This document discusses decision support of academic course structures. Java, common gate interfaces, PHP, XML, XHTML, database systems, Oracle, SQL, and mySQL are discussed in the context of academic decision support systems. This document supports the presentation. .

1. Background of Academic Decision Support Systems

The process of designing an academic course is very complex. A key aspect of the design involves structuring the course in a manner that ensures that students can easily progress from year to year. Course directors need to be able to reliably plan a program of study for new students, while maintaining course progression for existing students. In order to design the course in an effective manner, the lecturing staff should have insight into the modules within the course. The entire process needs to be incorporated, from prerequisites to learning outcomes.

The process of choosing modules for the unit is very important to student outcomes. Mechanising a course structure enables students to explore optional paths within the course subject matter. In order successfully design the course, and meet student needs, a number of criteria must be met. The design selected must be very clear and simple so that the student can choose the appropriate modules. At the same time, the lecturer must understand the context in which the module is being taught.

The decision support system must be designed in such a way that the structure of the course can be both supported and modified. The types of modules within the course must be identifiable as prerequisites, linked modules, excluded modules, compulsory modules, or optional modules. The decision support system must be developed in such a fashion that modules can be edited, added, or deleted. Each module must have a description so that anyone accessing the module will know the contents, and the mode of assessment must be displayed.

At any university, there are a number of courses. Each course will have multiple modules. Some of the modules will be optional, but others are essential. In order to take best advantages of the opportunities offered, students have to be able to discern the structure of the course. This project will focus on the undergraduate course in information technology at Heriot Watt University. It is divided into several sections: programming languages, database systems, user interfaces, system building, and program evaluation.

2. Programming Languages

A programming language will need to be selected as the basis for the decision support system for the academic course structure. The two primary platforms that would be appropriate for this application: either Java, or PHP. Java can be used to apply all the requirements, but PHP could also be used as the programming language.

2.1 Java

Java was originally developed by Sun Microsystems as an alternative to C++/C programming. Java was developed both as a platform and a language that Sun hoped to use in development of smart appliances for the home. However, the developers soon realized that its real strength would lie in providing a platform for the World Wide Web. Java is very prominent in a number of applications, with more than 850 million PCs supporting Java, 2.1 billion mobile phones or handhelds supporting the platform, 3.5 billion smart cards utilizing Java, and numerous set-top boxes, printers, games, car systems, lottery point of sale terminals, medical devices, and Web cams using Java (Oracle).

Apple's Mac bundles Java, and an open source version called GNU Classpath is included with many distributions (Apple). Java was redefined as open source software in 2006, after Sun sued Microsoft for adding proprietary Windows applications to the bundled environment (Loukides).

The Java platform represents a virtual machine that runs Java code. The code is the same across many systems; a Java processor translates the code into instructions that the processor can understand for any particular machine. The code is kept in memory while the program executes. Java code allows Java programs to run on any platform that is based on a virtual machine. The programs themselves are independent, but every operating platform has its own version of Java's virtual machine.

Java is widely used, but it is not without its drawbacks. Yegge suggested that any development project which has a short schedule, is under a great deal of pressure, needs to do individual testing, or needs agile response times is probably not the best suited to the Java environment. He pointed out that there are many individual frameworks within Java. These frameworks, which provide great flexibility to experienced programmers, can make it very difficult for new programmers to acquire necessary skills. The compiler checks exceptions and thus makes the code cleaner, but it adds time to the development phase and lengthens code. According to Yegge (2009) there is a great deal of information that cannot be expressed in Java. Instead, it must be handled using XML. The use of XML within Java increases the complexity of the coding and causes the code to be longer than might otherwise be necessary. The overall effect is to make Java harder to learn and a complex code to write. Yegge (2009) points out some severe limitations:

No first-class functions, no reference parameters, no keyword or default params, no destructuring bind or even parallel assignment, no way to return multiple values efficiently, no continuations, no user-defined operators, no generators, no closures, no tuples.

Thus, while the project could use Java to apply all the requirements, another choice to apply the system is through the use of PHP as the programming language. Though not without disadvantages, PHP offers significant advantages to the project.

