness, learning difficulty etc. The child's inability to perform at normal levels brings on bullying tendencies as a source of frustration;

Duty of Care - the lack of responsibility of the care givers (parents) towards making the child understand what is proper accepted social behaviour. The bully is therefore allowed to develop anti-social skills and violent behaviour;

Lack of a role model - Parents are really the mentors or coaches of their children. If a child has abusive parents then this increases the child's chance of adopting similar behaviour patterns and exerting abuse against others as a means of exerting control;

Neglect at home - Similar to the above but the parents are disinterested in the child's upbringing and allow the child to become wild. This also can lead to the child becoming retarded;

Undue influence - A child getting into bad behaviour with the wrong crowd

Conduct disorder - This being the precursor to potential; mental illness that can lead towards personality disorder and psychopathic behaviour.

A study carried out in 2003 amongst a range of Elementary Schools indicated that 19% of the children were victims of bullying at school. It is important to recognize that school bullies are in their formative years of development and as such appropriate intervention methods can often be successful in reversing this type of behaviour. This does however exclude those with sociopathic problems that will require proper psychological assessment and treatment. It is estimated that Psychopaths make up approximately 1% of society but if you add untreated sociopathic cases, then the percentage increases to 2-3% of society.

FORMATS OF BULLYING

In addition to that of school bullying, which is the most common association with the term, there are a number of other forms including:

- Cyber bullying
- Sexual bullying
- Verbal bullying
- Homophobic bullying

Each of these has different motivating factors for those involved in these form of bullying activities.

Cyber Bullying

This includes the use of computer technology and cellular phones to conduct a form of harassment by such items as social media e.g. Facebook, Twitter; e-mail, text messaging, instant messaging and websites etc. This type of bullying can go undetected by the parents and the child can become extremely traumatised by the experience. Bullying is mainly by intimidation, ridicule and attempting to isolate the victim. More serious cases can include stalking the victim and both physical and verbal abuse.

This type of bullying is relatively new but the implications are serious because of the widespread use of the internet, computer technology and the social media software that supports the system. All children are motivated towards this communication media and this makes them more vulnerable to those who seek to bully using this media. There have been reported cases of suicides where teenagers have been terrorized in this manner. Statistics compiled by surveys in the USA estimate that 20-40% of students have reported being bullied in some way. Further, some 70% of students at Middle or High school are exposed to bullying activities. It is estimated that some 7-12% of these pose a serious concern.

Sexual Bullying

Battered Women are classified as those women who experience post-traumatic stress disorder through repeated cases of domestic violence. The abuse is normally systematic and episodic and may be both verbal and physical abuse. The male assailant in this case is often a bully and is seeking to gain male dominance and control over his wife. This is designed to both humiliate and create fear in the woman. In many cases women initially tolerate this because they are trying to make a marriage work and by nature are peacemakers.

Records of domestic violence are most common amongst the poorer working classes and the men are prone to both alcohol and substance abuse. Unemployment is often another contributory factor to why men behave and act in this way. The situation is made worse when there are children involved and this increases the fear factor in terms of the mother being the protector of the children. The fear being that the assailant will turn the domestic violence towards the children.

The first part of Ronald Levant's book, "A new psychology of men", focuses upon gender roles strains. In the modern marriages we are seeing a lot of role reversal taking place. The wife is going out to work and having a career, essentially the money earner, whilst the husband is staying at home looking after the kids and dealing with domestic chores. Unless there is good synergy, communication and understanding in the marriage. This can lead to a significant strain. This is compounded with the role reversal occurred because the male partner lost his job. The loss of the masculine role and feeling of shame often leads to extramarital relationships. In the new relationship, the mail seeks to reinsert his masculinity and reclaim the position he believed lost in his marriage. All too often in these situations. It is the children that suffer creating divided loyalties, confusion, and ultimately alienation. In order to overcome these issues the man has to dig deep within his own psyche and revisit those struggles and traumatic experiences that reside at the very core of his crisis of self-formation and loss of masculine identity. This cannot be achieved by recourse to primitive cave man like behavior patterns.

It can be extremely traumatic and difficult for a female victim of domestic violence to seek legal retribution for a violent personal assault. The attack often leads the victim confused, traumatised and fearful of further abuse from the partner. Apart from being a criminal act, it is a blatant abuse of an individual's human rights and is unacceptable in any terms. The police often have difficulties in bringing such cases to court because of the fear factor and the mental cruelty that has been inflicted upon the victim.

The concept of battered women relates to the interest in the psychological considerations that impact abused women in society today. It is a common problem and one, which largely goes undetected because of the fear factor. It is more interesting looking at this from an international perspective e.g. Middle Eastern Countries where women are routinely abused from a cultural perspective, often associated with outmoded religious beliefs, and denied basic human rights. From a personal perspective domestic violence and abuse of either male or female partners is a tragedy and illustrates a breakdown in communications that should be treated by counselling as opposed to resorting to violence. The act of violence is certainly a criminal act and should be dealt with by legal action.

Verbal Bullying

This is mainly associated with people using loud mouthed profanity at the victim. This often accompanied with threats and harassment. The perpetrator is often relatively ignorant and unable to cope with stressful situations. This is often associated with domestic violence and abusive parents who are influenced by alcohol or substance abuse.

Homophobic Bullying

This often associated with gender distinction, bigotry and prejudice. An example being a gay child at school who becomes a victim of scorn and mockery. This is compounded in school settings where there is no respect for diversity. The danger here is that bullying is often a precursor for more serious criminal events.

CONCLUSION

There is no doubt that the nature of bullying is a social evil but one that has endured through the ages. It might be argued that it is part of our psychological DNA and that we are all prone to exerting these tendencies from time to time. The real dangers occur with the pathological bully who acquires these tendencies at as early age and consolidates these into more serious psychological illness concerns. The prime concern is always for the victims but equally consideration must be made in addressing the circumstances of the perpetrator who is also suffering from social and psychological abnormalities that require both intervention and treatment.

Most of this needs addressing at source in the child formative years in order that appropriate intervention can be made to assist both the perpetrator and the victim. Adult bullies are normally too late to remediate from a psychological perspective.

Sex in College - Integration in Social Sciences Research Paper

Promiscuity among adolescents is becoming more and more predominant in today's society. Researchers in the past have found that when adolescents begin to mature, they experiment with sexual behaviors. 70-85% of adolescents (Grello, Welsh and Harper, 2006) and 70% of college students participate in intercourse with a casual partner (cited in Grello, Welsh and Harper, 2006.) Understanding the underlining cause of promiscuous sex can help combat this growing epidemic. If educators understand the motivation behind casual sex, proper programs can be created to help children avoid situations that lead to risky sexual behavior.In order to understand the cause of promiscuous behavior among adolescence, one must explore the factors that motivate their sexual behavior. Psychology and Sociological influences that attribute to promiscuity will help gain more insight about the issue. In order to conduct further research, I will conduct a survey among the students of John Abbott College in order to gather data.

Literature Review

Grello, Welsh and Harper conducted a study that examined the reasons and circumstances that cause college students to participate in casual sex. The study consisted of 404 college students, both male and female. They were asked to fill out a questionnaire that asked various questions pertaining to their sexual experiences. Firstly, the participants were asked general information about themselves. Secondly, the authors attempted to evaluate the love styles of the students. This was done through a version of The Love Attitude Scale designed by Levesque in 1993 (cited in Grello, Welsh & Harper). Next, the questionnaire asked questions pertaining to the students' sexual behaviors. The questions were designed to look at sexual behaviors with in a romantic and casual sexual relationship. This portion also included questions about infidelity, history of sexual behaviors and expectations. Finally, Grello, Welsh and Harper used The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale to measure levels of depression within the participants. Based on the results, the authors came to several conclusions concerning the factors that motivate casual sex.

Firstly, the earlier a person was sexually active, the more often they would engage in casual sex, especially if the first time was a casual encounter. Casual sex was also related to drug use and alcohol consumption. Casual sex occurred more often between "friends" than with strangers. "It seems that the participants are not afraid of intimacy; they are just unwilling to commit to a romantic relationship" (Grello, Welsh & Harper, 2006) Females with the most amount of depressive symptoms and males with the least depressive symptoms were the most likely to engage in casual sex. The depressed females were seeking external validation from sex. These women have a very low self-esteem; therefore, they have a desire to feel wanted and be intimate with another person. Casual sex allows them to temporarily feel better about themselves. These women also reported having more depressive symptoms when the number of sexual partners grew. The authors believed that this is their way of filling an "internal void." Men, who are attractive and have a high self-esteem, seek vulnerable women that they do not have to commit to).

Alcohol is one of the primary motives behind promiscuity. Casual sex encounters were more frequent when alcohol was involved. Coleman and Cater conducted an experiment that tested the relationship between alcohol and promiscuity. This study examined how alcohol consumption over a single session can affect the likelihood of risky sex in adolescents. In-depth interviews were conducted with 64 adolescents, both male and female. The researchers found five primary reasons that alcohol consumption motivates casual sex encounters and risky sexual behaviors. "(1) Alcohol affecting young people's assessment of a person's sexual attractiveness; (2) alcohol used as an "excuse" for socially unacceptable behavior; (3) increased confidence and lowering of inhibitions; (4) impaired judgment in accurately recognizing and controlling a potentially risky situation; and (5) complete loss of control, memory loss, and black-out" (Coleman and Cater, 2005.) Impaired judgment and loss of control, memory and Black- outs, were the explanations that had the biggest effect on risky sexual behavior among adolescences. The researchers found that risky events were more likely to occur when alcohol consumption had increased.

Casual sex can be attributed to many external factors and behaviors. Oswalt, Cameron and Koob, performed a study that examined the relationship between regret and casual sex.The data was gathered through a questionnaire that was distributed among 207 college students, both men and women. The participants were asked about their sexual experiences and related out comes. The next section of the questionnaire asked the students to respond to questions that asked about regretted sexual experiences (i.e. "Have you ever regretted your decision to engage in sexual activity?") Lastly, subjects were questioned about their reasons for their behavior and behind their regret. The results showed that the primary sources of regret came from what motivated the student to participate in the casual sex act. Firstly, like the study done by Coleman and Cater, alcohol was one of the primary motives that affected the participants' behavior. Secondly, the participant engaged in casual sex due to the fact that their partner was putting pressure on them to do so. Finally, subjects would engage in casual sex because they hoped that the encounter would bloom into a relationship.

Internal factors that influence casual sex can be attributed to a persons mind set. Lykins,Janssen and Graham, conducted a study that attempted to connect sexual behavior with negative moods in college men and women. This was a comparative study, done through a questionnaire, which attempted to compare the effect negative mood had on each gender's sexual desire. The study consisted of 663 females and 399 males, who were all of college age. Participants were asked questions pertaining to the mood they were in the last time they engaged in a sexual act. The results showed that men had an increased sexual interest when they were in a negative mood. The majority of women reported decreased sexual interest and response when feeling upset or anxious (Lykins, Janssen and Graham). The results reported in this study seem to contradict the study done by Grello, Welsh and Harper, however in reality they don't. There is a difference between a bad mood and depression. A bad mood is when someone is not feeling sad for a few hours or days (Weiten). Some one that is depressed will show the same symptoms, however, it will at least two weeks, and will be accompanied by other symptoms that interfere with daily living.

Both internal and external psychological factors have a role in motivating casual sex among college students. As shown by Grello, Welsh and Harpers' study, external factors such as alcohol, relationship expectations and pressure from the participant's partner attribute to risky sexual behaviors. They also found that internal factors such as depression and negative mood play a role in motivating casual sex encounters. However, these studies were not entirely representative of the population. The participants in each one of the studies were primarily female, making it difficult to assess if the authors' conclusions were completely valid.

From a sociological stand point, Marston and King, attempt to explain the social standards that can attribute to risky sexual behavior. They conducted an experiment that looked at young people and how social and cultural forces in western society have an effect their sexual behavior and condom use. The participants were both male and female and ranged from age 15-24.The data was taken from different studies that were done between 1990 and 2004. The results showed five key findings that explain the social motivations behind promiscuous sex. Marston and King found that, (1) sexual partners have an influence on sexual behavior, (2) gender stereotypes determine social expectations and behavior, (3) there are penalties and rewards for sex from society, (4) reputation, and (5) social expectations make communication about sex difficult.

Culture and religious beliefs have a profound effect on people's values. People's attitude towards sexuality can help create inferences about what social factors contribute to casual sex. Religion and age are important factors to examine when questioning what motivates promiscuity. Le Gall, Mullet and Shafighi explored the idea that age and religion have an effect on people's sexual attitudes. The research was a comparative study that compared the sexual attitudes of 800 people in different age groups. To gain insight on the general population, the ages ranged from 15-70. The study also compared Americans to the French in France. The study consisted of 200 young adults (102 men and 98 women), 200 adults (98 men and 102 women), 200 middle-aged adults (94 men and 106 women), and 200 older adults (83 men and 117 women). Through a questionnaire, Le Gall, Mullet and Shafighi, collected data pertaining to the subjects' sexual attitudes and behaviors. Participants were asked questions pertaining to their religious views, their sexual activities and what types of sexual behaviors they found acceptable.

The results showed that older adults and who had strong religious views, tended to be less promiscuous than young people who did not share the same religious ideals. A cultural difference between the French people in France and the Americans showed the French to be more promiscuous then the Americans.

Environmental factors motivate peoples' sexual behaviors. When a college student is in an environment that promotes sex, drinking and drugs, they are more likely to engage in casual sex because they are in a place where it is socially acceptable. Mardi Gras is an annual festival in New Orleans, Louisiana, consisting of parades, costumes, parties and lots of drinking. Milhausen,Reece and Perera, conducted an experiment in order to understand sexual behavior at Mardi Gras. The study examined how the festival might influence sexual behavior. During the festival there is a lot of partying and drinking. The college students that participate in this event go to New Orleans expecting that they will engage in some risky sexual behaviors. Data was collected from 300 Mardi Gras participants in February 2004 through a questionnaire. The subjects were asked questions pertaining to their sexual expectations. For example, "do you expect to engage in sexual activities at the festival?" The results showed that both men and women predicted engaging in sexual behaviors at Mardi Gras due to peer sexual activity, intentions, and previous sexual experience.

A person's social class can have a profound effect on their sexual behavior. Researchers believe that children in a lower social class are more sexually active than those of a higher social class. Weinberg, Lottes andGordon conducted research that investigated the relationship between social class and sexual attitudes and behavior. The sample consists of 554 college students (19-22 years old), that were asked to fill out a fourteen page questionnaire that they received in the mail. 61% of the sample was women and 39% were male and the participants ranged from varying races and religions. The data collected in this study was compared to a similar study that was done a few years earlier. A dramatic result was found. Researchers found that promiscuity has become part of the social norm in college and is no longer associated with class. Casual sex has grown more common due to reliable birth control, gains in equality of women, and the sexual images of television and other media. This study suggests that a person's environment is an important factor pertaining to the motives behind casual sex. College life and the atmosphere that surround the campus, promotes sexual activity; therefore class is no longer a factor because everyone is living in the same environment. However, a study done by Ramirez-Valles, Zimmerman, Newcomb show different results when examining high school kids.

Ramirez-Valles, Zimmerman, and Newcomb, conducted a study that examined sexual behavior and whether social class, race, and gender are factors that motivate risky sexual behavior. The researchers accumulated their data through a questionnaire. Students were asked questions pertaining to their sexual behaviors and their family life. Questions relating to the parents income and where they lived were essential in identifying the students' social class. The study used a cross sectional sample of 370 American high school students from different districts. The results showed that family structure and family class, indirectly predicts sexual risk behavior through neighborhood poverty, parental involvement, and pro-social activities. The results differ from the study done by Weinberg, Lottes and Gordon due to the fact that they were each studying a different demographic. Ramirez-Valles, Zimmerman, and Newcomb examined American high school students, were as Weinberg, Lottes and Gordon looked at American college students. High school students live at home and are influences by the environment around them.

The collection of research pertaining to the motivations behind casual sex show that promiscuity can be motivated by sociological factors. Le Gall, Mullet and Shafighi found that religion, age and culture play an important role in motivation sexual behaviors. A person's cultural believes shapes their sexual attitudes and behaviors. Milhause, Reece and Perera and Weinberg, Lottes, and Gordon found that a person's external environment is a factor that motivates casual sex. Researchers found that a person's behavior is shaped by social norms and expectation. If a person is an environment that promotes drinking, parties and sex, they are more likely to engage in casual sex. Finally, Ramirez-Valles, Zimmerman, and Newcomb found that social class is another factor that predicts casual sex among students.

Introduction

Sex sells. We are a capitalist country, run by businesses and businesses want to sell. They sell through advertising, which saturates America culture with overt and covert sexual innuendo in order to sell products. While this may be an acceptable strategy if society were an island relegated to adults, this is not the reality. Even with parental controls and various attempts by pro-social organizations, communities, and religious organizations, to encourage adolescents to engaging in behavior that is responsible, the siren call of sex and how it is spun by the media and advertisers, many times proves to be too much for young people to resist. The result is that many young people engage in risky casual sexual behavior before they are mature enough to understand the act and its biological, psychological and social consequences, in order to fit in with social norms and/or to fill a void in their developing self-schema. To think otherwise would be irresponsible and ignorant to the influential power that external factors, such as advertising and the constant bombardment of pro-sex images in the media, has on an individual's psychology; say nothing of the influence it has on the psychology of an adolescent who is still going through an identity maturation process.

While not all adolescents are negatively affected by America's capitalist/consumer/sex-selling culture, certain subsets of the population have traditionally been more susceptible: those without other influences to counterbalance overarching social themes - usually children from low income and/or single parent families. However, according to new research by Weinberg, Lottes and Gordon, today, family structure and class are no longer the primary determinants of what causes young people to engage in risky sexual behavior, and further present that risky sexual behavior has been normalized in this generation. The discovery that casual sex is now a social norm for most adolescents, regardless of their SES, family structure, and all of the associated and potentially lethal risks, reiterates that the primary causes that now motivate risky sexual behavior in adolescents are psychological and sociological.

Psychology

Psychology is the science that deals with mental processes and, ipso facto, is a subfield of biology (Uttal). It is focused on the mental processes of living organisms, but is mostly concerned with those who have high level cognitive functioning such as humans and primates. It is important to note that since psychology is a biological science, it carries with it the rules of biology which has a factual basis of what is healthy and what is not healthy, if healthy is defined as life affirming, and un-healthy is defined as death inducing. Specifically, Psychology is the study of how the individual perceives, itself and its environment, and in some cases behaves in its environment. Understanding a person's psychological perspective is the cornerstone for understanding their motivation, and without use of psychological theory in determining motivators for engaging in risky sexual behavior, any inquires and findings on the issue will be severely limited.

Sociology

Sociology asks questions that related to the individual within their social context. Questions like "why do people like one another", and "how are governments formed", and discovering how societies are formed, evolve and how they function are all fall under sociological inquiry. Sociology seeks to understand society as a whole, rather than according to the individual or from a philosophical standpoint. Similar to psychology, sociology has so many sub-sets and specialties; they would fill the rest of this page in list form; differing from psychology, in order for sociology to be employed there must be social interaction, so more than one person has to be present, but the upper end is unlimited. As with psychology, sociology can mix with any of the natural and other sciences in studying the massive complexity of human social construct, change, action and interaction (Cove). Without having a firm understanding of sociology and sociological theories, individual motivating factors for engaging in risky sexual behaviors are limited only to the individual and does not include the variety of other influences outside of the individual that influence their choice as to whether or not to engage. However, a combination of both psychology and sociology provides a comprehensive framework that researchers can use to determine the factors that motivate adolescents to engage in risky social behavior. One of the primary factors, within a social context is western consumer based society.

Advertising & Capitalist Society

The structuring of personal identity with material items is one of the primary vehicles that dive capitalist economies (Davidson). This is in large part due to the psychological study of behaviorism and how a symbol, a representation of an activity or psychological state, can ignite a visceral feeling. The ability to sell products based upon representations that fill a human need is called Semiotics, and occurs when a material object is assigned a symbolic meaning (connotative meaning) that is more than the meaning of the object itself (denotative meaning). Semiotics is concerned with anything which 'stands for' something else. Examples of signs include words, images, sounds, gestures and objects. Signs are a part of larger semiotic 'sign-systems' which determine how meanings are made and how reality is represented (Chandler). In western society, sex has become the primary semiotic and signs are any of the products that advertisers are trying to sell - and make no mistake, sex sells and capitalist society is invested in this biological reality. The visceral charge that consumer's get when purchasing a product that is sexualized has come to be expected from everything from food to shoes. Though the biology of human arousal should be enough for sex to sell on face value, many advertisers don't want to risk any burn out, so in order for sex to keep selling, the positives of sex must continue to be sold and the negatives, ignored.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of this study is to determine whether psychological and sociological factors are the primary motivators for risky sexual behaviors in college age students. Our hypothesis is that it is, and that psychological (mental state, mood, affect, psychological history, ignorance) and social factors (culture (television, radio, mass media), potential sexual partners, gender perceptions & stereotypes and environment), will rank as the top two factors (in no particular order) when compared with other factors that will be examined during the study, including: Substances (alcohol and drugs), family structure, socio-economic status, and religious and/or personal values. The ranking in which the students place various items in the study will provide better insight as to whether the theories asserted by theorists Le Gall, Mullet and Shafighi, Milhause, Reece and Perera and Weinberg, Lottes, and Gordon, Ramirez-Valles, Zimmerman, and Newcomb are valid in a population of college students, and if so, what is the order of relevance. The results of this study are intended to provide a better understanding of what motivates young adults to engage in risky casual sex, regardless of the consequences.

Method

Participants

In order to determine whether psychological and sociological factors are the primary motivators for risky sexual behaviors in college age students, we created a questionnaire to be filled out by students asking specific questions in order to determine and rank what motivates them to engage in sexual behavior.

- Only sexually active students were used in this study.

- 120 students participated - 4 were female and 46 were male.

- All participants verified their student status by showing ID, but responded to the questionnaire anonymously.

- Advertised for our study using social media and postings around campus.

- Complimentary lunch (Subway lunch combo) was provided as compensation.

- Students from all undergraduate class levels: Freshmen (32), Sophomores (38), Juniors (43), Seniors (14).

- The questionnaire contained a total of 30 questions; 20 were geared towards finding students motivations for sex and 10 were geared at ranking them in terms of significance.

Procedure

The principle investigator monitored the student participants in a room setting, 20 at a time. They were seated one seat apart, and no talking or interacting with other students was permitted while taking the test. After taking the test, they were directed to another room where they could select a Subway lunch and eat it there or take it to go. All of the questionnaires were answered in a one week period.

Measures

This experiment will determine which factors motivate young adults in a college setting to engage in risky sexual behavior. The first section of the questionnaire will measure what the primary motivating factors are, selected by the research presented in the literature review, and the second section will rank the factors in terms of importance.

Quantitative

This is a quantitative study, as the data from the questionnaire will be analyzed, charted and interpreted. There is no qualitative aspect to this study.

Reliability & Data Coding

Coding was done by *LIST NAMES OF PEOPLE IN YOUR GROUP* using MS excel and was converted into charts using MS word. This process was then double checked by another member of the group *LIST NAME* for accuracy.

Results

A. Questionnaire

Section 1: Please answer the following questions yes or no.

- Have you ever engaged in risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever felt depressed before engaging in risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever been intoxicated before engaging in risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever been under the influence of a drug before engaging in risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever been clinically diagnosed with depression or a depression related disorder?

- Are you aware of the psychological risks associated with risky sexual behavior?

- Are you aware of the physical risks associated with risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever engaged in risky sexual behavior because of lyrics in a song?

- Do more than 10 songs that you listen to on a weekly basis suggest, imply, or present risky sexual behavior?

- Do more than 5 of the television programs that you watch on a weekly basis suggest, imply, or present risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever been pressured by a potential partner to having risky sexual behavior?

- Have you ever engaged in risky sexual behavior to fit in?

- Have your religious beliefs ever stopped you from having sex?

- Do you consider sex appeal when purchasing your clothing?

- Have you ever engaged in risky sexual behavior because of a game or dare?

- Have you ever abstained from risky sexual behavior because of a suggestion or command from an authority figure?

- Do your friends have more of an influence over whether or not you engage in risky sexual behavior than your parents?

- Do you think western culture has influenced you to engage in risky sexual behavior?

- Do you engage in risky sexual behavior to satisfy a non-sexual need?

- Has the participation in a sport or hobby ever prevented you from engaging in risky sexual behavior?

Section 2: Please rank the follow in the order of importance.

Rank the following factors in the order in which they motivate you the most to engage in risky sexual behavior.

- My friends

- My partner

- Music that I listen to

- Being under the influence of Alcohol or Drugs

- Being in an environment that promotes risky sexual behavior

- Feeling lonely

- Feeling good about myself

- My favorite movie or television show

- Because I am bored

- Because I need money

B. Responses

Section 1: Responses in the affirmative (yes)

Findings

The findings in the chart above are classified by raw scoring, answering the questions in the affirmative, and by the year of the student in school. The data can further be quantified by sex, percent, and made into a comparative analysis by any of those factors. The highest ranking questions in the affirmative are as follows:

- All: 1 (engaged in risky sexual behavior), 6&7 (aware of physical & psychological risks associated with RSB)

- Freshmen: 18 (influenced by western culture), 10 (more than 5 weekly tv/film programs encourage or imply RSB)

- Sophomores: 18 (influenced by western culture), 10 (more than 5 weekly tv/film programs encourage or imply RSB)

- Juniors: 18 (influenced by western culture), 10 (more than 5 weekly tv/film programs encourage or imply RSB)

- Seniors: 18&10 (influenced by western culture, more than 5 weekly tv/film programs encourage or imply RSB) & 3 (prior intoxication) & 9 (more than 10 songs with/imply RSB).

Section 2: Motivating Factors

Findings

The findings in the chart above are classified by raw scoring, ranking the top reasons for engaging in risky sexual behavior and by the year of the student in school. The data can further be quantified by sex, percent, and made into a comparative analysis by any of those factors. The ranking of the top motivators for engaging in risky behavior are as follows:

- Freshmen: Partner, Friends, Substance

- Sophomores: Partner, Friends, Substance

- Juniors: Partner, Substance, Friends & Environment

- Seniors: Partner & Environment & Lonely, Substance & Friends, Bored

Based on the information in our study, we found that the all of the students that we interviewed engaged in risky sexual behavior at some point in their lives and that they were aware of the psychological and physical health risks associated with risky sexual behavior, but did so regardless. Freshmen, sophomores, and juniors were further influenced by western culture and the television/film media that they consume, while seniors were influenced by that as well as music that they listen to with high RSB based content. Our findings validate hour hypothesis that psychological and social factors, above others, motivate college students to engage in risky sexual behaviors.

In terms of motivations for engaging in risky sexual behaviors, we found that the top ranking for freshmen, sophomores and juniors is pressure from the potential or current partner. For seniors, it is a tie between pressure from the partner, feeling lonely, and being in an environment that encourages risky sexual behavior. For freshmen and sophomores, the second motivating factor is pressure from friends, while for juniors it was being under the influence of a substance, and for seniors it was tied between pressure from friends and being under the influence of a substance. The third motivating factor for engaging in risky sexual behavior for freshmen and sophomores is being under the influence of a substance, for juniors it is a tie between pressure from friends and an encouraging environment and for seniors it is boredom. These findings provide mixed support for our hypothesis because while being pressured by a partner and friends are social motivations for engaging in risky sexual behaviors, being under the influence of a substance is not.

Implications

The primary implications from our study indicate that college age students are heavily influenced by social, psychological, and substance related factors when deciding to engage in risky sexual behaviors. Social factors include anything from peer or partner pressure to the strong reliance on sex for marketing and advertising in western society. It also demonstrates that these influences and motivators are so powerful that they overshadow reason and doing what is the best interest of the psychological and physical health of the students, as they have indicated that they are aware of the associated risks, but engage in the behavior regardless. On an individual level, having a generation of young adults who engage is causal and irresponsible sex is creating a cadre of adults who will not have as much respect for abstinence, and marriage which will further strain the ability to build healthy families, communities and so forth. Sex, and the context in which it is had is one of the most powerful acts in society, and when it is devalued to the point of being casual, all of the other concepts that are attached to it; healthy communication between the sexes, healthy relationships, physical health and psychological health are also treated with little to no regard. This does not spell success for the next generation of western civilization; it is an alarm that shouts that a change in our social value system is necessary for the preservation of our nation.

Discussion

Our experiment was successful in that it did prove that psychological and social factors are motivators for engaging in risky sexual behaviors among college students. Our findings also imply that more attention needs to be paid on the link between substance use and risky sexual behaviors. It may be that substance use prior to engaging in RSB's is also linked to psychological or social factors, but that link was not made clear in this study and would make a strong point of investigation for further studies. Also, it is important to note that some of the questions that we asked received no answers in ranking questions, and for another study, perhaps different more refined questions can be asked; ones that are more specific in their examples of different types of motivating factors for engaging in risky sexual behaviors. Other areas for exploration in future studies include using a biological framework in addition to psychological and social ones to determine whether factors such as hormones, disabilities, and genetic proclivities have any bearing on motivators for engaging in risky sexual behavior.

References

Bannister, R. C. Sociology and Scientism: The American Quest for Objectivity, 1880-1940. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Uttal, W. R. 1: Psychology and Biology. In Psychology and Its Allied Disciplines, Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.) (Vol. 3, pp. 1-29). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Cove, W. R. Is Sociology the Integrative Discipline in the Study of Human Behavior?. Social

Davidson, D. Inquiries into truth and interpretation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chandler, D. Semiotics: The Basics. London: Routledge.[/i]

From Academia to the Workplace

As a student, writing always came easy for me. It seemed that I was always able to understand what my teacher was looking for in the way of a complete assignment. It was just a matter of researching the subject, gathering the information, recording the sources and writing the paper. When I had to write in a workplace setting I quickly learned that writing as a student was very different from writing in corporate setting. I had to understand the difference in order to know how to change my writing style.

The first time, that my boss asked me to write a report, I handed in what I thought she was looking for, but she handed it right back to me, and told me that it needed to be redone. I remember feeling frustrated because I knew that if I handed the same report in to my last teacher I would have gotten a great grade. When I asked a colleague to assess the report, she told me that it read like an essay instead of a workplace report. It took some time for me to understand that what was acceptable for my teacher would not be acceptable for my boss. I learned that in order for me to effectively communicate at work I would have to make some adjustments to, not only my writing, but also to my way of thinking. I had to better understand genre theory.

Andre and Schneider write about genre theory, especially in regard to how "writing is always shaped by writers' understanding of the communicative action required by particular situations". I found this to be particularly true when it comes to writing. That is because you are writing for very different situations and very different audiences. The form of writing will be different depending on what the situation is. My instructors were looking to evaluate my writing to see if I understood the material that was being covered. My boss was looking for information to become more informed on a subject. According to Andre and Schneider the composing process is also different in the workplace. Students are encouraged to work independently in a school setting, but that is not the case in the workplace. Many people write collaboratively and use each other's ideas and work. The other point that I could relate to is the issue of writer identity. In my academic setting my instructors knew more about the subject than I did and my writing was to show that that I understood the topic. When I wrote in a workplace setting my goal was to inform my boss about a subject. I needed to be the expert.

Making the transition from academia, to workplace, writing was challenging for me. I had to learn more about my style of writing and I had to understand the purpose of my writing. Once I was able to understand myself as a writer, I was able to transition smoothly.

Transition Exit Points

Just as with any other sound educational plan, developing a good transition plan requires a beginning assessment of the student's skills, abilities, desires, and needs and attempts to fit these together so that the end result is the most efficacious and positive one for each student. The completed assessment then should lead to appropriate strategies for developing transition goals and strategies for realizing the transition vision for the students.

The authors make several recommendations concerning transition assessment. First, they caution that this kind of assessment ought not to be overwhelming, but should be kept in perspective. It is very much tied to the ongoing assessments that have been a part of the student's educational life since the beginning, and the assessment should be geared toward the questions that IEP team members have asked. The assessment should also be considerate of several different level s and types, including social assessments, academic skill assessments, vocational assessments, and so on.

Team members must also take into account the post-school opportunities to which the student has reasonable access. In urban areas, this is less problematic than in rural ones, but deciding that a students should attend post-secondary schooling when there is no college or university nearby should certainly be a consideration. This is true of vocational opportunities as well, or supported employment opportunities.

Sitlington, Neubert, and Clark (2010) also discuss strategies for making transition a part of the ongoing assessment process. Divided by development level, these strategies include such things as discussions of families and what ach person in a family does, service-oriented projects that enable the student to contribute to the larger community, discussions of careers, technology integrations, and the application of academic content to life skill development.

Reference

Sitlington, P.L., Neubert, D.A., and Clark, G.M. Transition education and services for students with disabilities. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Effects of Academic Fads on University Learning Efficiency

At the end of the 20th century an increasing number of universities were placing an emphasis on other areas in addition to academics to separate themselves from smaller colleges. Much of these changes were economically motivated, in order to receive more income from external sources not directly tied to educational organization such as "big-time" college athletics, corporate R&D and adult education. The cultural norm, "big is always better" was also established at many of these universities to have more societal prestige, with campuses that were uniquely designed with impressive landscaping, buildings and library holdings. At the same time, the public's expectations grew for these institutions. Universities needed to be equipped to handle the many societal challenges and broaden their capacity through outreach programs such as internships and co-ops. Many of these universities also further extended their reach into other countries. To further their standing in the community, the universities (and colleges that were shifting to university status) began focusing on outcome measures of success and quality.

In many cases these changes led to an emphasis on strategic planning processes. Similarly, changing federal regulations concerning processes for hiring, firing and employment review, Affirmative Action guidelines, and equal employment mandates drove personnel departments and administration to gain new knowledge and skills in specific areas of management. The typical academic leader from a smaller institution was not prepared to deal with these new regulations. Lastly, these universities started hiring numerous part-time faculty, many of whom were from the corporate environments where a strong vertical structure was the norm. These new faculty members brought in many ideas and systems popular in their own companies, which they discussed in their classes, included in the curriculum and disseminated throughout the campus.

As this new management culture became established in universities, the administrators were required to be effective managers of both people and funding. That meant they needed to employ management theory. Cohen noted: "Just as large business enterprises were emphasizing functional organization and efficiency, the universities were incorporating such practices." This was the beginning of what Birnbaum calls the management fads, or management programs designed to improve effectiveness and efficiency: "Although they may not appear to have a political purpose, academic management fads are solutions that further specific ideologies. Academic management fads have not themselves degraded the narrative...but they are technical vehicles that contribute to the degradation" (p. 227).

The theory of management fashion primarily is based on the work of Abrahamson's theory that described the process by which "fashion setters," or "fashion evangelists," which are typically consultants, management gurus, publishing companies, and business schools, disseminate beliefs that certain managerial techniques are the vanguard of leadership excellence. Abrahamson looked at the lifecycle of the management system Quality Circles, which confirmed researchers' suggestions that the Quality Circle movement was certainly a management fad. Conducting a meta-analysis of Quality Circles articles that appeared over a ten-year period, Abrahamson graphed a trend line. He found that the Quality Circles movement had a bell-shape pattern, which depicted rapid growth that started in 1978 and then that reversed in 1982. By 1986, this approach returned to its pre-popularity level, which represented a management fad.

Blake, Mouton and Williams, managerial theorists from the corporate arena, in the 1980s were one of the first to adapt management theories to the academic setting. Although Blake, Mouton and Williams said that a university must develop its own organizational model, they still used corporate terminology, such as "managing the academic personnel function" (301). Presently their analysis is still prominent at some universities across the country, but the tools of organizational development that they promoted have been forgotten and longer widely used. Since then, there have been many attempts to transfer corporate systems to universities: A number of these systems or "management fads" were met with skepticism or even hostility, but others, according to Birnbaum, were accepted, because they had characteristics that influenced managers. He noted six reasons or biases for why certain management fads are accepted: 1) role bias, because academic managers feel pressure to take charge, regardless of limited resources and understanding, confusing or conflicting strategies, and unchangeable problems. 2) cognitive bias, where management makes decisions based on hunches rather than evidence, makes decisions from positive anecdotal rather than empirical evidence and selectively assesses the effect of an approach on the university; 3) placebo bias when the fad hides symptoms without paying specific attention to the underlying issue; 4) normative bias, which causes managers to generalize from one situation to another, such as copying the behavior of other managers in uncertain situations rather than making logical decisions; 5) self-efficacy bias, when the managers back a fad to reinforce their image as problem solver and importance to the organization; and 6) commitment bias where management is so completely engaged with a system that its judgment is not sound.

Birnbaum suggested that most of these managerial fads from the corporate sector are based on and furthered by a shared cultural belief: "Business and industry are highly efficient and effective; higher education is not. Higher education could improve if it adopted the management techniques of business..." (pp. 227-228). The university management team must therefore be encouraged to take an entrepreneurial and market-driven stance and follow these fads, each with their own separate ideology. Birnbaum defined these management fads as pervasive, obsessive and thankfully short-lived applications often imported from government or the private sector long after they had run their course. The educational institution is supposedly implementing them to help find a better way of doing things, reduce ambiguity, and shift power. He stressed that each of these management systems goes through five stages: In the first stage, a crisis is identified by the fad's supporters that just happens to invalidate an aspect of current operations. These early adopters enthusiastically relate their successes and provide others at the university with evidence on how this new approach can solve the crisis at hand. Other organizations at the institution come aboard. Any criticism is deflected by stressing the consequences if the fad was not implemented. Momentum builds into stage two, where supporters elaborate the first reports; widespread organizational peer pressure grows as the early supporters receive praise. Little to no attention is paid to the possible costs of implementation, and any opponents to the management system are seen as self-interested or narrow-minded.

Birnbaum explained that the third stage occurs in the time between the fad's widespread dissemination and independent analysis by those other than supporters. The fad continues to be positively received, but accounts of counter-anecdotal results begin to mount. The pendulum begins to swing the other way in the fourth stage, as the claims regarding effectiveness are greatly diminished. Negativity begins to increase, but supporters discount these comments to protect their financial and personal investment in the fad. However, in the fifth phase, even these early supporters begin to rationalize and blame the lack of success on such factors as poor leadership, improper implementation and lack of resources in order to save face. It is not the system itself that has a problem, but the way it was implemented or by whom that is the issue.

A great deal of time and resources are wasted during the adoption and implementation of these management programs: Much effort goes into agreeing to utilize the program, implementing it and training employees, and the owners of the copyright and the consultants who work with the university make out well in payment for their assistance. However, according to Birnbaum, the most damaging outcome of fads appears to be their impact on the narrative that provides a foundation for higher education. As he writes: "In the United States, the educational narratives of the past have been stories of personal virtue, civic participation, democracy, and social justice. The narrative gods of the present appear to be economic utility, consumerism, and technology-a weak foundation on which to build a just social order or excite the imagination" (p. 266). The meaning of higher education as a social institution is displaced by higher education as an industry. Fads promote a narrative where higher education lacks the effectiveness and efficiency of business. Faculty members are frequently seen as the villains in this narrative, if they oppose the introduction and implementation of such management techniques to protect their pay, benefits and status. When the universities accept the ideology of these fads, it is subjecting higher education to the same market standards as the private sector. Birnbaum argued: "[T]he simplicity of this narrative is its power, and the story of a small, privileged elite that benefits at the expense of the public is an evocative story that taps into the American psyche. So is the narrative of a fad that pledges to right the wrong and put the university in its place. Interesting stories are more likely than accurate ones to be accepted" (p. 227).

Birnbaum explained this fad phenomenon in 2000, but other researchers have followed suit by looking at other systems that have been accepted by universities and their ultimate success/demise. According to Temple, for example, the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) Excellence Model is a perfect example of the fad noted by Birnbaum, and which is following the same five stages described. When it was first established for business organizations in the late 1980s, the goal of the EFQM was to give companies guidelines for achieving and measuring success. At the beginning of the 21st century, Sheffield Hallam University in the U.K. created a higher education version of the model that included a 22-page guidance model for self-evaluation on 32 specific categories of institutional activity. The results of this evaluation were noted in a mathematical leadership score and that could be benchmarked with other institutions. The originators of this model claimed that it offered a "holistic approach" to the analysis of higher education organizations, addressed "the fundamental concepts of excellence in higher education," and "has been tested and applied within higher education" (as cited in Temple, p.265). The success of implementation depended on "senior management commitment and drive," where leaders needed to become role models and communicate the program's mission, ethics, principles and values, at the same time as listening to and learning from others.

Temple said that most likely this model was never the key to achieving important improvements in higher education. Rather, it is just another passing fad, because it neither engages adequately with the realities of management nor fits the specific contours of higher education. The model fails in its benefits to management in two essential ways: First, it is derived from the unstated assumption that there actually is a conflict-free way to establish organizational priorities and the allocation of resources. The Excellence Model assumes if enough attention is paid to institutional processes, then difficulties that result from dichotomous goals and resource constraints can be overcome. Given the very many different shareholders involved in the university setting from students to board members and the community at large, this goal is impractical.

The second problem is that EFQM assumes that a general systems approach to management, or how every activity interacts with each other, is practical. Putting this into effect, argued Temple, "would be organizational paralysis" (p.268). Although the model's literature claims that is has been developed specifically for the university environment, EFQM does not adequately take into effect the distinctive character of these educational institutions. It clearly makes the assumption that there is something akin to a "market-based contractor-client" relationship between the university and its students. It has its roots in the ISO manufacturing model that the customer is always right: quality is defined "in terms of the exact reproduction of a product or service for which the customer is prepared to pay" (Sallis, as cited in Temple, p. 269). The whole model becomes moot when the idea of buying and selling is replaced by a joint effort between teachers and learners, where students are transformed by sharing personal meanings with others in an academic environment.

As a result of the inadequacy of the EFQM Excellence Model, Temple stated that it will most likely follow the same rise and fall noted by Birnbaum. The claims have already been made, such as this Excellence Model is a necessity for the fast-changing world. It is needed because the government has a strategic and operational agenda for the public sector that requires organizations like the universities to delve more deeply into a performance management culture. According to Steed, Maslow and Mazaletskaya, for example, the Excellence Model is founded the five key enablers of excellence--leadership, people, policy and strategy, partnership and resources, and processes--which result in a level of excellence of organizational performance. These enablers measure and determine whether effective approaches are in place to enable the organization to achieve its plans. "This is the pressure bias, perceived or real, that using this model is a requirement for retaining the confidence of funders. Thus, the program would be implemented and strongly supported by those who wanted to look good by the constituents" (Steed, Maslow & Mazaletskaya, p. 310). However, as noted by Temple and Birnbaum, the real picture about the value of this fad will undoubtedly emerge, and the university players will recognize that it was not working. Rationalization will set in as "other pressures and priorities" prevent its full-scale application.

Although Birnbaum's said that typically the rise and fall of a fad occurred over a 10- to 15-year period, according to Temple, it appears that this changeover is happening more rapidly. Temple concluded that "we must learn to live with management fads in higher education: they will continue to come and go. And they may, in some cases, bring benefits" (p. 273). However, university leadership and other institutional stakeholders have to be aware of the pressures that can result from adopting and implementing such programs and accept them with great caution. "The best protection for higher education against fads, and the damage they can cause, is to have managements with the self-confidence to say to those outside: thank you for your concern, but we know best how to manage our own institutions" (p. 273).

One fact is for sure: There is no shortage of these management programs. As soon as one goes out of favor, another one is becoming popular. Knowledge management (KN), which has been used in business settings since the 1990s, is one of the latest fads now utilized on student campuses.

There are many different definitions for KM, with no general agreement about what constitutes knowledge in the first place. Thus, KM can be considered "the process through which organizations generate value from their intellectual and knowledge-based assets" (Levinson, np). In order to determine the value derived from the assets, it is necessary to analyze and measure what the employees and shareholders know and disseminate that information throughout the organization and even with other companies for the process of sharing best practices. Although the definition does not mention technology, KM is often facilitated by IT, but technology by itself is not KM.

When reporting on the present KM popularity, Wilson pointed out that these are nothing new: Management strategies date back to Taylor's scientific management of the early 1900s. Since then, there have been scores of fads or fashions. He stated that although some of these strategies have been somewhat helpful, others have been disastrous: For example, Stephen Roach, who was the chief economist at Morgan Stanley, strongly supported downsizing, arguing that it could be seen as a cure for any company problems; later he reversed his opinion and argued that, to the contrary, downsizing could be a recipe for industrial disaster. According to Wilson, some techniques fail, or at least are dropped from the list of popular approaches, because they are Utopian in character: Managers are told that the technique must be applied organization-wide for the full benefits to be achieved. This was the case with business process re-engineering, for instance. Organizations quickly realized that the costs of carrying out such a process companywide would be crippling; when applying the technique to only part of the company, the results would be unsatisfactory. Two-thirds of such programs have thus failed. "Knowledge management (whatever it is) also shows signs of being offered as a Utopian ideal and the results are likely to be similar" (np), Wilson forecasted.

Ponzi and Koenig said that starting in 1995 there was an explosion in the literature surrounding the developing concept of KM. Today, it is nearly impossible to attend a conference or read a journal without seeing literature referring to it. Despite its popularity, no one knows for sure whether it will become a significant and permanent component of management, or just another management fad. The authors stated that to a great extent, many now consider KM as an emerging multidisciplinary subject equal to systems engineering or organizational learning. Others, however, argue that KM is just another fad like Total Quality Management or Quality Circles. As a result, Ponzi and Koenig applied the same meta analysis as Abrahamson did to Quality Circles in 1996 in order to determine its present state of acceptance. Quality Circles, popular in 1979, seemed to have momentum and to peak in just five years. The similar pattern occurred for for Total Quality Management, which was kicked off in the late 1980s and peaked in 1993, and Business Process Reengineering, which began in 1991 and peaked 1995. Ponzi and Koenig hypothesized that KM would its lose popularity in about five years.

The authors (Ponzi & Koenig) found that KM made it past the five-year mark and may be on its way of becoming a long-term management practice. The popularity of KM grew rapidly from 1997 through 1999, fell in 2000, but then recouped in 2001. To further explore the growth period of KM and confirm what they had found, Ponzi and Koenig also conducted a bibliometric technique, which indicates the degree to which other disciplines have adopted and integrated the theories. It looks at the same articles as in the meta analysis, but assigns discipline codes.

Discipline 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Computer Science 35.7% 43.1% 42.0% 38.8% 28.7% 36.2%
Business 21.4% 16.9% 32.4% 25.6% 18.0% 20.7%
Management 42.9% 7.7% 5.3% 12.8% 13.2% 17.2%
Information Science & Library Science 15.4% 10.6% 7.9% 16.9% 14.2%
Engineering 10.8% 4.3% 8.6% 13.6% 7.7%
Psychology 6.2% 5.3% 1.7% 1.8% 1.5%
Multidisciplinary Sciences 2.0% 4.0%
Energy & Fuels 0.7% 3.7% 0.7%
Social Sciences 1.7%
Operations Research & Mgt. Science 1.0%
Planning & Development 1.0%
Total: 14 65 207 407 272 401
Interdisciplinary Breadth: 3 6 6 10 8 8

Table 1: Interdisciplinary activity by column percentage, 1996-2001 (Ponzi & Koenig)

In 1996, interdisciplinary activity for KM appeared in computer science, business, and management. Through the next three years, the number of disciplines widened to ten, due to new technological developments and organizations wishing to increase their competition strength. In 2000, the amount of articles dropped by about 30%. Three disciplines dropped, and six increased. Such downward falls may be directly caused when organizations do not gain as many benefits. For example, in 1999 Bain & Company conducted a survey on management tools and techniques, noting that KM "not only had relatively low utilization but also very low satisfaction scores relative to the average" (as cited inn Ponzi & Koenig). In 2001, the top two disciplines nearly returned to 1996 proportions and the extent of disciplines more than doubled. According to Ponzi and Koenig, therefore, the jury is still on out whether or not KM is a fad. They reported that if KM does actually mature into a permanent new component of managerial attention, it will continue to grow but continually undergo changes, as with the dip in popularity in 2000. To examine whether KM truly has survived and is on its way to developing into a meaningful and long-lasting technique, will take the passage of time along with continued analysis.

Birnbaum asserted that it is difficult to determine the popularity of fads; for example, KM may burn out in another five years by following Birnbaum's 10- to 15-year run versus the shorter one theorized by Temple and Ponzi and Koenig. Nor, as Birnbaum added, is it always possible to assess the positive or negative effects of a fad. He explained that even limited exposure to fads may somewhat change organizational structure for the better. For example, a management fad may place pressure on the university to recognize the value of data in decision making. These fads also encourage institutions to evolve by implementing new practices that are more appropriate to the needs of the environment or make management more aware of the needs for cost effectiveness and innovation. On the other hand, fads may alter priorities at the university for the wrong reasons and reduce the amount of funding awards, limit an institution's capacity to expand enrollment or needlessly layout valuable staff.

When asked if universities can become "learning institutions" that justly place an emphasis on improved performance, Jeffrey at New York University concluded that it needs to be a slow, steady-as-you-go process rather than jumping in and out as with a fad: "It is possible when change leaders address legitimate reservations regarding differing institutional purposes, when they reward and facilitate change, when they sustain their efforts, when they establish formal and informal structures to promote collaboration, and when they implement change at a judicious pace." However, by doing so, universities are expected to resist any threat to their core values. "The best advice for those seeking to transform institutions of higher learning into learning organizations may be to start small and to proceed with caution."

References Cited

Berequist, W.H., & Pawlak, K. The Six Cultures of the Academy. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Birnbaum, R. Management fads in higher education: Where they come from, what they do, why they fail. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Blake, R., Mouton, J.S., & Williams, M.S. Academic administrator grid. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Jeffrey, J. Higher Learning and Learning Organizations. Teague Foundation.

Ponzi, L. J., & Koenig Knowledge Management: another management fad? Information Research, 8(1).

Steed, C.; Maslow, D.; Mazaletskaya, A. The EFQM Excellence Model for Deploying Quality Management: A British-Russian Journey. Higher Education in Europe 30(3-4), 307-319

Temple, P. TFQM Excellence Model: Higher Education's Latest Management Fad? Higher Education Quarterly 58(4), 26-274.

Wilson, T.D. The nonsense of "Knowledge Management" Information Research 8(1).

Technology in the Classroom

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the advantages and disadvantages of integrating technology in the classroom. The examination of this issue includes a discussion of issues such as how integrating technology into classroom instruction can improve the cognitive learning of students, as well as increasing student motivation with the use of computers and other up-to-date devices and technologies. In turn, issues of problems for teachers to align activities that rely on technology with course standards and the larger concerns about administration support and training will be examined in relation to the disadvantages and problems of integrating technology in the classroom. The discussion of both the advantages and disadvantages will show that while many advantages exist, the disadvantages of the integration of technology in the classroom must be addressed in order for technology integration to be as successful as possible.

Importance of Technology Integration

Before analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of technology integration in the classroom, it is necessary to understand why this issue is important and worth examining. First, efforts to integrate technology in the classroom has become a national effort on the part of many state governments and the federal government with the passage of legislation supporting greater technology usage as part of normal classroom instruction. However, beyond the desire of state governments and the federal government to see technology fully integrated into traditional classroom instruction in the United States, an analysis of technology integration and the advantages and disadvantages of this phenomenon is important because of research that has shown that technology in the classroom can cause students to be more engaged in the learning process. Technology integration can be a powerful tool to motivate students to be more involved in their learning. It also can also result in students having higher educational achievements.

Advantages of Technology Integration

Student Achievement. Integrating technology into classroom instruction has the ability to improve student achievement because the learning is more relevant to the lives that the students lead. Students do not live in a world where only calculators exist as a device to assist with math, nor do they live in a world where people only read books and newspapers. Instead, the proliferation of computers and the internet makes it possible for students to improve writing abilities and even larger cognitive abilities by sending emails, researching topics over the internet, and even adding their own information and insights to existing websites and databases on the internet. By integrating technology into what might otherwise be considered boring activities, students are able to make a connection between learning and the technology that they use on a daily basis.

A tool that is seemingly as common today as email can be a way for students to enhance their cognitive abilities. By writing emails or researching information over the internet and then adding the information that they have learned to online databases, students are not only learning about a particular subject, but they are also making choices about the type of information that might be important to others. Even more, they are forced to think about the best way to present information to others, such as whether to send an email or an instant message or to use a word processing program to type out a formal report.

Improve Teacher Competence. Integrating technology into classroom instruction also requires that teachers improve their own competence of both technology and creativity in creating lesson plans. Finding ways to integrate sending emails or text messages in the classroom is something that certainly requires innovation on the part of a teacher. This is certainly true if teachers use these mediums that are often criticized as harming language development because of the fact that so many people use abbreviations and nonstandard language when communicating online. In order for teachers to be creative and aware of changes in technology, professional development in the form of regular in-service training must occur. However, by being devoted to taking part in regular professional development efforts, teachers can improve their own instruction methods while demonstrating to students how technology can be used for more than simply chatting with friends or playing games.

Engaging Different Types of Learners. Another advantage to integrating technology in the classroom is that it provides a means by which teachers can engage different types of learners. Research has actually shown that students prefer both the use of computers and standard classroom instruction in science education (Li). Without the presence of technology, science teachers can only provide traditional classroom instruction. With technology in the classroom, however, teachers have additional tools to use to engage students that might be more motivated to learn or better able to understand concepts by using both technology and standard classroom instruction. The larger outcome is that students become more motivated to learn because of the fact that there are additional tools that can make learning enjoyable, but that can also assist in understanding concepts and theories.

Disadvantages of Technology Integration

Unmet Educational Goals. One of the common complaints among teachers is that it is difficult to align technology with existing educational standards (Gulbahar). For example, finding ways to integrate the use of computers or the internet into a discussion of sentence structure can certainly be difficult. In addition, it has been noted that students are not entirely motivated by technology integration. There are indeed times when students prefer traditional classroom instruction. Attempting to integrate technology into the classroom may cause students and teachers confusion and irritation if the technology provides no real help with a particular subject.

Lack of Teacher Training and Support. A major complaint of teachers is that they do not receive the support that they need from their administrators. Even when school districts provide technology in the classroom, teachers often find that school administrators do not provide guidance on how to use the technology. Instead, teachers are expected to use the technology in an efficient manner that will assist with educational outcomes. Even more, administrators often do not provide opportunities for professional development. Teachers are left to try and overcome their own lack of knowledge about integrating technology in the classroom, and even their own lack of knowledge about technology in general. This is a concern given that only one-third of public school teachers in the United States have indicated that they are well-prepared to integrate technology into their classroom instruction (Chen & Chen). The overall result is that teachers become frustrated with being mandated to use technology without any real assistance for integrating into their existing classroom plans.

Difficult to Manage Classroom. Teachers also complain that managing a classroom in which technology integration has occurred can be difficult. Controlling the activities of students, as well as monitoring the work that they complete using computers and other technology can require a great deal of time and effort for teachers. In some cases, truly being able to control a classroom so that all students are working together with the teacher can almost be impossible (Gulbahar). On a larger scale, monitoring student progress is also problematic. If teachers are not completely proficient with technology, determining the outcomes of student work with the technology can be difficult. In addition, assessing what a student has learned when traditional tests and assessments are not used becomes an exercise in trying to objectively relate the use of technology to what has been gained from the experience on the part of the student (Howard).

Conclusion

The purpose of this paper has been to examine the advantages and disadvantages of technology integration in the classroom. The advantage of technology integration is the ability to motivate students by allowing them to utilize the technology that is part of their daily lives. In addition, teachers have to become more creative in their lesson plans in order to successfully integrate technology into classroom instruction. However, an important disadvantage of technology integration is that teachers are often unprepared to use technology in their instruction, and often find little support from administrators. A concern also exists about being able to control a classroom and properly assess the actual learning and educational outcomes of students.

References

Brown, D., & Warschauer, M. From the University to the Elementary Classroom: Students' Experiences in Learning to Integrate Technology in Instruction. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 14(3), 599-621.

Proficiency. International Journal of Applied Educational Studies, 2(1), 49.

Integration in Schools. Computers & Education, 49, 943-959.

Howard, S. K. What Makes Technology Risky? An Exploration of Teachers'

Irving, K. The Impact of Educational Technology on Student Achievement: Assessment of and for Learning. Science Educator, 15(1), 13-20.

Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 39(4), 377-397.

Sternberg, B. J., Kaplan, K. A. & Borck, J. E. Enhancing Adolescent Literacy Achievement Through Integration of Technology in the Classrrom. Reading Research Quarterly, 42(3), 416-420.

Tondeur, J., Van Keer, H., Van Braak, J. & Valcke, M. ICT Integration in the Classroom: Challenging the Potential of a School Policy. Computers & Education, 51, 212-223.

Learning Communities for Better Culture

If we accept the idea of classrooms as learning communities, then we also acknowledge that within that community, the teacher takes responsibility for building relationships that promote positive growth and achievement. Gregory and Chapman explain that "[e]ffective teachers believe that all students can learn and be successful. Effective teachers effectively create a climate in which all students feel included. Effective teachers believe that there is potential in each learner and commit to finding the key that will unlock that potential." Everything matters; what teachers do, say, and consider important have profound effects on learners and their perceptions of what is successful.

The authors quote Gregory and Parry, who suggest that students are continually monitoring body language, tone of voice, and what is said. Students sense threat and they sense safety. They also sense their status in comparison with others, and how well they are doing in that comparison. Motivation derives from these senses of things, and all students need to have some power, some sense of belonging, and fun. It cannot be said enough: this is true for all students, whether academically gifted or not. Some older teachers will be able to recall college classes in which they were but one of several hundred students arrayed in a college auditorium, while the professor occupied a place on center stage at a podium, and the students in the back rows could barely see the man. There was no sense of community at all, and motivation was low enough. There was no relationship building even attempted, and it is sad to say that very little learning took place there.

A community depends for its existence on the relationships that are built within it. Those relationships are stable and meaningful when all of its members are successfully a part of that community. Within that framework are implied trust, implied safety, and the implied concept of Rogers' unconditional positive regard. And within that framework is the likelihood that all students will find acceptance for their struggles, and a better chance of growth as a student toward positive academic achievement.

I had been teaching for several years before I noticed something important about the inclusion of all members of a learning community. I was reflecting on the time I learned to play chess, and how difficult that was. I noted that there were primarily three stages in my development as a chess player. The first stage was complete disinterest. I had no desire to learn how to play, and even when I thought about it, it seemed so complicated that I thought I couldn't learn it even if I wanted to do so. My motivation was at zero, and had there been a lower rating for motivation, I would have been there, too.

Gradually, however, my friends weakened my resolve, and I started to pay with them, though they were much more accomplished than I was. My life for the next year or so was marked mostly by confusion, as I learned the pieces and what they could do and where they could go and in what combinations, and how my movements would always be countered by my opponent's movements, and I was then expected to counter his counters, all in the name of protecting my King and ultimate disaster by being careful of skillfully using my wretched Queen. I was dreaming of chess moves; my waking hours were spent going over and over scenarios that may occur and how I could negotiate them.

Here, then, was an important lesson for me as a teacher. Before I started to learn chess, I had no motivation to do so, and was never confused about it. I also was neither learning it, nor thinking about it. Once I started to learn to play, however, I was promptly steeped in confusion, tormented by not knowing the simplest of things (compared with my friends), and motivated beyond belief to learn that wretched game. By and by I got better; eventually, I was pretty good at it, and would play nearly anyone, including a chess computer.

I took that lesson to my classroom and applied it to my most confused students,. I understood clearly that confusion is a stage of beginning growth and understanding. The first time I had a student say, "I don't get it!" or something to that effect, I would stop everything, ask my other students to stop, and say to the child, "That's the most wonderful thing I've ever heard." Of course, the student got a puzzled look on his face, but I was serious. I quickly wrote a note to the principal of the school stating that Ricardo was confused, had entered the world of the educated, and asked her to make an announcement to the entire school that Ricardo was confused and that we all ought to celebrate. Luckily for me, she understood my intention, and she did so.

The effect was astonishing. The other confused students let it be known that they were confused also. The students who heretofore hadn't cared and weren't confused, suddenly found a chance at redemption, and began to crave confusion. Those that had already learned the material nodded in recognition of the time when they were confused, too, and had worked their way through it. As a community, we were suddenly coming together in supportive ways that had not existed before, and it affected the entire group. From that point, we were a community of learners committed to working our way through difficulties instead of simply giving up, meekly whimpering out of wonderful opportunities to learn together. I wouldn't change any of that, but I now find ways to celebrate almost everything about the learning process.

References

Gregory, G.H,. and Parry, T.S. Designing brain-compatible learning, 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA. Corwin Press.

Gregory, G.H. and Chapman, C. Differentiated instructional strategies: One size doesn't fit all. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Rogers, Carl. On Becoming a Person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

"The Color Purple" - Book Themes

The Color Purple" by author Alice Walker addresses many themes that are common to the everyday experience of women. The major theme throughout the book is that of power and powerlessness. Female power and independence is represented by Sug, the independent, strong willed jazz singer and flapper who is not willing to rely on a man for any reason other than sex. Powerlessness and oppression are represented by Celie, a 14 year old African American girl, molested, raped and impregnated by her own father, and then forced into a marriage with a man twice her own age, only known in the book as Mr.___

"From the very beginning of the book Celie is beaten and abused. She states "He beat me today cause he say I winked at a boy at Church. I may have got something in my eye but I didn't wink. I don't look at mens" (Walker, p.5). This abuse leaves Celie powerless and she is so oppressed by her father's abuse that she is no longer capable of seeing herself as either capable or intelligent. She escapes only find out that she is in a relationship that is just as abusive as the father-daughter relationship that she had left.

As the novel progresses we see Celie develop a close friendship with Sug, this relationship helps Celie to move from powerlessness and oppression to having a sense of power and independence. The reader sees this as they view her gradually discarding the abusive Mr.____ and moving into a caring relationship with Celie. We see her move from being utterly dependent first on her father and then her husband to running her own successful business and being a well respected matriarch.

In "Taking Women Students Seriously" Adrienne Rich writes about how the sexism and racism inherent in our culture, can make women feel powerless and oppressed. She argues that this powerlessness is both gendered, and integrated into our culture. Rich would argue that Celie is a victim because the sexist and racist ideology she was raised with taught her that she did not deserve to learn or to grow, or even to exist. Bell would also argue that Celie learned from her early experiences with her father and her husband taught her that she does not "have the right to exist."

Rich states "I would suggest that not biology, but ignorance of our selves, has been the key to our powerlessness." (p.240). What this means is that culture teaches us that we are worthless except in how we are perceived by men. This perspective teaches us to be aware of how men perceive us, but, tells us to ignore how we perceive ourselves. Women are not expected to learn and grow and to be themselves outside their relationship with men. This sense of powerlessness is often seen in literature about women such as "The Color Purple" Celie was powerless because she was ignorant of her inner self. She did not have any true understanding of who she was, or that she was an intelligent and capable human being until Sug arrived in her life and helped her to learn about who she was.

This statement by Rich can also be interpreted to mean that women are vulnerable to societal influences just like any other human being, and when societal influences are telling them that they are worthless and powerless, than that is what they become, no matter how much education, or experience they have that tells them otherwise.

What is quote means from a personal perspective is that I cannot buy into what others tell me about myself. The only road to self knowledge, is to believe in oneself, and one's abilities and capability. This means not buying into what society tells me I should be because I am a member of a specific race, or gender and trusting in myself. This quote can also means that I should not allow myself to be limited by my gender or my race. Biology is not destiny, and I can become anyone I choose to.

In terms of my education here at Alverno College, Rich's essay means that I must set goals for myself with the intention of meeting them. This also means that I must look at my education here with the understanding that college, is not the real world. However; much like an equal professors and administration may treat me here at school, there will be those in the real world who will think less of me, denigrate me, or who will seek to keep my powerless because of my race, gender, religion or sexual preferences. Because I understand this, I need to use this time to develop the skills that I will need once I have completed college as well as the ability to work hard and to handle criticism made by others who make assumptions about my based on my gender, race, religion or sexual preference.

In conclusion, Celi in "The Color Purple" represents the powerlessness and oppression that all women experience in an overwhelmingly male dominated society. Rich would argue that Celie has been kept in ignorance about herself and this is why she is seen as powerless until she meets Sug and takes control of her own life. Rich's quote means that women have been kept in the dark about themselves because they have been taught to see themselves as powerless by a male dominated society. From a personal perspective and insofar as my education here at Alverno is concerned, this means I have to recognize this fact, and accept that college is not the real world in order to prepare myself for what I will face once I graduate.

References

Adrienne, R. Taking Women Students Seriously . In A. Rich, On Lies Secrets and
Silence (pp. 237-245). New York : W.W. Norton.
Walker, A. The Color Purple . New York : Harcourt Brace.

The Oppressive Classroom in America

A strong argument can be made that the citizens of the United States live in a societal situation that exactly illustrates Paolo Freire's paradigm of an oppressor/oppressed relationship, and that the American educational system is engineered to maintain and enhance this relationship. The oppressed-that is, the students and the adults who were once students-were not exposed to the one element of education that would enable them to recognize and rebel against their oppression: the ability to think. Freire names the most common practices that restrict students' thinking abilities: "Verbalistic lessons, reading requirements, the methods for evaluating 'knowledge,' the distance between the teacher and the taught, [and] the criteria for promotion". All are ubiquitous educational models that feed facts to students rather than teaching them to acquire knowledge for themselves. Consequently, students graduate school (or, often, do not graduate) with the ability to receive knowledge but with no capacity for pursuing it on their own. Nor are they capable of seeing beyond the external layers of reality, and thus cannot perceive the extent of their own oppression, let alone figure out how to overcome it. The result is that American education perpetuates the status quo and denies a meaningful life to most of its recipients.

Standardized testing is the best-known of the educational practices that cheat students of a quality education. Such tests can only measure recall of facts and shallow levels of reasoning. Given that the entire educational system revolves around these test results, teachers have no choice but to teach to the test, using methods that are most likely to boost the recall of facts. Rote learning is the order of the day; critical thinking, logic, and reason have no place in such a system. Standardized tests supposedly prove that the student is equipped to be an educated and productive member of society, while also demonstrating a teacher's efficacy in achieving this goal. Under the model of the oppressor/oppressed relationship as described by Freire, American schools succeed brilliantly in preserving the current state of affairs. Where they fail is in allowing students to think seriously about the world in which they live, analyzing and evaluating its structure and practices.

Most Americans do not see themselves as victims of oppression. But in a society where a very few people own most of the wealth and power, those outside the privileged few are denied opportunities to fully express their humanity (as Freire would have it). Americans are constitutionally guaranteed the right to pursue self-betterment, but the reality is that such an effort is futile for most people. Adults who were never taught to think for themselves or to question the status quo are likely to remain mired in whatever circumstances they find themselves, and not to realize that the system is stacked against them. They have been conditioned from their first day of school to accept the world and their place in it, and few are given the opportunity to learn the critical thinking skills that would enable them to recognize debilitating methods of control such as propaganda, deception, and deflection of responsibility. While the American dream continues to be self-betterment, the goal is almost always to be upwardly mobile, to join the ranks of the wealthy and powerful. This ambition, programmed in from childhood, is used as an incentive for acquiring a "good" education. The ambition, whether realized or not, acts as an agent of the status quo.

Alfie Kohn supports Freire's view of oppression as perpetuated in American schools. The current political talk about education as an "investment" in America's future supports the view of students as commodities whose purpose is to support the economy of the United States (which means, in essence, to support the continuity of profits to the wealthiest citizens, who will then "create" jobs for everyone else). Like Freire, Kohn objects to definitions of a quality education that include "job skills, . . . test scores, . . . [and] memorization of a bunch o' facts". Kohn advocates an educational system that requires that students learn to explore, to think critically, and to identify and solve problems. These skills are necessary in order to grasp the reality in which one lives-in other words, to recognize when one is mired in an oppressive situation and to do something about it. Kohn may have given the most compelling reason of all for teaching young people to think critically. He relates that on September 11, 2001, people in the World Trade Center's south tower were told to "stay put" after the plane struck the building. Those who blindly did as they were told had little chance of survival. Those who thought for themselves had a greater chance to live, since many of them chose to evacuate the building. This is an extreme example of self-directed thinking, but is should make every American consider the less dramatic circumstances that call for critical, evaluative thought. Recognition of oppression, however subtle and disguised it may be, may not be a question of life or death, but it is certainly a question of quality of life. Freire and Kohn make strong cases that the school system in the United States is failing to provide students with the type of education they truly need-even as it does an excellent job of maintaining the status quo.

Works Cited

Freire, Paolo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Trans. Myra Bergman Ramos. 30th anniversary ed. New York: Continuum. Print.

Kohn, Alfie. What Does It Mean to Be Well Educated? And More Essays on Standards, Grading, and Other Follies. Boston: Beacon Press. Print.

Sample essay on the state of language acquisition research in terms of the types of evidence that are used to support theoretical positions.

The following brief paper is in response to the title essay question. In this paper, the state of language acquisition research will be assessed regarding the types of evidence studied and presented in modern research. This will pertain directly to how that evidence is used to support language acquisition theoretical models and positions. The main data set used for this brief report is Pub Med, an online research library of peer-reviewed scientific journals and articles supported by the U.S. National Institutes of Health.

Language Acquisition and Search Methodology

In the online webpage for Pub Med, the search terms "language", "acquisition", and "children" were typed in the search box. On the additional search features, the range was narrowed to "systematic reviews", "in the last five years", and "on humans". The search rubric of systematic reviews was chosen because this essay question is asking for an assessment of the state of language acquisition research on how children learn; systematic reviews are a specific type of scientific research that address these broad questions to both compile and assess the validity of research in a given area. The journal type that was indicated as a further search scope was MEDLINE.

In the search results, a total of 479 articles were returned. There appeared to be two main threads running through the totality of the articles returned; one was that of the how cognitive learning occurs for language acquisition among typically developing subjects, and the other thread related to alternative communication due to some pathology, such as deafness, autism, or some other problem delaying or blocking verbal language development (and hence acquisition).

Common theories running through the first thread were that children acquire language through data-driven learning (matching objects to symbols), that grammar acquisition is based on ease of learning, and that linguistic form acquired by the child is largely a product of culture, with the last point being that logic forms in solving language acquisition issues among children are not based on culture but on normally developing brains of human beings.

In the world of research regarding alternative communication in language acquisition, threads of evidence have emerged in identifying what the disorder is in order to tailor a language-communication program, how to treat a receptive or expressive language acquisition deficit, and that treatment strategies should be as eclectic and diverse as the presenting syndrome, condition, and even age of language onset.

In looking at the two main threads of typical and alternative language acquisition, it becomes clear that there is a gap in the research of how one sphere could positively influence the other. While typical versus alternative linguistic formation was found in the research, with differing theories of each, what was not clearly evident in the research was how the findings from typically developing children in language acquisition could inform the 'eclectic' approaches for those children with language acquisition difficulties and disorders.

Bibliography

Abbeduto, L., & Boudreau, D. Theoretical influences on research on language development and intervention in individuals with mental retardation. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews , 10 (3), 184-192.

Gillum, H., & Camarata, S. Importance of treatment efficacy research on language comprehension in MR/DD research. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews , 10 (3), 201-207.

Hsu, A., Chater, N., & Vitinyi, P. Language learning from positive evidence, reconsidered: a simplicity-based approach. Topics in Cognitive Science , 5 (1), 35-55.

Monfort, I., & Monfort, M. Clinical usefulness of the classifications of developmental language disorders. Revista de Neurologia , 54 (1), 147-154.

Perfors, A., Tenenbaum, J., & Regier, T The learnability of abstract syntactic principles. Cognition , 118 (3), 306-338.

Language is the heart of culture, and helps define who a people are and how they act. Indeed, language alters the way a person thinks, and influences their worldview. At the beginning of the fifteenth century, more than 15,000 languages were alive and well. However, because of wars, colonization, genocide, assimilation, and legal bans, 4,000 to 9,000 of those languages have disappeared. Unfortunately, when a language dies, so does its culture. According to Russ Rymer, approximately seven billion people inhibit the Earth, speaking about 7,000 different languages. However, the languages are not divided equally among speakers, and 78 percent of the people use 85 of the largest languages, such as Mandarin and English, while only 8.25 million speakers use 3,500 languages. "Thus, while English has 328 million first-language speakers, and Mandarin 845 million, Tuvan speakers in Russia number just 235,000".

Unfortunately, a hundred years from now, language diversity will be decreased, as the number of languages in the world will decline to a thousand or less. This paper will discuss how linguistic diversity is threatened by war, natural disasters, technology, and globalization, the importance of language diversity, and what is being done to preserve languages.

Linguistic Diversity

Language is an important component of culture, and symbolizes national and ethnic identity. In fact, language is the major medium that maintains and revitalizes a culture. Currently, approximately 4,000 to 7,000 languages still exists in the world today, which provides the globe with linguistic diversity. Harmon and Loh define linguistic diversity as "the number of languages and the evenness of distribution of mother-tongue speakers among languages in a given area". Unfortunately, globally, linguistic diversity decreased 20 percent between 1970 and 2005.

In fact, many languages are becoming extinct. According to Fromkin et al, a language is extinct when children do not learn it. "One language dies every 14 days. By the next century nearly half of the roughly 7,0000 languages spoken on Earth will likely disappear, as communities abandon native tongues in favor of English, Mandarin, or Spanish". In fact, numerous languages are perishing, quickly or slowly.

Unfortunately, languages become extinct through sudden language death, radical language death, gradual language death, or bottom-to-top language death. Sudden language death happens when all the people that speak the language die suddenly. Radical language death occurs when the people that speak the language radically stop speaking it. This generally occurs for political reasons, such as repression and genocide. Children that would normally learn the language are forced to speak another language, and the language dies. Gradual language death generally occurs with minority languages, and is the commonest death of a language. In areas where two or more languages are spoken, the dominant language takes precedent, and with each new generation, fewer children learn the minority language. Bottom-to-top language death describes a language that survives in specific circumstances. For instance, people quit speaking Latin centuries ago, but it continues to be used in religion and for academic purposes.

War and Colonization

Currently, war and colonization continue to be contributing factors to the decrease in language diversity. War usually results in displaced people, rise of new nations, and genocide, which often leads to sudden death, radical death, and gradual death language extinction.

In the past, war and colonization destroyed numerous languages. For instance, many Native American languages suffered sudden death as colonists moved west. "Such was the case with Tasmanian and Nicoleno, a Native American language once spoken in America". In 1860, the Russian Tsar conquered northern Caucasus, killing almost 50,000 of the speakers of Ubykh. In 1992, Tefvik Esenc, a Turkish farmer and last speaker of Ubykh, died, as did his mother tongue.

War and colonization have long term affects on language diversity. For instance, speakers of Ottawa, a Native American language in the Oklahoma area, face language extinction. In the past, members of the tribe were forced to speak English. In addition, although some members continued to speak their mother tongue, gradual language change has affected the outcome of the Ottawa language, and today, very few members of the tribes speak the Ottawa language. "If the few remaining speakers of Ottawa are still alive, there is a good chance that they are over age 70 and rarely travel outside of the community". In fact, numerous Native American languages have been lost or on the brink of extinction, and out of approximately 500 Native American languages spoken in 1600 fewer than 200 are still alive today.

War and colonization also creates new nations, which has an adverse affect on minority languages. For instance, the Russian Tsars conquered plenty of land, and to control the new nation, they banned several languages, including Ukrainian, Lithuanian, Georgian, Armenian, and Azerbaijani. Speakers of these languages were forced to use Russian instead of their mother tongue. During the Soviet Union era, speaking only the Russian language was strictly enforced, and as a result, 90 percent of the Russian population only speaks Russian, while approximately 100 other languages are on the brink of extinction.

In addition, colonization had a negative affect on Australian Aboriginal languages. Indeed, many aboriginal languages died as a result of colonization, and more are in danger. "About 90 percent of the country's 250 aboriginal languages are near extinction; only seven have more than 1,000 speakers and only two or three are likely to survive the next 50 years or so". Unfortunately, colonization had a long-term negative effect of the aboriginal languages of Australia, and today, these languages face extinction.

Furthermore, war creates waves of immigrants, who have to flee their country in order to survive. For instance, after the Vietnam War, numerous Vietnamese came to the United States. Although they brought their language with them, the second and third generations of the original immigrants usually assimilate the language of their new homeland. In the United States, President Roosevelt proposed that immigrants should be given 5 years to learn English. Most immigrants want to become Americanized, which includes learning English. "An important part of this process was the learning of English and, along with that, the loss of the immigrants' original language". In fact, children of first generation immigrants usually grow up in English speaking neighborhoods, and learn that English is the language of power and acceptance.

Worst of all, war often includes genocide and ethnocide. Genocide and ethnocide is the murder of an entire group of people. When all the speakers of a language are murdered, their language suffers sudden language death. For instance, near the end of the twentieth century the indigenous Akunstu tribe in Brazil was decimated by genocide. Unfortunately, genocide had a powerful detrimental affect on the Akunstu. "By 1995 only seven tribal members remained". Today, the Akunstu language is one of the most endangered languages in the world.

Natural Disasters

Languages can go extinct because of natural disasters, such as earthquakes, droughts, or floods. Unfortunately, most of the endangered languages are found in remote and inhospitable areas of the world. If a natural disaster, such as a hurricane or earthquake, destroys such an area, the odds increase that the language will die, because if all or most of the speakers of a language dies, so does the language.

For instance, an earthquake struck Papua, New Guinea on July 17, 1998, killing 2,200 people and displacing an additional 10,000 people. In addition, the earthquake decimated the villages of Sissano, Warapu, Arop and Malol. Unfortunately, the individuals that lived in these villages spoke four different endangered languages. "In 1990, Sissano had only 4,776 speakers; Maloi was estimated to have 3,330; Arop 1,700 in 1983. The totals for Arop and Warapu will have diminished by at least 500 speakers". In other words, the earthquake, a natural disaster, had a negative affect on four endangered languages.

Technology

Modern technological inventions, such as television, have brought foreign languages into the homes of billions of people. "The theme of technology is inescapable for anyone living today. Every day we are bombarded with messages from various technological innovations ranging from our telephones, to our computers, televisions, and fax machines". Indeed, cultures around the world are exposed to messages from other cultures willingly or unwillingly. Although the technology provides a flow from numerous directions, the main sources of information come from the United States utilizing the English language.

In fact, the power of American culture saturates film, television, and music around the world. Indeed, this culture dominates the world. "I have experienced the power of American culture wherever I have gone. Titantic, Friends, CNN, Oprah, and the Backstreet Boys have followed me to Japan, Korea, Thailand, Australia, France, and Italy". Because of the power of technology and American culture transmitted with modern technology, major languages, such as English, are replacing numerous languages around the world.

In addition, with the invention of computers, the Internet, cell phones, and smart phones, the way people communicate is changing. Indeed, images have become more powerful than words. "Not only is the world using fewer languages on a daily basis, but it is also using fewer words".

Furthermore, the Internet has led to texting, e-mailing and tweeting, new forms of electronic communication. However, texting and tweeting are extremely short and direct, and are affecting the way people communicate with each other. "Text messages are usually spontaneous, one-shot efforts, written with little or no revision, often in response to a previous communication". Tweets are short text messages, comprised of less than 140 characters, which restricts linguistic complexity. As people become more dependent on Internet communications, especially tweeting and texting, they are using fewer words to communicate with.

Some scientists are concerned that with the use of fewer words due to electronic communication and visual imagery, mankind will begin to loose their capacity for language. "As the world recedes from the written word and becomes inundated with multisensory stimuli (images, sound, touch, taste, and smell), the part of the human brain associated with language will regress". Unfortunately, the area of the brain responsible for language is also associated with analysis and critical thinking.

Globalization

With advances in technology, the world has become globalized. "Modern technology in the last 25 years-from the Boeing 747 to the world wide web-has made our globe seem a much smaller place". Globalization has an impact on language, and today, the entire world's speech has become more homogenized. "The 15 most common languages are now on the lips of half the world's people; the top 100 languages are used by 90 percent of humanity". Indeed, a lot of the Earth's language diversity is found in a few regions that are rich in biodiversity but difficult to access geographically. However, with globalization, these areas are being accessed.

Globalization impacts economies, politics, and communications. "In an increasingly globalized, connected, homogenized age, languages spoken in remote places are no longer protected by national borders or natural boundaries from the languages that dominate world communication and commerce". For instance, the Republic of Tuva, a small country in the Russian Federation, the people live between the frontiers of progress and tradition. Most Tuvans speak Tuva, a small language only spoken by approximately 235,000 people. Tuvans also speak Russian, and today, many Tuvans are also adding English to their language repertoire, because they want their children to be successful in the globalized world. "Parents in tribal villages often encourage their children to move away from the insular language of their forebears and toward languages that will permit greater education and success". In other words, English has become the language that equates to education and economical success, because speakers of smaller languages adopt the majority language to ensure that their children will be successful.

In addition, globalization has made it possible for people in one culture to visit another culture for vacation purposes. However, tourists have an impact on language. Today, tourists can board an airplane and visit another country on the other side of the globe within a short 24-hour time span. This provides people with the opportunity to experience different cultures. Unfortunately, the tourist trade has an impact on the culture being visited. For instance, the Mosuo people live on the border of Sichuan in China. They have maintained their language and their culture for thousands of years. They withstood the Hans, the Mongols, and the Communists. Unfortunately, Lugu Lake, home of the Mosuo, has become a hot spot tourist attraction, and the Mosuo's language and culture is being threatened by another surge of people-tourists. "To some degree, this added exposure threatens to envelop the Mosuo in a society that is becoming increasingly homogeneous" . According to Ge Ze A Che, a Mosuo village leader, tourism has already changed the lives of the villagers. For instance, young Mosuo now don Han clothes, speak Chinese, and sing Chinese lyrics.

Globalization has also impacted remote communities as corporations go to the area in search of natural resources, such as wood. For instance, in the rain forests of the Amazon, numerous languages are on the verge of extinction. "About 80 percent of South America's native languages are spoken by under 10,000 people and 27 percent are approaching extinction". Indeed, in Brazil, 42 languages have already died, and Portuguese is replacing many of the remaining languages as tribes are forced from their homes, and move into areas where they have to assimilate the majority language in order to survive.

Preservation of Endangered Languages

Linguists and people interested in the preservation of languages are making efforts to stop the extinction of languages. The preservation of endangered language is important because the loss of languages equates to the loss of various cultures and cultural domination. "With the disappearance of each language, a measure of humankind's richly varied cultural heritage, including countless insights on life, is lost". Language, the beat of culture, is the blood of a person's cultural and ethnic identity.

Indeed, members of minority cultures often feel that their way of life is being threatened. Unfortunately, cultural domination also leads to class disparities, and the loss of cultural identity. "For many ethnic minorities, efforts to counter the threat of linguistic extinction or to resurrect already extinct languages form part of their struggle to maintain their sense of cultural identity and dignity". In addition, preserving their language is a way to protect their communities from cultural domination and class disparities.

In order to ensure that the world maintains a rich diversity of cultures, languages need to be preserved. Indeed, the preservation of languages is good for the welfare of humanity. Preserving languages is a means to better understand other cultures, and to ensure that these cultures survive. Language, the heart of culture, is also a window to understanding people who aren't exactly like us.

Language clubs, members of endangered language communities, some governments, and the United Nations are fighting for the survival of languages on the brink of dying. For instance, when the Northern Ute tribe realized that many members of their community could not speak Ute, they leaders of the community banded together to save their language. In fact, they created a Ute language renewal program and established a Ute language curriculum in the schools. "Today, Ute language and culture instruction is part of the curriculum in a tribally operated high school, and community programs have been established to build language awareness and literacy". In addition, the United Nations passed a resolution to promote and preserve endangered and dying languages. In Canada, the government has made efforts to preserve French in Quebec. In addition, in the United States, Native American communities are attempting to preserve their languages by organizing and resisting assimilation.

Creating linguistic documentation, such as orthographies, dictionaries, and language-learning materials, preserves endangered languages. In addition, promoting positive attitudes about endangered languages, creating linguistic programs, and advocating for linguistic policies are methods to slow down and halt the extinction of endangered languages.

Conclusion

Although the world is comprised of numerous cultures and approximately four to seven thousand languages, many languages face extinction. A language dies when children no longer learn or utilize it. Language, the heart of culture and the main medium of expressing culture, is vital to the survival of culture. Unfortunately, language diversity has decreased over the years, and today, minority languages are endangered because of the affects of war, natural disasters, colonization, technology, and globalization. Fortunately, linguists and other interested individuals are fighting for the survival of endangered languages.

References

Baines, Lawrence. A Future of Fewer Words? Futurist, 46(2), 42.

Crystal, David. Death Sentence. The Guardian.

Fernando, Chrisantha with Riita-liisa Valijarvi and Richard A. Goldstein. A Model of the Mechanisms of Language Extinction and Revitalization Strategies to Save Endangered Languages. Human Biology, 82(1), 47-75.

Fromkin, Victoria with Robert Rodman and Nina Hyams and Kirsten Hummel. An Introduction to Language. Canada: Nelson Education.

Harmon, David with Jonathan Loh: The index of linguistic diversity: an overview of a new measure of trends in the world's languages. Index of Linguistic Diversity.

Haviland, William with Harald Prins and Dana Walrath and Bunny McBride. Cultural Anthropology: The Human Connection. Belmont: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.

Hickerson, Nancy P. Linguistic Anthropology. Canada: Nelson Education.

Hoffmann, Maureen. Endangered Languages, Linguistics, and Culture: Researching and Reviving the Unami Laguage of the Lenape.

Rymer, Russ. Vanishing Languages. National Geographic.

Sampat, Payal. Last words: The dying of languages. World Watch Magazine. 14(3).

Samovar, Larry A. with Richard E. Porter and Edwin R. McDaniel. Communication Between Cultures. California: Thomson Wadsworth.

Yuan, LuMitchell, S. Land of the Walking Marriage. Natural History, 109(9), 58.

Long Island University, Brooklyn Campus - Research

Table of Contents

- Purpose of Report
- Background of Problem
- Research Methods and Results
- Conclusions and Recommendations
- Useful Resources
- Work Cited
- Appendix

Summary

According to its mission statement, one of the goals of Long Island University's Brooklyn campus library is "to maintain a welcoming environment which is safe, attractive, and reliable for library users and staff." While there is a need to ensure adequate access to book collections, online services, and on-campus research databases, there is also a need to make the library an inspiring, welcoming, and attractive place for students who wish to study there. The reality is that in order for students to study for long periods in a particular environment they need to be made comfortable. Hence, this requires a more comfortable and adaptable library furniture set.

Based on some recent surveys which were taken of students who generally use the library, it was found that students feel more comfortable to study in environments that are attractive to the eye, and that are relaxing enough that they may study with their utmost concentration. Many students claim that the library bears an outdated look and that it needs to be more innovative in order for it to be a study center for others.

It is no secret that our library needs some major renovations. The old wooden cubicles and tables, which bear the engraved or penned signatures and 'artworks' of former and present students, gives the library an unpleasant and outdated look. At a time when students are paying more than ever to finance their education, it is important that the school seek to make its atmosphere not simply inviting, but comfortable and beautiful as well (we are, by nature, attracted to beautiful things). To do this, would require the school to enhance the furniture setting of the library, making it more appealing to the eyes. This report will first highlight the condition of L.I.U.'s library as it stands today, and then the need for renovating it. It will lastly include a few useful resources (websites).

Background to Library Problem

Comfortablility is a necessary factor to consider in terms of understanding why enough students are not taking advantage of one of the most important and useful academic centers of the school. While the library provides a variety of computing and research tools to assist students on campus, it does not seem to provide a comfort zone for students who simply wish to use the library to do their homework in. At Long Island University, it is a common thing to find students studying outside of the library. Often you will find them studying in empty classrooms, in the main lobby of the Health Science building, Quizznos, or even on the sofas out in the hallways. One contributor for students choosing to study outside the library rather than inside is the discomfort of physical space and design. After a long day of classes, most students would like to 'crash' in a quiet and comfy library.

Problem

The problem with Long Island University's library is that it does not offer the option of studying in a comfy and spacious area. Moreover, since the library seems to be clustered with cubicles and tables it does not provide the privacy that students need for quiet study. While arrangements should not be made to accommodate the likes and dislikes of individual students, "to maximize patrons' comfort... a variety of seating including tables, carrels, and lounge seating, depending on the library's purpose" should be made. Having a variety of tables and chairs, uniquely arranged to provide space where needed, in addition to the colors and quality of the furniture, will help to make the library an inviting place for students.

Analysis

One thing that is noticeably different between Long Island University's Brooklyn campus library and other libraries, namely Brooklyn College, is the lack of accessibility to laptop workplaces. Although some of the L.I.U's library cubicles feature plug-ins for which one may plug in their laptop, most of them do not work. Investing in carrels equipped with proper electrical and internet wiring would give students the comfortability and space that they need while doing independent study or research. The unique thing about carrels is that they provide larger work places than most cubicles. On my last visit to Brooklyn College's library, I noticed that carrels were set alongside the walls of the 2nd and 3rd floors of the library, leaving easy access to the book shelves which were placed in the back. The carrels were used for independent studies while the tables were used for both independent and group studies. In addition to the placements of tables, chairs, and carrels, I noticed that the polished wooden tables and chairs were nicely matched with the beige colored walls. Furthermore, the burgundy couches situated throughout the library matched well with the burgundy carpet. The polished wooden furniture in contrast to the burgundy couches and white walls, seem to give the library a very vibrant and modern look. Hence, simply investing in carrels, and new tables and chairs, is not the key to an attractive and comfortable library. The new library furniture has to be vibrant in color, modern in look, and comfy. My research points out that students favor a library consisting not simply of a variety of academic resources, but one that has "comfortable chairs and couches, large study tables and more color and design of furniture to add to the look of the library." A sense of the problem which L.I.U's library faces can be better understood through my research.

Research Methods and Results

While my research is heavily based on the opinions of students, it is important to remember that students make up the core of the school. If the school fails to serve the students as it has promised it loses its reputation as a school that cares about and supports each and every member.

In order to gather information for this research, I took pictures of L.I.U's Brooklyn Campus library and that of Brooklyn College (to see pictures, refer to the last page). These pictures helped to illustrate the difference between both school, but mainly the work that L.I.U needs to do in order to have a library that is attractive to students. In addition, I also took both formal and informal surveys of students who generally use the library. I began the survey with general questions about the library, mainly questions which referred to the overall function of the library as a whole (these questions can be found in the appendix). My questions then became more specific, focusing on the aesthetics of the library, and comfortability.

The following are statements taken from three students concerning L.I.U's library:

Aggee Moncher, a third year student at Long Island University, described the furniture setting of the library as being "not attractive at all. I think they [the furniture] definitely need to be replaced. They're old, and sometimes you find bugs on them, says Moncher."

Stephanie Isidore, a fourth year student, agreed that the library needed to be improved in certain areas. "About the couches, I can say that they have too much gunk and bacteria. It doesn't feel comfortable...After 3 hrs of class it would be nice to sit on some comfortable couches," says Isidore.

Another student, Collete, a second year student, stated that while she often uses the library she wished that it could be "upgraded" in some way. "I do think the library would look much better if there were more colors added, and new furniture. The tables and chairs are real old and dirty... Maybe they could rearrange the tables and chairs so that things wouldn't feel so bunched up in there," says Collete.

From these statements, we see that there is a general discomfort with the way the library presently looks. Students desire and need a library with a comfortable studying atmosphere. They need a library that is inspiring, welcoming, and attractive. Therefore, renovating the library seems like something that will attract more students to the library.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Long Island University's library is no form of way obligated to accommodate to the likes and dislikes of individual students. However, as a library which has promised to maintain a safe, welcoming, and attractive environment for its users and staff, it seems only right that the library be redesigned in such a way that school members feel comfortable with it. As stated earlier, one way in which the library may enhance their furniture settings is by investing in a variety of seating including tables, carrels, and lounge seating,. Having a variety of tables and chairs, uniquely arranged to provide space where needed, in addition to the colors and quality of the furniture, will help to make the library an inviting place for students. An estimated figure for this kind of renovation would probably fall in a range from $100, 000 to $200,000. However, while the cost of renovating the library may seem relatively high, the result of taking the initiative to spend on such a cause will surely help to create a better name for the school. It will also help for students, as well as faculty/staff members, to gain more confidence and respect for their school. This problem can be realistically solved only if the campus is willing to spend money on needed resources. If the school will recognize the improvement that such a simple renovation of the library might have on students, then they will also be able to see how the renovation of the library might help promote the school for its dedication to higher learning. I have listed on the following page a few websites of library furniture sets at reasonably low prices.

I look forward to your approval so that we may proceed to solve this problem.

Works Cited

Mohanty, Suchi. "Physical Comfort in Library Study Environments: Observations in Three Undergraduate Settings."

Wang, I. "Vision Statement: Mission Statement."

Appendix (copy of survey)

Research Questions:

- What can L.I.U do to better improve their library?

- If there was one thing that you would like to see updated in the library, what would it be?

- What affect does the library's setting (or look) have on you wanting to study there? Do you think that other students feel the same?

- What affect will a change in the library's appeal have on students wishing to study on campus rather than at some other location?
How will this change help to promote L.I.U in a better/positive light?

- Do you feel like L.I.U would make a wise financial move in improving the aesthetic features of the library? What affect would a renovation of the library have on students?

- What do you think about L.I.U's library furniture setting? Do you find them comfortable? Does it feel/look outdated?

- Would adding color to the library's furniture set give the library a more inviting, attractive, and modern look?

- What observations have you made between the library furniture set at L.I.U and other libraries?

Interesting Research Science

Science is the practical and intellectual activity, which encompasses the methodical study of the behavior and structure of the natural and physical world through experiment and observation. Science involves the concerted effort by human beings in trying to comprehend fully the natural world's history as well as how the natural world operates. This is done through experimental science and observational science. Scientists are professionals in science who perform various experiments through collection of information in order to test news ideas and disprove old ones. It is paramount to note that scientists become very famous when they discover new things, which change how human beings perceive nature.

A scientific discovery to a scientist is off paramount importance to them since they draw a lot of inspiration to continue with their careers. There are other numerous scientists who are employed by various corporations in order to generate new knowledge concerning a certain chemical, which can be utilized to produce a particular product. However, such scientists have to work in obscurity since the knowledge, which they generate, is mostly kept as a secret for later development of new technologies or products by their employers.

Background of the Research Problem

Recent research by authoritative scholars has shown that numerous students consider science as a complex and difficult subject and this affects their choice in choosing science as a career. This perception by the students has affected their individual performance where many of them are dropping this noble subject yet it is very vital to humanity because of its valuable discoveries. This is a very worrying trend since the world depends on the numerous discoveries by the scientists in order to come up with latest innovations.

Students should be encouraged to study science since it is among the noble careers in the world with numerous professional courses that are well paying. This is the major why this study is significant since it researches on how science can be made more interesting. There are various methods that have been mentioned in this study and the literature review shows other studies that were previously conducted by notable scholars who were also worried by this astonishing trend. Science needs to be more interesting to the students and they should be motivated in order to pursue this important course.

Statement of the Problem

Main Research Question

Is it possible for science to be made interesting?

This study was conducted by use of an independent variable whereby the sample was fully aware of their expectations in this research. The sample consisted of students that were picked randomly and they were all taken for classes prior to this study in order to ensure that they gave valuable information that was useful in the study. This also reduced the risks significantly.

Review of Literature

There are various reasons why science is done and it includes the societal perspective and the individual perspective. In the field of scientists, there are numerous professions such as earth scientists, geneticists, chemists, botanists, and physicians. Each of these scientists has a certain career path, which they follow, and this is mainly their specialization. It is paramount to note that science is a noble profession, which is highly paid. Nevertheless, there is a great perception among many students that science is a very difficult subject and this makes few students to pursue this valuable career. However, there are numerous methods, which can be applied in order to make science more interesting. Since science is all about exploring the natural world, it should be done in very simplified ways so that they students can have the urge to pursue various discoveries, which can be beneficial to humanity (Tobin, Elmesky & Seiler).

All that they students require is to be challenged to discover the natural world through these discoveries and this will ensure that they gather interest. The government mostly funds Science and various well-wishers since the discoveries bring many changes to humanity. There is need to continue funding science activities and the students can be offered various initiatives such as small paychecks so that they can have an interest in science. There are also corporations who organize numerous science forums, which are beneficial to the students. Such forums offer prizes for the best discoveries, which are done by the students. Such forums ensure that science is turned into a more interesting subject for the students (National Research Council (U.S.). Bell).

It is paramount to note that when students learn science, they attain the great opportunity of learning how the natural world operates; they are able to experiment with various volatile chemicals as well as explore high-interest science topics. Another noble method that can be used to make science more interesting includes integration of multimedia into the science lectures. The utilization of multimedia tools assists the students to picture described processes and events. Such tools include interactive diagrams and videos and this offers hands-on experimentation opportunities. The students should be allowed to figure out individually through conducting an experiment (Fenichel, Schweingruber & National Research Council (U.S.)).

Another method of making science more interesting is through a fun and creative environment for the students so that they can explore the great natures of the natural world. Science does not need to be a serious undertaking for the students since this limits their innovations and it does not allow the students to be more open. A fun and creative environment ensures that the students are more open-minded where they can explore their talents as well as learn many things in the world of science. Science is a very interesting subject when they students are allowed to perform experiments and observations on their own since this expands their minds greatly. The material to be utilized in the science lessons must be easily accessible and comprehendible for the students so that they can know exactly what they are supposed to do. There are instances where the materials used in science lessons are very complex especially when they involve jargons and chemical formulas, which can be very confusing for the students. This makes the students not to understand them and it gives them the notion that science is a complicated subject, which should not be the case (Tobin, Elmesky & Seiler).

Recent research by authoritative scholars has conclusively shown that another method of making science more interesting involves inviting a group of noble scientists in science forums where they offer their expertise and talks to the students. This method ensures that they students get the required expertise as well as motivation to pursue science courses since they have the group of scientists as their mentors. This also ensures that the students have a forum where they can ask questions about science and this makes such forums very interesting. This type of teaching proved to more exciting because of the new approach of tackling the science subject and many of the students got more interested in the subject. This mode of teaching proved very productive since the students were able to exchange contacts with these scientists and they could get advice on how to conduct various discoveries, which in turn increased the student's interest in science. Students should also be allowed to engage in skill-building games in order to ensure that they practice what they have learnt in their lessons.

Another noble method of making science more interesting involves conducting a question and answer sessions for the students where they are picked in random so that they can be the lecturers where they take the class through the previously learnt lessons. This method ensures that students gain the required interest and they are properly prepared for such sessions since any of them can be picked. Such sessions are very interesting to the students since they feel in control of the lessons especially when they are the lecturers and they feel challenged of not being able to conduct these classes. This model of teaching also ensures that those students who have less interest in science up their games so that they do not feel embarrassed in front of their colleagues. This also assists the students to understand better the science subject since they have to learn the previous lessons effectively. Students can ask questions to their fellow classmates if they did not understand. The lecturer can also reward those students who perform exemplary so that it can act as an incentive for the students to perform better.

The use of information technology is yet another method in making science more interesting. The world is gradually turning into a global village because of the humongous changes that are taking place due to information technology. Majority of the students are nowadays techno-savvy where they are bale to access many scientific materials through the internet. The use of information technology creates a lot of interest in the students when studying science since it enables them to access vital information on what they are researching. This information can be very useful in their science studies because there is a lot to be learnt online. Students are also able to access other scientific findings with a click of the button and there are many scientists, who offer free advice on any scientific subject, which interests the students. Latest scientific discoveries can also be found online and this keeps the students abreast with the latest in the science world (Fenichel, Schweingruber & National Research Council (U.S.)).

Statement of Hypothesis and Operational Definitions

This explored on the question on what methods can be applied appropriately in order to make science more interesting for the students. There has been a negative perception by majority of the students that science is a complex and boring subject and this should not be the case since it is among the paramount studies in the world. This study was a descriptive and quantitative research study that was conducted in order to determine what measures could be taken in ensuring that science is an interesting subject to the various students. It is paramount to note that students can be motivated into learning science through the numerous methods that this study has fully expounded about in the literature review. Additionally, the following hypothesis was put forward:

Hypothesis : Science can be made more interesting to the students

Study Methodology and Results

A well-structured questionnaire was developed in the determination of whether science can be made more interesting for the students. The instrument that was used in this noble study was from a previous study conducted by authoritative scholars who had conducted such a study recently. However, this instrument was modified effectively in order to suit the key objectives of this valuable study. The questionnaires were presented to various students in different schools and they were educated on the major purposes of this study. They were also informed that all the information that they were going to provide would be confidential. They were also informed not to give their names so that they could open up in this study and this would provide them with an opportunity to give positive and honest feedback. All questions were effectively structured based on a 5-point Likert scale, which allowed ready quantification of the various outcomes. To be specific, the respondents who were students were asked:

1. What are our views concerning science?

2. Is science a complex and boring subject?

3. What can be done to make science more interesting?

4. Having given our ideas on what can be done to make science more interesting, would u pursue science if those points were implemented?

5. What is the future of science?

A survey of 160 participants was carried out by use of a stratified sampling technique in order to ensure inclusion of all the students in the various schools. Stratification was performed based on the school's localities where forty respondents were drawn for each locality by use of random sampling. The variables were independent since they had the freedom to give their feedback. The sample was selected from each school in each locality that involved four localities which forty respondents or students from each locality. This sample was chosen since it was the best sample for the study since it consisted of students undertaking various courses at the colleges and universities that took part in this study. This was also the best for this study is it had a firsthand experience with science and their views were indeed considered as being valuable for this research proposal.

The research was a quantitative research and the model that was utilized for this research was a true experiment. Well-structured questionnaires were used and the students were asked he five questions as already mentioned in this study. The student sample was initially taken through a class that outlined this the objectives of this study and what was expected of them. This was paramount since majority of the students had shown signs of not co-operating in this noble study. This was notable at the initial stages through observation of the sample. However, this risk was mitigated through the classes, they students were able to comprehend on the numerous objectives of this study, and they all agreed to co-operate.

This study was undertaken over a period of three months so that conclusive information was attainable over such a long duration. The were various limitations which included funding challenges prior to this study, lack of co-operation from the school authorities that took part in this study as well as lack of co-operation from various students before the study. The research design was conducted in such a way that various risks regarding controls were undertaken in order to reduce significantly the threats to validity of information. Examples of these controls included conducting awareness classes to the sample that was to take part in this study as well as holding various forums with the school authorities so that they knew exactly what the study was supposed to achieve. Challenges about funding were handled effectively by the various sponsors that had agreed to fund this study. Measuring of the outcomes was made possible after the research team as well as the utilization of outsourcing a research company that deals with such studies analyzed all the information contained in the questionnaires. The results were compared and a conclusive and well-expounded report was written.

Findings

The research was able to conclude that the already mentioned methods in this study can be utilized to make science a very interesting subject whereby the students can fully enjoy and be able to comprehend the natural world. The research hypothesis was correct in regards to this study. The sample was able to shown how correct the hypothesis was in this study. The utilization of the various methods mentioned in this study will ensure that students gain a lot of interest in studying science. It will also be very helpful to the various teachers who are tasked with teaching science.

Conclusions

The noble study of science is the practical and intellectual activity, which encompasses the methodical study of the behavior and structure of the natural and physical world through experiment and observation. The study of science involves the concerted effort by human beings in trying to comprehend fully the natural world's history as well as how the natural world operates. This is done through experimental science and observational science. Scientists are professionals in science who perform various experiments through collection of information in order to test news ideas and disprove old ones. It is paramount to note that scientists become very famous when they discover new things, which change how human beings perceive nature. It is therefore paramount that students are offered the necessary motivation in order pursue this noble course. Science ensures that the world is abreast with latest innovation and that discoveries are made in order for the betterment of humanity. This study is very vital in ensuring that students are effectively motivated by the numerous methods that have been mentioned herein. This study is very important to the lectures who are involved in teaching science since they can utilize these valuable methods in their teaching classes. Previous studies have also been conducted previously and their conclusions are similar to this study.

References

Fenichel, M., Schweingruber, H. A., & National Research Council (U.S.). Surrounded by science: Learning science in informal environments. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Gollub, J. P. Learning and understanding: Improving advanced study of mathematics and science in U.S. high schools. Washington, DC [.a.: National Academy Press.

National Research Council (U.S.)., & Bell, P. Learning science in informal environments: People, places, and pursuits. Washington, D.C: National Academies Press.

Tobin, K. G., Elmesky, R., & Seiler, G. Improving urban science education: New roles for teachers, students, and researchers. Lanham, Mar: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

How does conceptual framework for teaching technical writing using 3D virtual reality technology simulate contextual learning environment for technical learners?

Technology has dramatically changed in the past decade. Technology has evolved and computer graphics have change how we view images. Advances in technology have helped to create virtual realities and world where people have become highly interactive. Virtual reality has branched out into the style of 3-D technology. The technology has become an innovative method in which is being implemented into an interactive learning environment. Within the past decade the use of 3-D virtual reality has been at the forefront of higher education. It has become increasingly popular, as it allows for new ways to get across to students. Through much debate on the effects of 3D virtual reality technology as a contextual learning tool has begged the question; how does conceptual framework for teaching technical writing using 3D virtual reality technology simulate contextual learning environment for technical learners? Within this research paper we will explore the emerging technology, by first breaking down the question to define what is 3D virtual reality, how can be used in learning environments, and what is the conceptual framework for teaching technical writing using 3D virtual reality.

Virtual Reality

Technology has always been used as a pervasive method that effects the way in which people conduct business, socialize, communicate, and how other industries operate. Technology has changed dramatically and has develop new ways in which the users can immerse themselves into the technologies. The booming industry of the computer and video games consoles has allowed for open sourced opportunities that have shifted the interest into the educational values of immersive technologies. Those in the education field have taken notice to the immersive technology, such as the virtual reality applications that have been used to teach conceptual relationships of engaging abstract. Virtual reality has allowed the educational capabilities of providing students with an engaging format in various learning activities. Virtual reality helps to create simulated environments, various scenario dimensions, and various pitfalls as they learn.

Since the emergence of virtual space in the 1980s virtual space has transition from just being viewed as computer information technology used in communication to the personal computer that has made virtual space readily accessible in schools, workplaces, and homes. (Skold) Virtual reality has evolved in the past two decades. Technology has helped to change people's perception of the world around them by enabling users to create new worlds, environments, and new life. Applications such as Farmville, World of Warcraft, and Second Life, has helped to transpose 3D virtual reality. This technology opens up the door for them to transverse and explore new depths that they would probably never experience in reality. Virtual reality is a creative environment in which is computer simulated to transcend past geographic and social barriers. Defined as, a highly interactive, computer based multimedia environment." (Kim, Park, Yuk)

Virtual realities are not all imagery and in most cases they are replications of real life fixtures. They are three dimension visual experiences that are allow users to interact through a first person experience or through a third person role. The 3D technology replicates the exact dimensions of a person, cities, worlds, etc. The 3D technology has emerged in the markets for television, video games, movies, cameras, and other simulations. Virtual reality creates worlds where they are characteristically made up of user created content, social space shared with others, graphical user interface, and virtual space experienced in several user modes. Virtual reality today s initiated by HMD technology that is more sophisticated that offers convincing illusion to a full scaled virtual world. This technology now includes; "3D head-gear with stereoscopic vision for look around and walk through, auditory input, voice activation, data gloves and other tactile or haptic tools for manipulation and control of virtual objects, and even body suits wired with biosensors for advanced sensory input and feedback (Ausburn & Ausburn; Beier; Shneiderman)" (Ausburn & Ausburn). 3D virtual reality technology has advanced with newer computer graphics systems that are used throughout the entertainment industry in computer and video games, newer virtual reality modeling language that has made desktop virtual reality possible. Virtual reality was created initially as a form of entertainment and for application for medical and other industries. Used in the medial industry as an aid to visualize medial procedures, specialized in the army for flight simulations, used throughout the business world for graphs and chart simulations, and used heavily by architects. It has already used as a teaching mechanisms where simulations have been utilized to help train individuals.

According to reports:

Virtual worlds offer an opportunity for people to interact in a way that conveys a sense of presence lacking in other media. These spaces can be huge, in terms of the number of people that use them, and they are growing in popularity because they combine many of the elements that make Web 2.0 really exciting: social networking; the ability to share rich media seamlessly; the ability to connect with friends; a feeling of presence; and a connection to the community. (Stones: NMC, p. 18).

3D Virtual Reality has begun to be used frequently in the educational environment where educators have become to use as educational tools. 3D virtual worlds are not only increasingly being implemented in corporate settings but also in instructional spaces utilized for teachers throughout the academic environment. (Kluge and Riley)

Virtual Learning Environments

In the education field instructors have used a variety of methods and tools that were available for educational technologies. These technologies include, Web 2.0 technologies, learning management systems, web conferencing software, and 3D virtual worlds. Recently there has been an emergence in the academia filed that is turning to 3D virtual learning environments in order to continue the process of enhancing peoples' education to improve their learning. According to Kluge & Riley, 3D virtual worlds allow for potential immersive and authentic learning experiences in socially situated context. (Kluge & Riley) There are several advantages to using virtual reality in the education realm, it is highly customizable, suitable for distant learning, greater potential for collaboration, various communicative models, and non-verbal communication. Virtual worlds (VWs) use for teaching and learning in higher education have been increasingly popular within the last several years. (Ascilite) The virtual learning environment (VLE) is new to the academic world. Experience in technology that helps to create simulations, 3D virtual realties have allowed users to go beyond borders. In the educational context it allows instructors to customer virtual realities to be suited for specific learning activities, and various educational contexts such as; math, dream, medical and health, children with disabilities, psychiatry, art, and other contexts.

Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) can be defined as, "an environment that 'capitalizes upon natural aspects of human perception by extending visual information in three spatial dimensions, may supplement this information with other stimuli and temporal changes and enables the user to interact with the displayed data (Wann & Mon-Williams, p. 833)" (Dalgarno, Lee). The purpose of the virtual learning environment is designed to be used as an information, social, and educational space that can provide educational interactions in an environment equipped to explicitly represent spaces that can vary from 3D to text immersive worlds. Different students can be not only active in their interactive spaces but actors as they help to co-construct their virtual spaces. The Virtual Learning Environments are not only for restricted for distance education but for adult learnings, foreign education, ESL, and enriching the classrooms. Virtual learning environments have the ability to integrate not only multiple pedagogical approaches but heterogeneous technologies, which can overlap with physical environments.

Conceptual Framework

When educators choose to utilize 3D virtual reality technology, it can be used for various educational contexts such as technical writing. 3D virtual reality can be used to simulate contextual learning environments for technical writers due to its customizable and endless possibilities. The conceptual framework is formulated by understanding the needs of students today, how they learn best, and the potential for 3D virtual reality technology in higher education to teach technical writing to technical learners. In teaching technical writing there are several approaches that can be taken to accomplish the goals for students that include; use collaborative technology daily as mechanism, and create a system of assignments that would help to develop the student's intellect and creative skills used for technical writing. Exploratory research can be utilized when compiling past case studies and research to measure the success of virtual learning environments using 3D virtual reality technologies. Conceptual framework can be used in underlying the past research study in testing learning theories, answering hypothesizes, and formulating a plan to be utilized in technical learning education. According to McGaghie, Bordage, Shea, "Frameworks are usually more elaborate and detailed when the topics that are being studied have long scholarly histories (e.g., cognition, psychometrics) where active researchers traditionally embed their empirical work in well-established theories (McGaghie, Bordage, Shea). The response based model helps to provide a framework that specifically assess the problem of teaching to technical writers, and is useful for instructors that are teaching using 3D virtual reality technology. According to Mahmood, 3D virtual reality technology can be utilized as a virtual environment platform is proposed in order to provide the technical learners the opportunity to acquire the adequate communication skills that can be used in their correct jobs. (Mahmood) His research was proposed the conceptual framework to use a virtual environment with real-world dynamic contents used in education. The offshore platform is the proposed conceptual framework that will provide the use of integrative visuals, auditory, and haptics aspects in the virtual environment.

Technical writing is an increasingly important aspect of the 21st century. It is a skill that is used, "as a vehicle for empowerment I our multinational, multicultural, mutlilinguistic global culture" (Eliot). Technical writing is a complex, and instruction from the teacher needs to use auditory, complex print, and visual processes. In order to technical writers to fully comprehend the lesson, what is best used is an assessment-driven instructional model that improves the instructional processes of technical writing. With the combination of emerging technology such as 3D virtual reality, it can be used to simulate contextual learning environment in an offshore platform for technical learners. The conceptual framework can be utilized in attempt for instructors and those in the educational field to review past research and case studies such as research from Mahmood, as a guideline in teaching technical writing to technical learners. Advances in technology have help to change the way in which people and industries interact and operate. In the education field, technology has helped to create immersive technology that enhances the learner's ability to learn complicated and complex education contexts through the academia field.

References

Ascilite. How are Australian higher education institutions contributing to change through innovative teaching and learning in virtual worlds? Ascilite.

Ausburn, Lynna J., Ausburn, Floyd B. Desktop Virtual Reality: A Powerful New Technology for Teaching and Research in Industrial Teacher Education. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education.

Delgano, Barney, Lee, Mark J.W. What are the learning affordances of 3-D virtual environments? British Journal of Educational Technology. Vol 14. No1.

Eliot, Norbert, Johnson, Carol Siri. Undergraduate Technical Writing Assessment: A Model. New Jersey Institute of Technology.

Kluge, S., & Riley, L. Teaching in virtual worlds: Opportunities and challenges.
Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 5, 127-135.

Mahmood, A.K, S.Md., Nordin and S., Sulaiman and D.R.A., Rambli and W.F.W., Ahmad. A conceptual framework for teaching technical writing using 3D virtual reality technology. International Symposium on Information Technology.

MacGaghie, William C, Boradage Georges, Shea, Judy. Problem Statement, Conceptual Framework, and Research Question. Academic Medicine. Vol 76. Issue 9.

NMC.The Horizon Report: A collaboration between the new media consortium and
The EDUCAUSE learning initiative.

Skold, Olle. The Effects of Virtual Space on Learning: A Literature Review. First Monday. Volume 17. No 1.

Stone, Sophia Jeffries. Instructors' Perceptions of Three-Dimensional (3D) Virtual Worlds: Instructional Use, Implementation and Benefits for Adult Learners. NCSU.

Can Free University Education Ever Happen?

Introduction

As tourists depart London each September, they are rapidly replaced by a tidal wave of some half-million students, two-thirds of which are full-time and a fifth of them foreign. This nomadic, pub-congesting, mostly proletariat mass is electrified, enthusiastic, vulnerable and bewildered. The collective, silent message among the city's residents could easily be summed up as: Brace yourselves, Londoners...back they come...

Having migrated to the city for an education, some get the finest. Many receive little or no tuition and end up procuring a degree and enjoy a good time or struggle through a miserable one, according to happenstance. What benefits does this horde bring to London? Consider that higher education is big London business. London has long been a place of intellectual and emotional asylum. In addition, the city's hospitality to thousands of migrant scholars ensures that it remains the most popular student city in the world, albeit being big, anonymous and superficially expensive. Pubs, cafes and bed-and-breakfasts in student quarters depend heavily on this inflow. Notably, young people unable to find housing in halls of residence now underpin the private rental market.

So the quintessential question debated for nearly the past five decades has become: Who should pay for these students' educations?

Tuition-Free Initiatives History

1960's

The Soviet's launch of the first Earth satellite, Sputnik 1, astonished the world and ushered in an entirely new age of escalating technological advancement. It can be argued that it also motivated additional educational spending on both sides of the Atlantic. In Britain there were also concerns about poor economic performance and both factors were foundational in the appointment of the Robbins Committee in February, 1961, that ultimately introduced a system of a mandatory, tax-funded maintenance grants, means-tested on parental income. (Robbins, 1963) The Robbins Committee's conclusions rested on a number of principles, the most important of which may have been the assumption that courses of higher education should be available for all those qualified by ability and attainment and who wish to pursue them. (Barr, 2003)

Clearly, access to higher education was a prime objective of the report. In pursuit of that objective, among others, the Committee recommended a population target for higher education, from about one in twelve of 18-year olds to about one in six, by the year1980. (Robbins, 1963)

That goal was reinforced in the Report, which noted several advantages of loans, particularly that tax-funded grants tend to be regressive, since higher education was then disproportionately used by students from higher-income backgrounds. (Barr, 2003)

The major worry about loans was their incentive effects, in particular the deleterious effects on access. The report not recommend immediate recourse to a system of financing students through loans, stating in light of the fact that many parents were only just beginning to contemplate higher education for their children, that the prospect of acquiring education loans would have produced undesirable incentive effects. (Robbins, 1963)

Loans issues had arisen within in the broader debate about the proper role of government. In a general defense of the market mechanism, Friedman (1962) considered the government's role in vocational and professional training. He accepted the capital market imperfections, specifically the riskiness of student loans (the absence of any security). He suggested that to counter the risk for lenders offering education loans, they would secure a share in an individual's earning prospects; to advance him the funds needed to finance his/her education on condition that he/she agree to pay the lender a specified fraction of his future earnings. His proposed terms involved a contract in which the prospective student would agree to pay to the government in each year of his/her employment, a specified percentage of his earnings in excess of a specified sum for each $1,000 that he received, easily combined with payment of income tax in order to minimize additional administrative expense. (Friedman & Friedman, 1962)

These early student-loan proposals derived from the benefit principle (he who benefits should pay) and that a graduate tax would enable the community to recover the value of the resources devoted to higher education from those who have themselves derived such substantial benefit from it.

1970's

The early 1970s saw various proposals, among them, an income-contingent scheme for postgraduate students. Perhaps this was the obvious way to begin: the numbers involved were less; mass access would have become more efficient; and there should have been less political opposition. The 1974 election of a Labour government effectively ended any immediate likelihood of loans. The emphasis of higher education policy remained on pursuing expansion and improved access through the existing system of tax-funded maintenance grants. Unfortunately, public spending cuts after the 1976 economic crisis ruled out any chance of success.

With the 1979 election of a Conservative government, income-related loans reappeared on to the political agenda. Keith Joseph, then Secretary of State for Education, was committed to the policy and any explanation of why no such policy was implemented would only be speculative. However, three possible reasons were certainly in play during that era: the high up-front-taxpayer cost of the loan policy throughout its early years (paired with government's commitment to public spending cuts); the administrative difficulties cited by the Inland Revenue whenever the policy was revisited; and the political precariousness of suggesting a reduction of a middle-class perk.

1980's

The result of the 1970'government inaction on education funding reform was that by the early 1980s, though there was yet to be political consensus, agreement beyond the ranks of politicians was widespread and virtually every advocate of student loans in Britain favoured an income-related loans scheme. (Blaug,1984)

The virtual death dirge for free university education was sounded by the 1988 passage of the Education Reform Act, which radically changed schools. Loans would be a means for the government to continue to attempt to meet a target of half of all school-leavers attending to university while offsetting the cost by mandating that banks and ultimately students themselves pay for it.

Incredulous as it may seem today, when asked at a press-conference, what he would say to mothers and fathers worried about their children getting into debt, Conservative education secretary, Kenneth Baker, took a long pause, then replied, "Do you know, I hadn't thought of that ... still, everyone's in debt these days, aren't they?" In context, this was the time proximal to a huge credit boom and a time when the popular mantra that greed is good was generally accepted. (Bates, 2010)

During those halcyon days, local authorities had been obliged by the Conservatives' 1962 Education Act not only to pay full-time students' tuitions, but also to contribute towards maintenance fees, as well: a benefit that generation came to take for granted. Baker's loan plan called for £1,200 over three years, repayable over 10 years at zero interest. The loan topped up living expenses, not tuition fees. Expansion moved forward and polytechnics rapidly converted en masse into universities.

What appears to have been notably absent from the national debate was the consideration that a sudden glut of degreed workers might not enhance the career prospects of the individual university graduate, now deeply in debt. Additionally, the introduction of student loans was universally criticised by the National Union of Students and by universities as being likely to be unsustainable for students from poorer backgrounds.

Inevitably, the government's plans soon started to falter. The banks and building industries were disinterested in running a lending scheme, offering money to young people at less advantageous terms than they were already employing. As a result government was forced to scramble for other ways to finance the scheme and set up a separate company to administer it.

Conclusion

Into the New Millennium

In 2004, recognizing that the heady, happier days of the initial education funding initiative were long past, Labour changed the principle further: introducing loans for tuition fees. In September 2009, The Confederation of British Industry proposed a 70 per cent increase in fees to a maximum of [pounds sterling] 5,000, reduced the number of maintenance grants and further proposed an end to subsidised student loans. It warned the Government that it must abandon its unattained target of putting half the youth population through higher education and to concentrate instead on those who really desire it.

That proposed cut in the student loan subsidy is expected end the unfairness whereby non-graduate taxpayers are cross-subsidising graduate ones, despite the latter earning, on average, higher wages. As for dismantling maintenance grants other than for genuinely low-income families, it would lead to more students working in pubs, restaurants and social services and to more living at home, and would thus replenish the labour market.

In answer to the question posed in the introduction to this essay, the evidence gleaned since the 1960's indicates strongly that beneficiaries of any service that not does rank as a vital welfare benefit should pay for it, to the extent that they can. That especially applies when the returns from such payment is as specific to the user as is a university education and with fees paid directly from students to the universities that they are attending, the return students should demand is better service. (Jenkins, 2009)

Bibliography

Barr, Nicholas, 'Financing Higher Education in the UK: The 2003 White Paper', House of Commons Education and Skills Committee, The Future of Higher Education, Fifth Report of Session 2002-03, Volume II, Oral and Written Evidence, pp. 292-309.

Barr, N & Crawford, I, Financing Higher Education: Answers from the UK, Routledge, London.

Bates, S, Tuition fees: From 'free' university education to students owing thousands, guardian home.

Blaug, M 1984, Where are we now in the economics of education? Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study and University of London Institute of Education, London.

Friedman, M & Friedman, R 1962, Capitalism and freedom, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

Jenkins, S, 'You get what you pay for -- and that includes university; Students may cry foul at calls for higher fees but higher education and London's economy will be better for it'., The Evening Standard.

The Robbins Report: Memorandum by the Chief Secretary to the Treasury and Paymaster General 1963.

Parents vs Students Performance and Behavior

1. Research Title

The Effects of Parental Involvement on Student's Academic Performance and Behavior

The primary research question that will guide the proposed research is how does interaction between parents and students affect the academic performance of students.

2. Statement of the Problem and Brief Description of It

The purpose of the proposed research is to raise awareness of the importance of parental involvement in student education. The significance of the proposed research is that in today's culture, students are influenced by a variety of forces, some of which result in negative learning outcomes. By investigating the effects that parental involvement on the performance of students, it will be possible not only to determine the real impact that parents can have on the learning outcomes of their students, but also whether such involvement can overcome other factors such as socioeconomic status and negative support from peers that can result in negative behavioral outcomes.

3. Review of the Literature

Brown, Dyer, McBridge, Sungjin & Ying (2009) investigated the effects of early parenting practices in relation to educational involvement and student achievement. The data for the study was drawn from a subset of a large dataset collected to examine income dynamics. The data for this investigation was from 390 children who were between the ages of 2 and 5 years old. Based on the analysis of the data, the researchers concluded that both mothers and fathers have an impact on student achievement. However, the specific impacts of the involvement of mothers and fathers were different. The involvement of fathers in early child development was found to positively impact later involvement in school, but to actually negatively impact achievement. In contrast, the involvement of mothers was found to positively impact achievement in school. From a methodological standpoint, the strength of this study was that it used a relatively large dataset for a statistical study of children that contained data about the involvement of both mothers and fathers. However, the findings of the study indicate that more research is needed about the role of parents and their impact on the achievement of children in school.

Kim & Neff (2010) investigated the effects of parental influence on alcohol use by adolescents. The idea behind the research was that parental monitoring would positively impact the use of alcohol by adolescents, and improve the behavior of students because of reduced alcohol consumption. The researchers used data from nearly 4,800 10th graders to examine the effects of parental involvement, peer groups, and exposure to alcohol on educational outcomes and behavior. The findings of the data analysis showed that peer influence was somewhat stronger than parental involvement with regards to alcohol consumption by adolescents. However, parental involvement did reduce the consumption of alcohol by adolescents. For the purposes of the proposed research, the findings of this study are important because the researchers noted that alcohol consumption by adolescents is associated with negative educational outcomes. The strength of this study is that a large sample of adolescents was used, and a variety of influencing factors were investigated as opposed to only examining the variables of parental involvement and peer group influences. However, this study was very narrow in the fact that it only involved data from 10th graders, which may suggest that parental involvement of students at different age groups has differing impacts on their behaviors and educational outcomes.

Rather than investigating the impact of parental involvement on alcohol consumption, Skinner, Haggerty & Catalano (2009) investigated the impact of parental influence and peer group influence on the decision of teenagers to smoke. However, rather than examining the issue for teenagers in general, the researchers also investigated whether there was a difference based on the race of the teenagers. The reason for including race as an important variable was because of research indicating that Blacks are more likely to smoke than Whites. The investigation included data from 331 families with children in grades 8 through 10. The results of the study suggested no racial differences in smoking. However, the data also suggested that increased parental involvement and clear guidelines about smoking reduced smoking behavior among the teenagers. In addition, the teenagers in the sample were more likely to smoke if their parents smoke. The strength of this study was that it included variables for parental behavior, including clear guidelines about smoking and smoking behaviors. However, an important weakness of the study is that specific guidelines on the part of parents about smoking, such as whether consequences would be faced or whether smoking is simply "bad" and should be avoided were not included. This shows that more research with specific actions and involvement from parents is needed.

Darling, Kleiman & LaRocque (2011) examined the effects of parental involvement on students and their educational outcomes. Based on the data and research that were reviewed, the researchers explained that ethnic background is important because African-American, Native American, and Hispanic students had lower educational accomplishments as compared to students of other ethnic backgrounds because of lower levels of involvement by their parents in the educational process. The researchers also noted that there were social and economic reasons for the lack of parental involvement in school activities and homework. Parents from lower economic backgrounds who had to work and had little time to be with their children were less involved in educational activities. Furthermore, parents who did not speak English and who had lower levels of educational attainment were also less likely to be involved in the school activities and homework of their children as compared to native speaking parents and those parents with higher levels of educational attainment. The strength of this study is that it showed that there are many factors that can effect whether parents are involved in the educational activities of their children. However, the study does leave questions about how these variables may work together to impact the actual educational outcomes of students.

Based on the findings of the literature that has been reviewed, the hypothesis to be tested in the proposed research is that increased parental involvement in the educational activities of children positively impacts their achievement in school. This hypothesis is based on the literature that has shown that parental involvement positively impacts student achievement in school, as well as their overall behavior with regards to alcohol consumption and smoking. Furthermore, while peer involvement has been shown to be important in the decision-making of students, parental involvement was shown in the literature to have at least some effect to reduce negative behaviors and outcomes and to increase positive behaviors and outcomes.

4. Research Questions

Based on the literature that has been reviewed, three research questions have been formulated to guide the investigation. The first research question is how does parent/student interaction benefit the academic performance of the students? This research has been formulated to allow for an examination of the ways in which parental involvement with students impacts performance in school. It is important to note that student performance may not necessary be about grades, but may also be related to behavior in the classroom, such as engaging with the lessons and not being disruptive toward the teacher or other students.

The second research question that has been formulated for this study is how does socioeconomic status affect the academic performance of the student? The literature that was reviewed suggested that socioeconomic status does indeed have an impact on the involvement of parents in student educational activities. However, little information was provided about the actual impact that socioeconomic status has on actual student performance. By addressing this research question, the findings of the proposed research will help to fill an important gap that seems to exist within the academic literature.

The third research question that has been formulated for the research is how does negative peer support impact student academic performance? The literature that has been reviewed has suggested that peer influence can be stronger than the influence of parents. However, little information was provided about the direct association between negative peer support and actual educational outcomes. The proposed research will help to fill this gap by showing whether negative peer support does negatively influence student academic performance, especially in relation to the involvement of parents that might counteract the negative support of peers.

Overall, this study will add to the existing literature on the top of parent involvement and student academic performance by specifically relating the variables of parental involvement, peer support, and socioeconomic status to student educational outcomes. By examining these variables together in a single study, it will be possible to determine the importance that the variables play in impacting student performance.

References

LaRocque, M., Kleiman, I., & Darling, S. M. (2011). Parental Involvement: The Missing Link in School Achievement. Preventing School Failure, 55(3), 115-122. doi:10.1080/10459880903472876

McBride, B. A., Dyer, W., Ying, L., Brown, G. L., & Sungjin, H. (2009). The Differential Impact of Early Father and Mother Involvement on Later Student Achievement. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 498-508. doi:10.1037/a0014238

Kim, Y., & Neff, J. (2010). Direct and Indirect Effects of Parental Influence Upon Adolescent Alcohol Use: A Structural Equation Modeling Analysis. Journal Of Child & Adolescent

Substance Abuse, 19(3), 244-260. doi:10.1080/1067828X.2010.488963

Skinner, M. L., Haggerty, K. P., & Catalano, R. F. (2009). Parental and peer influences on teen smoking: Are White and Black families different?. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 11(5), 558-563. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntp034

Abstract

The East Indian culture has markedly specific values, many of which stem from a uniquely Eastern, Hindu worldview. Familial structure, including rigid, gender and generational roles, is as paramount to East Indian culture as the perceptions of an individual's place within the greater, collective society. Cognizance of the differences between Western and East Indian culture is critical to preserving the integrity of the client-counselor relationship.

Culturally Sensitive Counseling: The East Indian Culture

Integral to contemporary, counseling ethics is the demand for cultural competency, including awareness of stereotypes and the multiplicity of ways in which culture could inform the client-counselor relationship. The East Indian culture, in particular, differs sharply from Western culture in terms of worldview and spirituality, familial and gender relations, and communications including conflict resolution; in all of these capacities, the East Indian culture is unique. The following inquiry serves as an in-depth exploration of this culture, with a critical eye for elements of East Indian culture that would impact the counseling experience.

The American Counseling Association cites within its standards that "counselors do not discriminate on the basis of age, sex, race, or sexual orientation and that they attempt to increase their personal awareness, sensitivity, and skills with regard to counseling diverse client populations..." (Kress et al., 2005, p. 97). Delivering one-size-fits-all care to all individuals, regardless of culture, is undoubtedly problematic in this age of globalization and subsequent surge of diversity that is taking place in national populations around the world. Relinquishing the Western tunnel vision for world perceptions, values, and ethics is crucial to delivering culturally sensitive care to populations of Eastern dissent; even if they have lived in the United States for generations, important remnants of the native culture exist.

The East Indian Worldview

The sense of how one's world is organized, and the ways in which people related to each other, is molded by one's cultural experience (Bacon, 1996). In his text entitled Life Lines, Bacon describes worldview as follows: "to the extent that people share a cultural milieu that surrounds and delimits their particular experiences of language, religion, caste, gender, family, education, work, and politics, they share the worldview constitutive of their common cultural background" (1996, p. 17). For immigrants, the worldview remains that of the nature culture and slowly grows more greatly informed by the new culture.

In India, like in other Asian societies, the predominant difference between the Western worldview and that of the native country is that individuals are not perceived in precisely the same way. The Western tradition holds autonomy as paramount, and the will of the individual as the most critical manifestation of freedom (Bacon, 1996). In contrast, the Indian worldview focuses heavily on the collective nature of society, with society being not a conglomerate of separate entities but a functioning, fluctuating organism of which individual people are merely a part (Bacon, 1996). Individual people, then, are born with innate characteristics which indwell them with a purpose for furthering their collective society.

The cultural strengths for coping and adjusting, by extension, stem largely from Indian people's perceptions of strong bonds between social life and family life in conjunction with their history and spiritual beliefs (Bacon, 1996; Medora, Larson, and Dave, 2000). The family represents the strongest, support network during times of crisis, but the network of friends, temple members, and other acquaintances of similar, ethnic dissent act as a vehicle for social validation, particular within first-generation immigrant families (Bacon, 1996; Medora, Larson, and Dave, 2000). The formidable sense of morality affords the culture with a distinct notion of right and wrong, to which decision-making is closely linked.

The Indian Independence Movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, led by Mohandas Gandhi, continues to markedly impact the Indian worldview, as the genuine concern with unity and collective interest asserted so fervently by Gandhi demands that individuals support one another (Bacon, 1996). There is a sense of responsibility within families and social networks for each other's well being that does not exist in Western societies; his has been birthed over time from historic events as well as spiritual values.

Many of the values, thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes integral to Indian culture stem from Hinduism, the dominant religion for most of the nation's substantial population. Hindu philosophy is now inextricably bound to the teachings of Gandhi, who professed non-violence and non-conflict in his teachings (Rambachan, 2003). A polytheistic religion, Hinduism holds a range of deities, both male and female, and its adherents personalize the religion with their own rituals, offerings, and perceptions depending on their primary deity. Common to the religion, however, are the notions of dharma, samsara, and karma. Dharma refers to one's duty in life, such as career or familial role, while samsara and karma correspond to reincarnation. Hinduism is deeply entrenched within the Indian worldview in that one's dharma is largely innate, predetermined through one's karma from previous lives, and thus one is not completely autonomous in terms of choices; in this way, social conformity is ensured through the spiritual beliefs of East Indians, as the most important thing a person can achieve in his or her lifetime is to fulfill his or her dharma and deviation from the path laid out by familial ties and social status is perceived inauspiciously.

Familial and Gender Relations in East Indian Culture

The family unit within East Indian culture embodies rigid gender and generational roles. Attitudes toward the family, marriage, and education stem largely from the aforementioned dharma, with marriage and education almost always viewed as necessary for one's dharma to be fulfilled. In their empirical study of East Indian perceptions of family, authors Medora, Larson, and Dave contend that "in India, the family is the most important institution that has survived through the ages. India has a documented heritage of stable family life and structure which has been able to withstand the vicissitudes over the centuries.... The Indian family, like most families in Oriental cultures, is considered to be strong, well knit, resilient and enduring" (2000, p. 407). From a Western perspective, however, the role of women in Indian society is comparatively restricted.

In India, women are primarily wives and mothers. Marriage is viewed, for both sexes, as an essential ritual for becoming socially refined. For women, marriage is viewed as a sort of rebirth, a highly celebrated rite of passage. While a married woman is given quite a lot of responsibility, even being charged with the family finances in some instances, an unmarried woman, even a widow, is perceived as socially broken (Menon, 2000). In her article entitled "Does Feminism have Universal Relevance?" Menon writes that "a married woman embodies her conjugal family's, fund of auspiciousness, and she holds in her palms its future. If she is irresponsible in her management of its resources, the family is ruined; if she is promiscuous, it disintegrates. Spendthrift habits and sexual promiscuity attract repeated misfortunes, guaranteeing a family's final destruction" (2000, p. 77). Married women, in many ways, have the weight of the entire family's well-being on their shoulders.

Elderly men and women are valued in some ways and socially eschewed in others (Menon, 2000). In the multigenerational household that is typical in both India as well as in Indian immigrant families, the elderly are often accepted as having fulfilled their social purpose, existing as the ineffectual deliverers of sage advice and intermittent caregivers of children. Children, ironically, are viewed similarly, having few responsibilities as they prepare to fulfill their future roles.

Communications within East Indian Culture

The immense, Indian population has led to a myriad of dialects for the Hindi language, many of which are quite dissimilar from one another. Immigrant families often maintain their native language within the household for generations after arrival in a new country (Bacon, 1996). Nonverbal communication, much like other elements of East Indian culture, is heavily informed by Hinduism.

Conflict resolution, for instance, is typically done very non-violently and avoided whenever possible (Bacon, 1996). Arguably, there is no nation in the world where such a diverse population of people could exist as peacefully as the Indian people exist, with little civil unrest.

Because families are widely viewed as microcosms of greater society, and men are the decision-makers and patriarchs, there is little opportunity for conflicts to arise that cannot be resolved through conversation. While women may be unwittingly oppressed by the patriarchal structure of the family and slighted during the conflict resolution process, their opinions are critical, particularly during instances in which the children are concerned.

Summation

The greatest intergenerational issue of East Indian families stems from the infusion of Western values into a quintessentially Eastern culture, particularly for immigrant families. The worldview that values the collective nature of society, the importance of the family unit, and the individual's role in life as informed by his or her dharma persists for generations after immigration. By extension, crucial is it for the contemporary counselor to understand the interworkings of East Indian culture for not only first generation immigrants but even second and third generation Indian Americans. Overall, the most essential elements of Indian society are those directly informed by Hinduism. In particular, the generally peaceful nature of the people is beneficial to the counseling relationship, as is the formidable support network afforded the individual by family and community. A salient hindrance to the counseling relationship might be rooted in circumstances in which the well-being of the client somehow opposes the well-being of the family, such as if a mother needs long-term, in-patient care to overcome her illness but the family unit would suffer in her absence. Counselor cognizance of the potential for such instances to arise, however, is beyond crucial to circumventing culture-specific problems and ensuring a high level of care for East Indian clients.

References

Bacon, J. Life Lines: Community, Family, and Assimilation among Asian Indian Immigrants. New York: Oxford University Press.

Kress, V. E., Eriksen, K. P., Rayle, A. D., & Ford, S. J. (2005). The DSM-IV-TR and Culture: Considerations for Counselors. Journal of Counseling and Development, 83(1), 97-108.

Medora, N. P., Larson, J. H., & Dave, P. B. East-Indian College Student's Perceptions of Family Strengths. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 31(4), 407.

Menon, U. Does Feminism Have Universal Relevance? the Challenges Posed by Oriya Hindu Family Practices. Daedalus, 129(4), 77.

Rambachan, A. (2003). The Co-existence of Violence and Non-Violence in Hinduism. The Ecumenical Review, 55(2), 115-119.

School and American Family

According to the recent United States Census results, over nineteen million households in America were defined as single-parent households, with fourteen million of those characterized by single-mothers raising at least one child; the implications of this for schools within the United States are many and varied. The following inquiry comprehensively examines how the changing family has informed the public school system, and, more saliently, what must occur in contemporary school policy in order to better cater to the modern, American population.

In essence, while the American family has changed considerably during recent decades, many public schools have failed to address the needs of the evolving family dynamic in the United States. Author S. Coontz writes in her text entitled The Way We Really Are "with 50 percent of American children living in something other than a married-couple family with both biological parents present, and with the tremendous variety of male and female responsibilities in today's different families, the time for abstract pronouncements about good or bad family structures and correct or incorrect parental roles is past"]. By embracing this statement as undoubtedly correct, contemporary school policy must relinquish the proverbial moral high ground for simply seeking to do that which is best for the students. Regardless of which type of family structure is more beneficial to children, it remains that the current dynamics of American families require substantial accommodations from schools that they have thus far not received.

The Two-Parent House

Generally speaking, most social policies in the United States are geared toward the two-parent household. In schools, homework is given to young children with little consideration for their after-school, familial supports. School functions, such as holiday programs, typically occur during the week at night when a parent might be working. Field trips that extend beyond school hours may require parents leave work to pick up their children. In short, schools are guilty on a multiplicity of levels of the assumption that children go home to a mother and a father.

Two-parent households, particularly those that conform to the breadwinner- homemaker model in which one parent works and the other is home, are able to provide children with more parental time, supervision, and homework assistance. In this model, a parent is readily available should a child become sick and need to be picked up at school, and there is a strong relationship between the parent who is at home and the child or children. While this model seems to be advantageous to all involved, there are disadvantages to the traditional family as well. Most importantly, the parent who works is under significant pressure to provide, which can create stress-induced distance between him or her and the children.

The other, and increasingly more prevalent, structure of two-parent household in which both parents work decreases the potential for financial stress, yet increases stress in a variety of other dimensions. When both parents work, there is a fundamental need to discuss the household responsibilities, lest something as seemingly trivial as housework may become detrimental to a family. For schools, there is a fortunate, political trend toward recognizing households in which both parents work. However, there remain few accommodations for single-parent households.

The One-Parent House

Nineteen million, American households are headed by only one parent. The most salient, school-rooted considerations for families of this type are their increased potential for both financial difficulty as well as work-school schedule conflicts. Coontz writes in her aforementioned text that the size of people's bank account has a lot to do with what type of home they can provide, which in turn has a tremendous impact on children's health and well-being. Socioeconomically-challenged children are more likely to be obese, because healthy food is substantially more expensive than processed, empty-calorie containing food. Additionally, single-parent, socioeconomically challenged families are more likely to contain children with severe behavior problems, and the number of these families is unfortunately on the rise. In the 1970s, 37% of families living under the poverty line were able to transcend that line within one year. During the 1980s, that percentage had irrevocably decreased to 23% and is significantly lower now. Social immobility is an important consideration for public schools, particularly those that are afforded with a majority, middle-class or higher student population.

School Experience

A significant part of our self-concept is formed as a result of the school experience. Schoolchildren may feel that they are expected to be good at everything. For example, if a child is artistic but not developmentally ready to tackle abstract math, the student may perceive that he is "bad at math." He may turn away from practice opportunities, creating a negative cycle of minimal effort, poor performance, and self-reproach. Teachers can make a difference and reverse this pattern. Students need positive expectations modeled for them often and repeatedly. Encouragement and support often give reluctant learners the energy to re-engage a task and build success. Gentle behavior management strategies can nurture trusting relationships. Constructive feedback fosters active engagement and learning. When teachers promote inquiry and practice, students learn that their beliefs and actions are important, When children believe their actions make a difference, they gain the stamina to effect positive change in their life and take on the challenge of innovation. When students are encouraged to harness their own power, they use their natural strengths to embrace exciting and sobering challenges. Educators who are prepared, flexible, and good-natured have a tremendous impact on a child's self-image.

School - Family: Summation

While schools are increasingly realizing that they have a more weighted role in the lives of students, much has yet to be done in terms of healthy food programming, monetary considerations for extra-curricular activities, and scheduling accommodations for working, single parents. Unfortunately, the schools that struggle the most with socioeconomically challenged families are likewise constrained by funding. However, if administrators, teachers, and other staff members are simply cognizant of the potential plight of students who live outside of the traditional, family dynamic, they can make a considerable difference in the lives of students.

The most vital piece of knowledge to be had by school staff, however, is that no specific family structure has inherent drawbacks for children. Conversely, every family structure has the potential to challenge children's potential. Parenting efficacy, ultimately, is much more telling of a child's academic success than is the number of parents in the household. Boiling down to quality over quantity, children in single-parent households may receive more attention than those in two-parent households. Therefore, while it is crucial to make policy accommodations for children in single-parent homes, particularly socioeconomically challenged, single-parent homes, school staff must perceive every student as an individual, having his or her own, unique situation after he or she leaves school grounds.

COMMUNITY COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES: PHILOSOPHICAL AND BUREAUCRATIC DIFFERENCES

A Conceptual Introduction

Public universities, junior colleges, technical schools, private universities and community colleges all fall beneath the umbrella of terms like higher education, academia and post secondary education (Kelly-Kleese, 2004). Despite being lumped together in most casual discourses, these institutions are actually dissimilar in a many fundamental ways including but not limited to: history, mission, organizational structure and faculty expectations. For community colleges, the underlying purpose in which they serve and the way in which the organizations are run and staffed are quite different from their traditional university counterparts. While they share the same broad goal of providing post secondary education, the specific intents of the organization and the self image of the roles they fill are not the same. In an effort to explore the differences between community colleges and universities, this work will explore the salient characteristics of both institutions with attention to how these characteristics that exist in the Hong Kong educational paradigm.

Community Colleges: A General Overview

Traditionally, higher education has been a service that is not available to all members of society. There is a higher concentration of people who's parents have been to college and that are members of higher socioeconomic status attending college than those of poorer and more trade oriented backgrounds. With higher degrees translating into higher wages, keeping divisions between the educated and the uneducated perpetuates an imbalanced social construct. In an effort to assuage the availability of higher education to all members of the community, the concept of the community college was born. According to Charlie Wilson (2011), "One of the proudest things I feel about you is our college wants to be a community college and is set up to serve the entire community" (p. 1). Community college is a logical education institution as just as children differ when they start school, the needs of a student differ when their secondary education is finished (Education, 2011). People have different goals, different past educational records and differences in economic resources (Education, 2011). These three dynamics create a set of conditions that can influence what the next logical choice is for a student leaving high school that wants to continue his/her educational journey. On an economic level and on an academic achievement level, community college is available to far more community members.

Generally, the only requirement for getting into a community college is a high school diploma and the financial resources to pay for the service. People who cannot afford to go to school full time can benefit from the flexible community college schedule and the cheaper tuition (Education, 2011). Community college students often times have part or even full times jobs while they are attending while this is far less common in the more rigid university paradigm. It is estimated by researchers that 59% of community college students are enrolled part time (Education, 2011). Community colleges can perform two functions, they can allow for students to get two year general degrees, get credits to transfer to a university or to simply gain skills in a class or series of classes that will help them in their career or personal endeavors. Some of the more general differences between the community college and the university are identified by Harrington (2008) as follows, community colleges have smaller class sizes, they generally do not have on campus housing, they are less expensive and they are less of a community. The community portion of the name is a description for who they serve rather than what they are about. A regular university has sports, clubs, history and other dynamics that seek to facilitate the social aspect of a college environment (Harrington, 2008). On an educational level, community colleges have associate of arts degrees and usually nothing higher (Harrington, 2008). This is very useful as a transfer end for students wishing to move on to a more conventional university (Harrington, 2008). It is also useful for those instances where a particular occupation necessitates some college but not a full bachelor's degree. The function that the community college serves makes the perception and operation of the community college different on the bureaucratic level as well.

Bureaucratic Levels

Universities are synonymous with academia. Community colleges, based on their standards for students and professors, are generally not included in such discourses or perceptions. According to the National Center for Postsecondary Improvement, "Community college faculty receive scant attention from postsecondary researchers--or worse, are simply dismissed as a separate, and by implication lesser, class of college professors" (As cited by Twombly & Townsend, 2008, p. 5). Despite this factor, community college instructors teach about 37% of all undergraduates thereby making them responsible for the education of a large proportion of individuals (Twombly & Townsend, 2008). Despite these large numbers, the actual percentage of those students that begin in community college that go on to transfer to universities is only around 25% and it has remained this way for decades (Twombly & Townsend, 2008). The connectivity between the university and the community college educational programs makes them both relevant within the discourse of higher education however (Kelly-Kleese, 2004). Critiques of the community college are generally based around their bureaucratic differences from traditional universities. Those familiar with the standards expected by students and the standards held by professors at traditional universities know that there is a large difference between community college instruction and the expectations of the community college student. For example, a freshman composition course at a community college may be transferable to the local university, however, it is generally understood that such a course would be far easier than it would be if it were taken by a professor at the actual university by a university enrolled freshman. Educational analyst Marshood notes that community college faculty are "neither challenged enough nor challenging to their students in the endeavor of higher learning" (as cited by Kelly-Kleese, 2004, p. 52). Much of this has to do with the expectations of the students. Education can be considered a service and the expectations of those paying for the service generally influence the type of service that is received.

In community college, the students tend to not place in high regard the qualifications of the instructor (Kelly-Kleese, 2004). As outlined by Kelly-Kleese (2004), "The majority of community college students are not interested in faculty scholarship; they are primarily concerned with obtaining credentials to help them qualify for a job or promotion, to upgrade their skills or to transfer to a university" (p. 52). As a result, there is little incentive for the bureaucratic stakeholders governing community colleges to change their practices. More highly trained staff, more rigorous standards and more general difficulty could reduce the popularity of the institution based on its flexibility and price. In this capacity, a community college instructor who has the same skill set as a university professor would logically not want to take the pay cut and the perceptual stigma of being a lesser member of academia by working at a community college. Kelly-Kleese (2004) suggested that the conditions surrounding community college manifest in a phenomenon where those professors value scholarship immensely, however they do not personally engage in it due to their perceived differences in their roles.

Community Colleges in Hong Kong: A Specific Comparison

With the general attributes of community colleges and universities having been identified on the philosophical and the bureaucratic levels, a more specific analysis of the Hong Kong model can be illustrated as it reflects similar thematic. The Hong Kong Labor Department plays an important role in coordinating services related to career placement and education (Leung, 2002). As part of this function, the community college serves an important role. As a long standing example of European imperialist influence, Hong Kong's higher education system has many similarities to its Western counterparts. The community versus traditional university comparison therefore nearly mirrors exactly the aforementioned attributes of the generalized accepted Western model. To demonstrate the specific Hong Kong example, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University and the Hong Kong Community College will be contrasted. It is important to note that the Hong Kong Polytechnic University is the main component of higher education and the Hong Kong Community College is a subdivision of the same entity. As a result, having the same organization look differently at its two services speaks volumes about the perceptual differences between the two organizational purposes.

The self reported mission of the Hong Kong Community College (HKCC) (2011) is "to support academic and career development of aspiring individuals" (p. 1). To accomplish these aims, the HKCC outlined four specific capacities. The first is offering quality sub-degree programs (HKCC, 2011). This is designed to help meet the changing needs of society and to help the students be prepared for working in the region (HKCC, 2011). The next dimension way in which the HKCC seeks to achieve its aims is to provide all around development through nurturing positive attributes like: creativity, critical thinking, active learning, positive attitudes, self confidence and responsibility (HKCC, 2011). They also seek to promote sub degree qualifications while working closely with government agencies, professionals and industries to make sure the programs are relevant (HKCC, 2011). As demonstrated by the ends to their established means, the focus of the HKCC is mostly vocational and job placement related rather than specific to academic or liberal arts development. There are two components, the preparation academics for students to transfer and the career development portion for those students who are not going to move on to universities. In contrast, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (HKPU) establishes a far more academic leaning approach to their mission and vision. The mission of the organization is outlined under the mantra of PRIDE. The "P" element in pride stands for "programs that are applications oriented and produce graduates who can apply theories in practice" (HKPU, 2011, p. 1). The "R" stands for research "of an applied nature relevant to industrial, commercial and community needs" (HKPU, 2011, p. 1). The "I" component is the intellectual capacity and the "D" component is the dedicated partnerships with business, industry and professionals (HKPU, 2011, p. 1). The "E" dimension stands for "Enabling mature learners to pursue life long learning" (HKPU, 2011, p. 1). In stark contrast to the HKCC, the HKPU emphasizes both the academic and the practical rather than only the practical. On the level of academic there is the identified dimensions of research, intellectual development and life long learning (HKPU, 2011). None of these dimensions are present in the community college mission or goals. As a result, the way in which the community college operates on a bureaucratic level makes it different because there is an overt philosophical difference present.

Case Studies: Student Perspectives

In a personal case study that spotlighted four students, 2 that attended a Hong Kong Community College and two that attended a traditional university, the primary ideological self differences that have been identified in the literature reviewed were also reflected. Community College Student X (2011) explained the following:

I chose the community college model because I just wanted some extra knowledge to help me in my career. I work at a local factory and to be considered for management either a certain number of years of experience has to be present or a certain amount of college hours that are similar to an associates degree. Rather than wait the 5 years to be considered for promotion, I decided to take the fast track and get a two year degree (p. 1).

Whereas Community College Student X chose the community college model for present employment advancement, Community College Student Y (2011) chose for transfer purposes:

I didn't have the greatest grades when I left high school to earn me any scholarships. I was immature in high school and didn't study as much as I should have. Now I know I need a college degree to accomplish what I want to in life and my limited money and poor grades made community college a good option. I plan to transfer in a few years to a university. Community college is helping me develop those skills I missed in high school (p. 1).

In both of the case studies, neither focused their community college expectations on academia or life long learning attributes. The community college was a means to an ends that best fit their respective situations. Both of the students, in addition, reflect the type of students that community colleges typically cater towards. Without the community college option, they would probably not be able to meet their goals. The university students interviewed also reflected the typical visions of a university rather than those of a community college. University Student X (2011) explained:

Education is important to me and to everyone in my family. It's necessary to get a job but its more than that. It opens your mind, challenges you and makes you more well rounded. I worked very hard to get into a good university. I wanted to attend a school with high academic standards because I know the professors will be the best in their disciplines and I can learn the most from them (p. 1).

When asked about community colleges, University Student X (2011) believed that they had their place but that they could not meet her needs. She also stated that the quality of professors at the community colleges is much lower. University Student Y (2011) said the following of community colleges, "I would have used a community college if I couldn't have gotten into a university or if I couldn't have afforded to go to this school....Education is what you make of it and being that I put a high value on it I would make sure I could get it by any means at my disposal" (p. 1). The two university students both reflected occupational goals, but they also reflected academic goals and reflections that were not seen in the responses of the community college students.

Conclusions

Community colleges and universities, while both being categorized as forms of post secondary education, are in fact quite different from one another. On a philosophical level, the differences are overt enough to the extent that the bureaucratic components are structured quite differently. Despite their differences, they both fill a necessary societal function of providing extended educational services. In Hong Kong, as well as in the traditional Western Model, the same sets of characteristics hold true in existing research on the subject and in the included case studies.

References

Harrington, A. (2008). Community college vs. university. Educated Nation. Hong Kong Community College (2011).

Vision and Mission. Hong Kong Polytechnic University (2011).

Our Mission. Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review. Community College Review, 32(1), 52-55. Leung, S. A. (2002).

Career counseling in Hong Kong: Meeting the social challenges. The Career Development Quarterly, 50(3), 237-240.

Personal interviews (2011). Case Studies of Community and University Students. Twombly, S., & Townsend, B.K. (2008).

Community college faculty: What we know and need to know. Community College Review, 36(1), 5-10. University vs. community college (2011). Education Bug.

Learning Team - Executive Summary

Social media tools are becoming a crucial tool for contemporary organizations that opt to conduct any form of online business. Increasingly, social media is becoming a preferred method of connecting with consumers, advertising, and maintaining levels of interaction with employees. However, some organizations use social media as recruiting tool. This paper addresses social media as a viable tool for conducting business online. The authors review some of the various social media tools to explain how they may be used to distribute messages to consumers and clients, while they also address ethical issues associated with the use of social media tools.

Some forms of social media among students are social networking (Facebook, MySpace, Twitter, LinkedIn), blogging (eBlogger, WordPress, website enabled blogs), and feeds (RSS, Google, Yahoo). While there are a number of uses for social media, corresponding, networking, and citizen journalism and blogs are the most common. Correspondence tools may include email functions for general communication, feedback forms located on the organization's website, and sharing information using a "widget" share feature. Online networking has become a valuable tool for keeping consumers and other businesses abreast of important information related to the organization's functions. Each of the referenced social media tools have some form of "feed" function where users can share newsworthy information. However, as with any form of business, e-commerce organizations must be aware of the ethical issues associated with social media use, including security concerns, such as identity theft; credibility, maintaining trust and honestly in marketing and advertising, product reviews, and comments; privacy policies; and maintaining a positive reputation.

Social Media in Academic Learning Environment - Conclusion

As this paper has provided, the uses of social media tools in e-commerce are vast and with the use of these tools comes the responsibility of proper use and ethical issues. As the research has illustrated, there are a variety of social media tools, including social networking, blogging, and feeds. However, many e-commerce organizations are realizing the benefit of using services, such as Ping.fm, that link most known social media services in one. Apart from the collaborative aspects, the Ping service is free and can be used to update all media tools with one easy post. Moreover, Ping is designed to work alongside a mobile phone, e-mail, instant messengers, and most major networking applications, which make advertising and information sharing quick and easy.

Social networks are becoming commonplace as many organizations encourage employees to use social media tools to communicate with coworkers and clients. However, employees are instructed on the mannerisms that are expected from using social media tools in conjunction with business.

Communications must remain positive and upbeat because persons outside the organization will have access to the comments or information posted. The tools can be used to post success story for the overall business and for employee's to share good news (e.g. milestones, sales records, etc.). Managers can also use the social networks, including messages posted by employees, as a motivation tool.

Ethical issues are a major concern in e-commerce, particularly in light of recent developments related to the abuse of social media tools. While many people use social networks for business networking, others use them for connecting with friends and for online gaming. When businesses join a social networking site, they are joining a community. The online community is similar to a real community where a business has a place; however, a business should never invade the privacy of its neighbors (Craig) as this may be construed as being pushy and overly aggressive business risk failure. Taking precautions to ensure e-commerce communications are wanted, the organization should utilize anti-spam tools to prevent unwanted messages or emails being sent to others. Collectively, however, the various social media tools can be some of the greatest and most productive assets for the e-commerce industry, but the organization must be familiar with the individual tools and intended use, and they must take care to maintain ethical practices. When these simple rules are followed, the outcome will be a successful online enterprise.

ESL and EFL English - Teaching Contexts

Abstract

The main aim of this essay is to establish the major differences and similarities between ESL and EFL. Also, how this effect the teaching styles and how to teach more effectively in both. Additionally, the essay examines various literatures and provides a foundation or a basis of argument. Similarly, it provides a theoretical framework for the essay and orients the readers. The target participants of the subject in question include teachers who are involved in the teaching and process. Also, the implication of the essay is to provide findings and give recommendation regarding the essay question.

Introduction

English as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL) studies are conducted worldwide. ESL and EFL share many similarities despite their many differences. A clear understanding of teaching in ESL and EFL requires understanding the origin of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), the greatest contributor to ESL and EFL teaching.

Incorporated in 1966, TESOL is a global association for English language headquartered in Virginia, USA and in many other developed countries. In addition, TESOL includes professional teachers in the field of English so that learners may get a quality education. TESOL consists of a network of approximately 50,000 educators worldwide. Additionally, ESL and EFL consist of 10,000 individual members. Discipline and professionalism are strictly maintained. Both ESL and EFL produce serial publications to members, and provide electronic sources on current issues, opportunities, and ideas in the field of English language teaching. Known for its annual convention, workshops, and symposia, both ESL and EFL are the world leaders in professional development opportunities for English language educators. Both EFL and ESL's mission is to develop and maintain expertise in the field of English, more so teaching and speaking English to speakers of Other languages worldwide. This essay will focus on two questions: is there a difference in teaching styles between ESL and EFL, and how should one teach more effectively in ESL and EFL contexts.

Similarities in ESL and EFL Contexts

Both EFL and ESL have mission statements and values to guide them, with the goal of providing a good environment for teaching and learning. ESL and EFL endorse professionalism in language education, and thus they are able to know that with teaching professionally they are able to produce professional people. Additionally, students in this field are able to acquire professional knowledge that will help them in future. In addition, both ESL and EFL know that by allowing the learners to research and practice then they are improving their English knowledge. They make English practical and thus easy for the learner to understand. Learners are therefore able to grasp a lot of information in both EFL and ESL that will help them improve English in both EFL and ESL. The interaction between the learner and the professional teacher also makes it easier and memorable for the learner. This gives the learner a sense of motivation. The professional teachers provide high quality instructions to the leaners. By this, the leaner is able to acquire nothing but the best in the English field.

Due to the diverse nature of ESL and EFL, TESOL deals with people from different races and culture. This can cause problems if there is no respect for all these diverse cultures and races. However, due to their professionalism, they are able to attain total respect for all this different cultures and races (Vellenga, 2004). By this, there is peace and harmony within the learners in the study environment. The respect for individual language right is highly considered. By this, the individuals feel respected. This boosts their quest to learn the new language: English. In addition, due to its diversity, it collaborates with global communities. This collaboration helps them acquire new and many students. For ESL and EFL to be successful it should appreciate all cultures and races and that is why it collaborated with global communities. However, by both ESL and EFL continuous success it is evident that all this measures are considered and put in place. This is evident due to its ever growing population in the study field. More and more people are joining both ESL and EFL for better knowledge in the field of English.

Differences in ESL and EFL Contexts

A second or foreign language in English is TESOL. The acronym of English as a foreign language is EFL; However, ESL represents English as a second language. When the introduction of English takes place on people who have never had about it, or people who do know about it, it is a foreign language (Schoepp, 2001). However, when people get to learn, it is the learning of English as a foreign language. On the contrary, English as a second language is when one is perfecting one's English skills. It mostly occurs when one already has an idea of English as a language. In addition, people who take English as a second language learn faster than people who take English as a foreign language. This is because people who take English as a second language are at least able to read and write a little bit of English. On the other hand, people who take English as a foreign language, know neither how to write nor how to read in English. To them, English is a completely new language.

People who want to work in European nations learn English as a foreign language. This makes them break the barrier of communication due to the language difference as compared to the people pursuing English as a second language. However, English is a widely-spoken language and many people wish to be well-acquainted with it. On the other hand, English as a second language is mostly for people who wish to learn more about English. A good example is a teacher who wishes to teach English to many students. This teacher is required to know almost everything about English. This teacher will consider employing English as a second language. In addition, many students learn English as a secondary language for the sake of learning it. This is not because it is a bed of roses, but because it is compulsory.

Many young people learn English as a secondary option; they learn it to facilitate communication. For example, the United States is an English-speaking country. Most of its citizens must be able to speak, understand, and write in English. For those wishing to immigrate to the United States, learning English is a necessity. In order for the immigrants living in such a country to prolong their stay, they must learn English as a second language to enable them not to return to their native land. Being unable to speak in English makes many immigrants feel like outcasts and causes them to return to their native lands. After that, they are able to teach it because they are qualified and well-trained.

Many people study English for various reasons and purposes. They also use different modes of studying and choose the method best suited for them. On the contrary, teaching English as a foreign language always occurs in the students own country (Nunan, 1998). The teacher might be native or non-native speaker of English. In EFL, teachers must start teaching from the basics to the classroom survival language such as greetings and saying, "good morning, teacher." However, in ESL, teachers need to change their teaching styles because the students already know the basics and the classroom survival language. This is because they mostly use English as their communication mode. Additionally, students who take EFL classes are prone to get bored and lack motivation in continuing to pursue the course. This is because many of them are young and they do not see the need for studying a foreign language. In this case, an educator must have the capacity to restore their motivation by encouraging the students and relating the importance of studying English as a foreign language, unlike students pursuing ESL.

Students using EFL as their mode of teaching need much practice using English more especially the oral side of it to enable them learn English faster compared to students of ESL.

However, many teachers tend to make English come alive by exposing the learners to field trips and using non-traditional teaching materials such as pen pals. The professional teachers try to explain to their learners that English is not just a set of rules but also something that is alive and enjoyable (Schoepp, 2001). In addition, they make the learners enjoy what they teach in their classrooms. Students who use EFL methods to learn have various reasons for doing it. Many students' interest is built around social networking sites. They would like to communicate to the other people but cannot because they do not speak the same language as the students using the ESL methods. Therefore, the students seek help from institutions that offer EFL and in return, they are able to speak, comprehend, and write in English. Additionally, this eradicates the language barrier that was there before. EFL classes are mostly for people who come from a community or country where English is not spoken, heard, or written. These communities tend to use their native language as a mode of communication unlike the people pursuing ESL. Therefore, they see no importance in learning English. However, when one of their own gets exposed to an outside community, he or she begins a quest of learning English. This is due to the necessity of communicating with the other people who are not from their community.

Understanding the Application of Both ESL and EFL in the Teaching and Learning Process

Students taking ESL classes are able to write, speak and read English and thus they have no language barriers as the students taking EFL classes. EFL is the upcoming institution in terms of teaching English. This is because of the significant figures learning English. In addition, this interest is by the existing large amount of English speakers. Due to the availability of a large number of English speakers, many people do their transactions by English as a language as compared to the other languages. For example, many business transactions and deals done via English as their mode of communication (Nunan, 1998). Many studies conducted with English as their basic mode of teaching. In addition, people pass information using English as their basic mode of communication. By this, many people get prefer to study EFL in order to conduct their business efficiently or succeed in their studies and get to communicate with their friends.

How to Teach More Efficiently in Both ESL and EFL Contexts

A teacher has to design his/her teaching style according to the students' needs and context. Because of this, there are many effective methods for language teaching. For example, in many countries, tourism is a major way of making your students successful in life. However, some countries do not get as many tourists as the most visited towns. This, in turn, leads to the lack of interest among the young and the old. Neither the students nor the parents are ready to learn English as a foreign language. Additionally, this makes it hard for anyone, leave alone teachers to convince both students and parents that learning English, as a foreign language is very important. This is because; they live by themselves speaking in the language they know best, and by this, they do not see any necessary need of studying or learning English. In addition, songs are helpful in the EFL process. This is because they help people in pronouncing and spelling out English words in the rightful manner. These songs also help the ESL process in getting more students to pronounce and spell out the words in a correct manner. However, if students listen to English songs during English lessons, they would be of much help to the students or learners. They will motivate and improve the standards of performing for both EFL and ESL students. Fortunately, with the expanding prevalence of the Internet, many people are able to access the Internet. Additionally, many people are able to access most of the songs online and improve their English skills online. When learners get to listen to these English songs, they translate the sounds to words and the words to a meaningful sentence. In addition, the learners can use a background message to understand the song more. However, practicing this is an essential skill in creating a comprehensive listening skill in the learners. Linguistic reasons, cognitive reasons and affective reasons help demonstrate how using songs can improve EFL and ESL in the learners' environment. It is a perfect demonstration on the value of songs in a classroom. However, songs in classrooms cannot be valuable and educative if integration fails to take place in the rightful manner. By this, the teachers of both EFL and ESL are to integrate the songs for easier understanding by the learners.

One option for areas interested in developing tourism, are online programs for learning English as a second or foreign language. Web based study allows for individual and group learning, for example. Research suggests that, though it can be physically more difficult to read online, the mental processes that people use when reading hypertext are the same as the ones that they use reading printed matter. This could mean that there is no meaningful detriment to learning English online.

The use of video and audio features online is another boon to remote or currently untouristed areas. Consider the possibility that a given area might create a language exchange program with a school in the US, the UK, or other English speaking areas. A language exchange program can then be folded into tourism or educational exchange opportunities. This might allow some English language learners to travel to an English speaking country. However, more generally it may enable English speakers to travel to remote areas, giving a larger number of people the opportunity to practice their language skills, while expanding tourism in the area. Research into this area, suggests that it is not just a matter of how an organization builds international programs, but that an organization is practically committed over a longer period of time.

This means that in order to establish an exchange, a country or region needs to prepare itself for a five to ten year effort. Web based programs for language exchange and tourism are a great way to begin, and constitute a relatively low level of financial investment. Established formats like Twitter, but even more so Tumblr, allow for all kinds of communication particularly with English speakers. Further, these formats often allow people to discuss shared interests, particularly television, and this is another good opportunity for learners and expanding tourism.

The Future Development of Both ESL and EFL

Research suggests that inappropriate word choice arising from ignorance of semantic prosody is common with ESL and EFL learners. This research suggests that integrating semantic harmony with ESL and EFL would be most effective. On the other hand, teachers should think critically toward the many ways of getting their students to understand what the teacher is teaching. In many times, students tend to concentrate for very few minutes. In addition, this is because they fed up of the continuously listening the same English rules. They do not get the opportunity to respond back because the teacher always gives lectures. Teachers have a big challenge to overcome in terms of getting their students learn and be professionals in the English field. Lecture, is not a good way of teaching students, especially the students who are new to the topic or what the teacher teaches.

However, teachers are to know the interest of their students because it is essential. Apparently, this is more evident among the experienced teachers, they advise the other teachers on how to handle learners in the most trouble-free and simple manner. Many prosperous teachers will learn the backgrounds of their students. This, at least, reduces the number of diverted minds from class by the students. Additionally, this is because the students find that their mind is really engaged in class work and it is unable to wander. Therefore, 90% concentration from the students by the teachers makes the class prosperous. This is due to the concentration gotten from the students. The students are able to recall and put in practice their theoretical understanding in rightful manner. Teachers who instil critical thoughts to the heads of learners are able to get successful students. This is because, the students are able to think critically, and therefore, arising many other questions from the topic of discussion that they get. If the teacher is able to help them by answering their questions then, the students will be more willing to learn in both the field of ESL and EFL.

In addition, a good teacher communicates regularly to his/her students the role of the questions the students answer. In every language textbook there are questions to answer before going to the next topic or semester. Many teachers tend to skip the questions. Every teacher has a capability of posing the question to the students as a discussion question to make them think critically. However, very few teachers are able to pose the questions for discussion to the students. Many teachers claim to be very busy, busy even to be well acquainted with their next lessons or classes (Nunan, 1998). They do not have time for posing the questions as discussion questions. In addition, many teachers claim to earn very little salaries and by this, they have little or no time to look on what they are going to teach for the next classes. This situation is common for both ESL and EFL teachers. On the other hand, teachers need good salaries in order for them to deliver their services effectively and efficiently. Additionally, underpayment demotivates many teachers when performing their duties. If all teachers could earn a worthy salary, then they could be able to modify their lessons to their own circumstances. In that, they modify their lessons according to the kind of students they have or teach. By this, both ESL and EFL students will destine for good results of their learning program. To achieve this goal, teachers need to encourage their students to read texts and materials they are given. This shows the students that these materials and texts are of importance in their learning progress. However, in both ESL and EFL, debates play a major role in successful results of the learners (Vellenga, 2004). In debates, many students get to look at all sides of a particular issue. Additionally, students get to interact not only with the topic of discussion but also with the other students. This kind of forum helps students to encourage themselves. For example, when students get to interact and talk to one another, they not only get to discuss topics outside class, but help one another in the school topics. This is possible because not every student has the same mental capacity; some students are sharp while others are not sharp when it comes to education.

Conclusion

In conclusion, ESL and EFL share similarities and differences and both fall under TESOL. Moreover, teachers have to modify their teaching styles according to each context. Also, they must use a variety of methods and techniques in order to achieve the best outcome during the teaching process. For example, tourism and songs are some of the most effective teaching methods. Nevertheless, techniques like critical thinking, solving problems and debate can be very successful too. In addition, teachers or instructors should take the time to prepare for their classes and lessons. Teachers should also take a keen interest in the discussion questions posed after every topic. By doing this, they are able to get the students' attention in class, while the lecture is in progress.

However, EFL modes of teaching work best for people who have no idea on that language or topic. This is because their teachers start from the basics. On the other hand, ESL is for students who at least have an idea on the subject or topic. By this, both ESL and EFL help students in becoming professionals in English as a language. It helps build up many English speakers from different languages. With its best quality and provision of education, it is destined to grow wider each year. This is due to the increase in the number of people who wish to know and study English for their personal interests.

References

Brown, H. D. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to language Pedagogy (3rd edition). New York: Person Longman.

English Study Direct. (n.d.). English Study Direct: ESL/ EFL/ELT/TESOL Online Courses, TOEFL & IELTS Online, free ELT Online Web Resources. Halvorsen-Incorporating Critical Thinking Skills Development into ESL/EFL Courses (TESL/TEFL). (n.d.). Internet TESL Journal (For ESL/EFL Teachers).

Hou, H. Policies and strategies in internationalizing the hospitality education in Taiwan. International Journal of Education 3(2).

Nunan, D. Second Language Learning and Teaching. Boston, MA: Heinle Publishing.

Ruiz-Madrid, N. & Uso-Juan, E. (2009). Reading printed versus online texts: A study of EFL learners' strategic reading behaviour. International Journal of English Studies 9(2).

Schoepp, K. Reasons for Using Songs in the ESL/EFL Classroom (TESL/TEFL). Internet TESL Journal (For ESL/EFL Teachers).

Vellenga, H. (2004). Learning Pragmatics from ESL & EFL Textbooks: How Likely? North Arizona University.

Foreigners Learning English Language

Abstract

The prevalence of the English language on the world stage is irrefutable, and an increasing focus exists in recent literature regarding obstacles faced by English as a foreign language (EFL) students. This research inquiry explored studies published in peer-reviewed journals within the past five years, revealing that three, common obstacles exist for EFL students in non-English speaking nations; these are low self-efficacy, poor attitudes, and narrow teaching strategies. In surmounting these obstacles, reflective journaling emerged as a channel for addressing all three challenges and boosting learner autonomy in accordance with accommodation theory. The greatest gap in the literature is a failure to address any preventative measures for countering low self-efficacy and poor attitudes before they manifest in students.

Introduction

Students learning English as a foreign language (EFL) are presented with a myriad of challenges that significantly affect how efficiently they acquire the language. Nations in which English is not the primary language are increasingly recognising the global nature of English, particularly with respect to professional communications. As the English language becomes more and more paramount in the twenty-first century as a common tongue in the global marketplace, EFL students are charged to surmount the challenges they face learning the language in a non-English speaking nation. This inquiry posits that there are shared problems faced by EFL students in non-English speaking nations, and finding relevant solutions to these problems is essential given the primacy of English as the twenty-first century progresses.

Despite the dominance of English in the global marketplace, only a handful of nations recognize English as an official language (Crystal, 2003). Attitudes regarding English as the proverbial global language vary widely all over the world, with those hailing from English-speaking nations, particularly the United Kingdom and the United States, exhibiting protective feelings over English while EFL students may begrudge the effort required to acquire such a complex language (Crystal, 2003). Moreover, the cultural survival of some nations is being threatened by the focus on English, birthing resentment and anger among EFL students. English has, however, gained status as a global language due to its prevalence around the world, and nations have made choices, both strategic and unwitting, to accept English into their societies (Crystal, 2003).

Accommodation theory asserts that speakers of languages automatically adjust their communicative behaviours due to their roles in the conversation (Crystal, 2003). Accommodating behaviours are generally evident only in face-to-face communication, manifesting as complex, reciprocal mannerisms and expressions that both affect and are affected by attitudes, self-efficacy, and autonomy of the speaker (Nunan, 1998). This theory is applicable to EFL students as it facilitates understanding of why students learning English in a non-English speaking nation may interpret their roles in a specific way in accordance with their non-native English speaking status.

The purpose of this study is to ascertain what common challenges are faced by EFL learners, as this is particularly critical given English's global language status (Crystal, 2003). By extension, the following two research questions are posed:

1. What common challenges are faced by EFL learners in non-English speaking nations?

2. How can these challenges by surmounted, if at all?

Methodology

In recognising that there are problems faced by EFL students around the world, this researcher pursued the posed questions by exploring recent, scholarly literature on the topic. Using an electronic library search, literature was selected that was published in peer-reviewed journals within the last five years. The following keywords were used for the search, within the context of peer-reviewed journals published since the year 2006: English as a foreign language, challenges, students, teaching strategies, obstacles, and learning differences. Any literature that did not focus on non-English speaking nations specifically was eliminated, and four, peer-reviewed journal articles were selected for addressing the research questions.

The articles were selected due to their scientific nature, using mixed-method methodologies, and their critical discussion of challenges faced by EFL students in a range of nations around the world. Supplementing these four studies were two texts that provided a theoretical foundation for the study; these texts were not confined to the ten-year timeframe for publishing. The study explored the research questions by synthesising the authors' conclusions and expanding on their evidence critically and thoughtfully.

Results

The research suggests that there are several common challenges faced by EFL students; these are related to self-efficacy, attitudes, learner autonomy, and teaching strategies. The literature varies considerably regarding how these challenges should be overcome, as most of the empirical evidence surrounded identifying the challenges and only speculated how these challenges could be surmounted. The four studies varied widely according to participant pools and methodologies used; and yet, the aforementioned, common themes were evident.

Young EFL Learner Self-Efficacy

The link between learner self-efficacy and academic performance is well documented but has been asserted as even more paramount within the context of language acquisition (Wang & Pape, 2007). Authors Wang and Pape (2007) cite that learners with a higher degree of self-efficacy are more persistent in solving language problems but highlighted that self-efficacy among young language learners is under-studied. Given the dearth of research regarding young EFL students and self-efficacy, the authors examined the relationship between self-efficacy and English language learning among three, Chinese students.

Self-efficacy is defined by Wang and Pape (2007) as "individuals' judgments of what they can do with the skills they possess, rather than the judgments of the skills themselves, and four major sources of self-efficacy information impact the level of self-efficacy: mastery or enactive experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and physiological or emotional state" (p. 364). Mastery and enactive experiences relates to past experiences of successes and failures, with the former raising self-efficacy and latter diminishing it, while vicarious experience refers to the observation of others' successes and failures (Wang & Pape, 2007). Social persuasion is the feedback received by students from peers and adults regarding the adequacy of language performance, and somatic information is the meaning given to the learning challenge (Wang & Pape, 2007).

Three, Chinese boys within the same academic context were qualitatively studied over a six month period. The methodology included three audiotaped parental interviews, six hours of interviews with the children, fifteen videotaped observations of the participants at play, fifteen classroom observations, thirty follow-up, unstructured interviews, and a wide range of academic documents (Wang & Pape, 2007). A mix of Chinese and English were used during the study, and self-efficacy was judged according to persistence in accomplishing language tasks, self-awareness of English proficiency, and willingness to engage in language activities (Wang & Pape, 2007). The study concluded that self-efficacy was mutable according to observed context. Moreover, vicarious self-efficacy was not able to be examined since there was no modeling available to students, and there was a strong influence of the particular task on the students' self-efficacy. The simpler the task, overall, the higher the degree of self-efficacy for the students (Wang & Pape, 2007). Natural settings, such as the playground or cafeteria, seemed to boost student self-efficacy over classroom settings, though the bulk of observation took place in the classroom.

Attitudes of EFL Higher Education Students

Similar to self-efficacy, attitudes of language learners are posited to have a significant impact of learning success (Abu-Melhim, 2009). Attitudes diverge from self-efficacy, however, in several important ways. Attitudes are associations between objects and evaluations of those objects. Alternatively, attitudes are enduring evaluations of aspects of the social world that are stored within students' memories. Positive attitudes reveal the advantages of the object or, more specifically, the advantages of the subject's acknowledgement of the object's value (Abu-Melhim, 2009). Negative attitudes are those that conversely reveal the disadvantages of the object (Abu-Melhim, 2009).

Attitudes have three components; these being affective or feelings about the attitude object, behavioural or a predisposition to act toward the attitude object in a specific way, and cognitive or beliefs specifically about the attitude object (Abu-Melhim, 2009). With respect to language specifically, the affecting attitudes are toward the language, toward learning the language, toward the teacher, and toward school in general. Abu-Melhim (2009) explored the attitudes of forty-five female EFL students in Jordan through qualitative interviews, concluding that the motivations for learning English significantly impacted the attitudes toward English language learning.

For example, many students believed that learning English was necessary to achieve their career goals, while others were merely pursuing the language because their parents were recommending they do so. Positive attitudes toward the language stemmed from believing it was important for becoming a global citizen, traveling and communicating cross-culturally. Only 64% of students cited that they "liked" the English language, and over 60% of participants had chosen the institution in which they were studying the language. A dominant theme existed that highlighted perceived necessity of English as influencing student attitudes.

Teaching Strategies and EFL Learning

Both Abu-Melhim and Wang and Pape highlighted that the teacher holds the power to support learner success, countering low self-efficacy and negative attitudes among learners, respectively. Gocer (2010) extends this point by citing that teaching strategies determine the techniques used by students during language acquisition, promoting listening, speaking, reading, and writing to varying degrees. For example, an educator that utilises visual and auditory tools will attract student attention, create dialogue environments, and assist in promoting the use of language in a natural environment.

The three, dominant types of teaching strategies are metacognitive, or those that involve knowing about learning and controlling it accordingly, cognitive, or those that transform the material, and social-affective, or those that involve the learner in direct communication (Gocer, 2010). The ability of the teacher to promote an environment in which learners experience all types of strategies to varying degrees is paramount, but non-native English speaking teachers struggle with balancing instruction in this way (Gocer, 2010). By extension, a salient challenge faced by students is the non-native English speaking status of teachers. Gocer (2010) investigated the relationship between teaching strategies and student success in several Turkish high schools, using qualitative interviews. The study concluded that most teachers use multi-media techniques in teaching and approach EFL instruction from an eclectic perspective. The author highlighted a possible dearth of discussion regarding the advantages of English language learning in class, citing that teachers did not examine the importance of English beyond the classroom to a sufficient extent. Alternative assessments and learner-centered instruction were rarely employed, and Gocer (2010) acknowledged that this is a considerable issue and would provide greater success among EFL students.

Porto (2007) corroborated Gocer's (2010) conclusions that lecture-and-drill methods of teaching and assessment were insufficient in promoting the success of EFL students. According to Porto (2007), students should be afforded a certain amount of independence during their learning, and this is particularly critical for language learners. Learner independence manifests in learner choice, which also boosts self-efficacy, learner reflection, which encourages introspection and a reevaluation of potentially poor attitudes toward the language. Porto (2007) examined the efficacy of learning diaries in promoting EFL learning among Argentinean college students learning English, concluding that the diaries were an invaluable teaching tool that boosted self-efficacy and countered negative attitudes among EFL learners.

Discussion

The literature suggests that the common challenges facing EFL learners of all ages are low self-efficacy, poor attitudes, and teaching strategies that do not afford them a high degree of independence. Three of the four studies (Abu-Melhim, 2009; Gocer, 2010; Porto, 2007) also suggested that non-native English speaking teachers could inadvertently hinder the language acquisition of students, with Abu-Melhim (2009) asserting that these teachers were less likely to use alternative assessments and eclectic teaching strategies. The literature was limited by the cultural contexts in which the studies were conducted, but Jordan, Argentina, China, and Turkey are reflective of a broad, cultural context. The following section synthesises the research, affording particular respect to existing gaps and limitations while making recommendations for future studies.

Research Question I: Challenges Faced by EFL Learners

Though Wang and Pape's (2007) study focused on young EFL students, and the other three studies highlighted university-level learners, the challenges faced by all participants seemed markedly similar. The common challenges are related to low self-efficacy, poor attitudes, and narrow teaching strategies that fail to promote learner independence. In identifying these challenges, methods for surmounting them in answer to the second research question will become more evident.

Self-Efficacy Problems.

For example, Wang and Pope's (2007) study asserted that all three participants were very aware that their English proficiency was low, reporting low self-efficacy levels for tasks that required a skill level greater than what they possessed. Vocabulary was a particular area of struggle for the participants, and past, negative experiences in English vocabulary tests significantly lowered the participants' self-efficacy levels. Emerging from Wang and Pape's (2007) study, however, was that areas in which the language content was situated was particularly critical. One of the participants, for instance, excelled at the game of chess, so language-related questions that highlighted chess boosted his self-efficacy levels considerably.

All three students in Wang and Pape's (2007) study had low self-efficacy with respect to social persuasion, as the participants' parents and teachers had given the children regular, derogatory comments regarding their English-speaking ability. Poor report cards and low test scores that were not mediated by any verbal feedback or constructive criticism were particularly damaging to the students' self-efficacy, and, in turn, boost anxiety levels during language learning. Anxiety levels were among the most significant self-efficacy challengers, and there seemed to be a reciprocal relationship between anxiety and self-efficacy (Wang & Pape, 2007). Anxiety as being interconnected to self-efficacy was highlighted by Porto (2007) as well, with the author examining how teaching strategies boosting learner independence also reduce anxiety and boost self-efficacy.

Overall, self-efficacy as it relates to EFL success and learner autonomy is prevalent in all four studies. Accommodation theory asserts that language speakers will assume the roles they believe they have (Crystal, 2003), and self-efficacy then has the power to promote success not only in the classroom context but also during practical application of English in the proverbial real-world. If the classroom is a microcosm of environment in which students will apply their English knowledge, then a high degree of self-efficacy in the academic world will translate accordingly in professional and social contexts.

EFL students are in a unique position in that English is generally not entirely foreign to these learners; they have preconceived notions of grammar and vocabulary birthed from interactions with films and other media (Crystal, 2003). By extension, self-efficacy birthed from past experience with English that was positive is critical to EFL success. Moreover, creating opportunities for students to place English in a context with which they are familiar, such as relating it to a sport or otherwise culturally relevant subject, is paramount in boosting self-efficacy for young learners in particular.

Negative Attitudes.

Abu-Melhim (2009), Porto (2007), and Wang and Pape (2007) all placed considerable emphasis on negative attitudes toward the English language as a salient obstacle in learning the language. Wang and Pape (2007) cited that not only do negative attitudes toward English impede a willingness to learn; they significantly lower self-efficacy among young learners. Identifying with an English speaking community is paramount in non-English speaking nations for EFL students, and that identification should not be a coerced one. Promoting positive connections with English-speaking communities, be they virtual or otherwise, is then a valuable means of reducing negative attitudes and promoting self-efficacy.

Overall, the literature highlights attitudes towards English as malleable in the same way that self-efficacy can change over time (Abu-Melhim, 2009; Wang & Pape, 2007). Abu-Melhim (2009) highlights that attitudes are internalized, however, and external influences in the academic environment can only affect attitudes among students insofar as they allow those effects to take place. Positive attitudes toward the language promote a willingness to be challenged and make mistakes, and these attitudes are birthed only from a genuine willingness to want to learn the language (Abu-Melhim, 2009).

The positive attitudes had by EFL students fuel an internal desire to acquire the language that, according to Abu-Melhim (2009), is not entirely controllable by teachers. The author asserts "it is crucial that students play their role. The role they play depends very much on their attitude towards the language itself and learning it. For instance, if you perceive the English language as not important, then to you, learning the language is a sheer waste of time. Whatever the work you produce is done out of routine" (p. 682). In essence, positive attitudes serve as a motivator, while negative attitudes serve as a considerable demotivator.

While the literature is clear on the link between negative attitudes, poor self-efficacy, and low levels of EFL success, it does not discuss from where, precisely, these attitudes emerge. Though Wang and Pape (2007) and Abu-Melhim (2009) highlight that teachers should aim to counter negative attitudes, neither author makes any concrete recommendations regarding how to do so beyond promoting membership in English-speaking communities. Only Gocer (2010) and Porto (2007) articulate how certain teaching strategies could potentially promote positive attitudes toward English.

Teaching Strategies.

Both Gocer (2010) and Porto (2007) discuss various teaching strategies that promote EFL student success. According to Gocer (2010), teachers of English in Turkey are generally highly educated and pursue continuing education workshops regularly. In the classroom, however, they tend to opt for multimedia materials such as textbooks and CD-ROMs. Only 50% of participants had an eclectic teaching style that varied methods such as presentation, findings, naturalistic settings, role-play, and collaborative learning (Gocer, 2010). Physical, classroom conditions were often insufficient, as were schedules for the teachers. Gocer (2010) writes that "the teachers who teach English in Turkey as a foreign language do not have the necessary competence in terms of the use of modern education strategies, utilization of materials and class applications, etc.... [T]he lessons are attempted to be conducted with a traditional teaching approach in which no environment is prepared for the efficient use of the target language" (p. 196). Consequently, Gocer (2010) concluded that none of the students exhibited interest in or desire to learn English effectively.

Students must be exposed to the advantages of English beyond the classroom, lest they will not be sufficiently motivated to acquire English. In a non-English speaking country, exposure to English-speaking communities and the use of teaching strategies that employ alternative assessments beyond lecture-and-drill, textbook-based learning is critical in catering to a wide population of learners (Gocer, 2010; Porto, 2007). Students learn differently, and Gocer's (2010) study indicates that a large portion of highly education EFL teachers in Turkish schools are only employing narrow teaching methods.

Porto (2007) discussed the insufficient nature of most EFL teaching strategies, corroborating Gocer's (2010) point that many teachers rely heavily on their instructional materials and do not seek out alternative methods for assessment and instruction. Both Porto (2007) and Gocer (2010) highlight that EFL teachers frequently do not have time to explore alternative teaching strategies, but Porto (2007) argues that fostering learner independence is paramount to the EFL classroom and can be done in any curricular context.

Research Question II: Surmounting the Challenges

Articulating the importance of cultural differences, Porto (2007) uniquely examines how learner autonomy is conducive to learning the English language, as it is situated in a capitalistic, individually focused culture. Learner autonomy, like high self-efficacy and positive attitudes toward English, is difficult to achieve and emerges gradually out of a combination of accommodation and resistance. In accordance with accommodation theory, learners who are allowed to independently pursue tasks begin to take on the role of being an independent speaker of English (Porto, 2007).

Autonomous learning takes place within one of four contexts; these are language awareness, awareness of learning options, awareness of learning goals, and awareness of self (Porto, 2007). Porto (2007) uses diary writing as a means of manifesting learner autonomy in all of these areas, emphasizing that the reflective nature of writing can counter internalised, negative attitudes toward the English language. Because poor attitudes exist on the unconscious level, particularly if they are enduring attitudes, diary writing can reveal issues affecting EFL success of which the student may be otherwise unaware.

In accordance with Wang and Pape's (2007) assertion that learners have higher self-efficacy when a language learning task is situated within a familiar context, Porto (2007) cites that allowing students a degree of freedom when writing in their diaries is paramount, as it supports the personally relevant pursuit of learning. Self-efficacy is significantly greater when there is a higher degree of learner choice, and the diaries allow students to effectively boost their own self-efficacy while navigating potential obstacles to learning (Porto, 2007). The learning diaries provided a context for self-reflection that revealed a range of issues affecting success in the EFL classroom and provided a valuable channel for formative assessment for the instructor.

Porto's (2007) use of self-reflection also aligns closely with Wang and Pape's (2007) recommendation that students focus on positive experiences as a means of boosting their self-efficacy. Journaling can uncover experiences with English that students may not otherwise be cognizant, thereby promoting further inquiry and greater self-efficacy. In countering negative attitudes, reflective journaling helps students unpack these attitudes, potentially revealing that they are unfounded (Porto, 2007). Porto (2007) also argues that urging students to discuss their journal entries facilitates a classroom community of reflection that is a powerful mechanism in motivating learners and fostering learner autonomy.

The accommodation theory framework is particularly critical to Porto's (2007) study, as it provides a structure within which learner independence functions to promote successful English speakers beyond the classroom. Traditional, EFL classroom practice counters learner autonomy and therefore does not provide a context in which learners will accommodate their role as independent English speakers. One of the greatest challenges faced by EFL students is an inability to make choices that will facilitate language-related decisions (Porto, 2007). In the proverbial real-world, there are no textbooks and vocabulary quizzes, and EFL students that have only been afforded lecture-and-drill opportunities for learning are not successful in the professional or social English-speaking context. Porto concludes the following:

In countries where the importance of reflection, critical thinking, and autonomy in language learning and learning in general is acknowledged and practiced, this study points to the value of systematic introspection by learners and instructors over time, not only in foreign language learning contexts but also in content area learning and in the acquisition of native languages. The results of this study also suggest that the exploration and public sharing of different understandings on the part of instructors and their students of what learning and teaching involve may foster tolerance, eradicate stereotyped views about learning and teaching, improve teacher-student relationships and, in this way, lead to autonomy and critical reflection in learning (p. 672).

The literature reveals that common challenges exist for English language learners in non-English speaking nations, and teaching strategies that extend beyond those found in traditional EFL practice have the ability to at least partially aid students in surmounting these challenges.

Synthesis

The literature clearly reveals that low self-efficacy, poor attitudes, and insufficient teaching strategies are the most significant challenges faced by EFL students. Gocer's (2010) study highlighted that teacher training is not a particular problem, though Abu-Melhim (2009) discussed that poor EFL teacher training has been emphasized in previous literature as formidable issues in the EFL profession. Limited resources, including time, were highlighted in both Gocer's (2010) and Porto's (2007) study as potential obstacles for EFL learners, but all four studies argued that self-efficacy, poor attitudes, and insufficient teaching strategies were common problems.

The four studies focused geographically and culturally on China, Turkey, Argentina, and Jordan, all of which are non-English speaking nations. Cultivating learner autonomy, boosting self-efficacy, and expanding teaching strategies seemed to be more realistic in terms of ways educators can affect EFL student success than changing the attitudes of students. However, the literature did highlight that attitudes, like self-efficacy, is mutable. Teachers that make use of strategies such as reflective journaling can then provide opportunities for students to amend their own attitudes in an autonomous way, as attitudes cannot be externally changed.

Recommendations for Future Research

All of the literature had relatively small participant pools, under fifty participants, and was very specific to a geographic locale. Future research should focus on expanding the participant pools across national and cultural lines. The most salient areas of future research that are indicative of gaps in the reviewed literature are alternative assessments, possible limitations in training opportunities for EFL teachers, and possible roots of negative attitudes toward the English language among EFL students.

In short, the literature revealed the challenges that exist and, to a certain extent, articulated how those challenges might be surmounted. However, there was no discussion regarding how those obstacles, particularly low self-efficacy and poor attitudes, might be preemptively addressed. In student self-efficacy can be high from the beginning of EFL instruction in accordance with positive attitudes, then self-efficacy need not be boosted and poor attitudes need not be countered. Language learning is a complex, multidimensional field that demands constant, empirical attention (Crystal, 2003; Nunan, 1998). Given the global nature of the English language, filling the existing gaps in the literature is a critical charge of language professionals in the twenty-first century (Crystal, 2003).

The limited role of the educator highlighted by Abu-Melhim (2009) is at once interesting and unsettling, as a significant part of EFL success is charged to the student alone. If educators cannot, of their own volition, foster students' absorption of English, then optimum channels for facilitating English language learning must be uncovered and implemented into the EFL landscape. Future trends in research will undoubtedly focus on EFL, particularly as it is affected by globalisation. Students in non-English speaking nations will increasingly have more prior engagements with the English language due to the World Wide Web's influence and other technological innovations. Precisely how these forces will impact EFL remains to be seen, though the research implies that positive, prior experiences will boost self-efficacy while negative ones will diminish it (Wade & Pape, 2007).

Though this study only discussed the themes of four, recent studies, the shared nature of these themes is very telling. Future research should examine more of these shared themes, be they challenges or means of surmounting these challenges, as shared obstacles to English language acquisition will emerge as the language itself becomes more common around the world. Additional forces that may emerge as critical in the twenty-first century are the "new Englishes" that are evolving as the language combines with other tongues (Crystal, 2003), English acquisition during early childhood as opposed to later in life, and the advent of business English, relevant primarily in the professional context.

Conclusion

This project aimed to address common problems among EFL students, asking what these problems are and how they might be reasonably surmounted in the classroom. The literature did reflect three common themes, and alternative teaching strategies that afford EFL students a higher degree of autonomy emerged as a salient means of overcoming these shared challenges. Though the studies only focused on four nations, the common challenges experienced by students in China, Argentina, Jordan, and Turkey is likely indicative of these challenges pervading EFL instruction all over the world; these nations have few cultural ties within one another, even in this age of globalisation, and amending EFL instruction globally is an important goal for modern educators all over the world.

Undoubtedly, however, there cannot be a universal means of providing EFL instruction, as tailoring the learning experience to students individually and as much as possible is integral to the modern field of education. Supporting learner independence and encouraging self-reflection among students can address a range of challenges burdening the learning community, many of which are related to inclusion and learner diversity. For language learners, however, the internalisation of an independent, English speaker's role is important if the language is going to be spoken outside of the classroom context which is, ultimately, the goal of EFL instruction.

This study could easily be expanded to delve into more studies that examine the role played by the three, identified challenges in foreign language learning in general, outside of the English language context. Language is acquired in much the same way across cultural lines (Nunan, 1998), and the investigation of common themes shared by the language learning community can benefit a range of learners. More research is needed to address from where the identified obstacles stem, as preventatively addressing the problems of low learner self-efficacy and poor attitudes toward the English language is preferable to allowing these issues to manifest and address them after-the-fact.

Accommodation theory was significantly useful in framing this problem, as it promotes the role of learner's perceptions in assuming the role of an EFL speaker. If learners perceive themselves to be poor speakers of English, they will effectually be poor speakers of English. Similarly, if students perceive English to be an instrument of cultural imperialism, they are unlikely to devote the time and energy needed to acquire English. Educators can provide opportunities for boosting self-efficacy and enhancing positive attitudes toward English, but they cannot force students to have high self-efficacy or view the language positively.

In the end, it is the charge of students to authenticate their English language learning, and this authentication must come, in part, from an acknowledgement of English's role in the contemporary world. This project is significant in that it highlights that while English is prevalent in the world marketplace, EFL instruction is comparatively lacking. While predicting the future of languages is difficult, the English language is undoubtedly becoming standard throughout the world, particularly with respect to business (Crystal, 2003). EFL instruction is, by extension, integral to most standardised, educational systems in a range of nations, both developed and developing alike, and students who possess a genuine, accommodating interest in learning the language will be more successful in this task than those who do not. The role of the educator is an important one, but not an all-powerful one. Teachers are facilitators of language learning who open channels for language acquisition (Nunan, 1998); they do not embed information in students' minds.

Annotated Bibliography

Abu-Melhim, A. (2009). Attitudes of Jordanian College Students towards Learning English as a Foreign Language. College Student Journal, 43(2), 682-700.

This journal article discusses the critical role played by language learners' attitudes in an English as a foreign language (EFL) context. The researchers embarked upon an empirical, mixed-method investigation of Jordanian EFL learners' attitudes toward English and highlighted that shared, negative attitudes exist for these students, many of which stem from being forced to learn English by their parents or otherwise not feeling sufficiently motivated to learn the language. The author does not highlight other root causes for these attitudes, however, and this is a significant limitation of the study. This study will be used in identifying poor attitudes as a possible obstacle to EFL students. There are several parallels with other studies reviewed herein that are markedly useful to the inquiry, including how teachers might act to counter negative attitudes in a very limited way.

Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

This text provides a comprehensive, though sometimes speculative, look at how the English language is evolving in the twenty-first century. The author highlights that English is increasingly "global," and educators are aiming to catch-up to the pervasiveness of the language in the business landscape. This was one of two sources that were used primarily as reference books regarding to language instruction. Overall, the author provides a brief overview of accommodation theory, which is the primary, theoretical framework for the study. An additional use was the predictions made regarding English's manifestations in the future, which were discussed briefly in the conclusion.

Gocer, A. (2010). A Qualitative Research on the Teaching Strategies and Class Applications of the High School Teachers Who Teach English in Turkey as a Foreign Language. Education, 131(1), 196-231.

The author discusses how Turkish EFL teachers provide EFL instruction to their students, highlighting several limitations experienced by these instructors. Only half of the educators surveyed diversified instructional strategies, with the remaining participants relying heavily on textbooks and lecture-and-drill methods. The author argues that this is extremely detrimental for language learners, and alternative means of assessment need to be implemented in order for instruction to be more meaningful for students. This study will be used primarily to discuss the limited nature of traditional, EFL practice.

Nunan, D. (1998). Second Language Learning and Teaching. Boston, MA: Heinle Publishing.

This very general text discusses practical strategies for second language learning not limited to English. The author reveals dominating strategies in the foreign language classroom, discusses how pedagogical development influences language learning, and reveals future trends in foreign language instruction. In addition to the Crystal (2003) text, this text was used primarily as a reference book for general, language learning information.

Porto, M. (2007). Learning Diaries in the English as a Foreign Language Classroom: a Tool for Accessing Learners' Perceptions of Lessons and Developing Learner Autonomy and Reflection. Foreign Language Annals, 40(4), 672-703.

This study was very significant to this project. Highlighting how teaching strategies are too narrow in traditional, EFL learning to suit all students and promote learner independence, the author investigates how using reflective journaling can boost learner self-efficacy and counter negative attitudes toward English language acquisition. Because this study addressed directly all three of the challenges revealed as facing EFL students, it was used in answer to research question two, which discussed possible means of overcoming obstacles.

Wang, C., & Pape, S. J. (2007). A Probe into Three Chinese Boys' Self-Efficacy Beliefs Learning English as a Second Language. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 21(4), 364-399.

Though this study had a very small participant pool, it was useful in its overview of self-efficacy as it relates to the EFL student. The authors discuss the various types of self-efficacy as they directly inform EFL success. Though the use of only three participants proved problematic in revealing common themes, the authors' conclusions remain relevant in that they highlight how greater self-efficacy promotes EFL success. A unique point made by the author was that language learning opportunities situated within a personally relevant context promoted a greater degree of learner self-efficacy. Overall, this study will be employed as a means of highlighting low self-efficacy as a challenge faced by EFL students.