2.2 PHP

PHP is a widely used language that was originally developed by Rasmus Lerdorf to produce his personal webpages (Machlis, 2002). In an interview with Machlis, Rasmus Lerdorf, the creator of PHP, suggested that there are some significant advantages of using PHP. It is open sources, the learning curve is very small, and the syntax resembles parts of C., Java, and Perl. It is also very focused and has a great deal of readily available (and free) online information. According to Lerdorf, PHP is ideally suited to tying a web interface to a database. It adapts well for use with flash and pdf files. It is ideally suited to extracting information from data bases. Lerdorf does emphasize that the real strength of PHP is its use as a web interface.

LINUX Self-Help suggests that there are both significant disadvantages and advantages to using PHP. The advantages appear to outweigh the disadvantages. One of the greatest disadvantages is that PHP does not have the performance speed of C or C++. It is a scripting language, and it needs to be interpreted. It is also not purely object oriented, although this is changing as PHP incorporates some of Java's better features.

One of the greatest advantages to PHP, according to LINUX Self-Help, is that PHP is a very rapid web development tool. The group reported that an application which takes three months to write in C++ can be done in PHP in around four days. This is a significant advantage. Though PHP is slower, it can be combined with a Zend optimizer to speed up the execution, negating the disadvantage above. There are no compilers or linkages in PHP, increasing the rate of production of code. PHP is not browser dependent, and this increases its stability. It can run on UNIX, LINUX, and Windows and is more powerful than other development languages. Finally, PHP has many users and millions of developers. This is a significant advantage when developing new code or modules (LINUX Self-Help, 2009).

Verens pointed out that Java has gone down in popularity over the past 7 years, while PHP has gone up. Java went from 26% in 2001, to 21% in 2008. PHP, on the other hand, has gone from 2.4% to 9.89% and is continuing to rise. He does suggest that speed may be an issue when developing a very large website. He also suggested that the main difference between Java and PHP is the way it is embedded. PHP can be inserted wherever it makes sense in a website, but Java must have the whole website geared to its use. Thus, PHP is significantly more flexible. One other factor exists that must be considered; PHP is typically used in large-scale user systems, while Java can be used in any size application.

2.3 XML

XLM, or Extensible Markup Language, is a free class of languages that are used to code documents electronically. Its data format is very simple and easy to learn. It is particularly useful for designing webpages or documents that must interface with the web. XML is a general class of language, and a number of variations of XML have been developed. Most office-type applications use an XML base, including open source office packages such as Open Office, and Microsoft's Office package. It is possible to view the XML code of most web pages by going to the 'view' menu of the browser and selecting 'source'. Cover (2005a) has developed an extensive listing of XML applications and industry initiatives that can be utilized in developing XML applications. The purpose of XML was originally to be "served, received, and processed on the Web in the way that is now possible with HTML" (Cover, 2005b, XML Overview).

XML documents are comprised of entities containing data. The data is made of characters. While some of the characters are data from the document, some are markup language. Here is an example from the sign in page of Facebook, the social utility program:

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
" w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns=" w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" id="facebook" class=" no_js">
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-language" content="en" />
<meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=EmulateIE7" />
<script type="text/javascript">
//<![CDATA[
window._is_quickling_index="";CavalryLogger=false;
//]]>
</script><noscript> <meta http-equiv=refresh content="0; URL=?_fb_noscript=1" /> </noscript>

<meta name="robots" content="noodp,noydir" />
<meta name="description" content=" Facebook is a social utility that connects people with friends and others who work, study and live around them. People use Facebook to keep up with friends, upload an unlimited number of photos, post links and videos, and learn more about the people they meet." />

<title>Welcome to Facebook</title>

(Facebook XML. 2010)

In the example above, the description content, highlighted in grey, describes the contents of the page to Internet search engines. The second highlighted area, marked <title>, shows the title of the specific page that is being accessed. XML is easily learned by most individuals due to the similarity to the English language. The XML document is one of the best ways to put constraints on web pages and documents and describe the document and its contents to the web so that it can be located by search engines.

2.4 XHTML

XHTML is one of the families of markup languages within the overall family of XML. Essentially, XHTML is an edited or cleaned up version of XML. By providing only one way to write certain elements, the machines reading the tags can do so in less amount of times. XHTML is case sensitive, specified items must always be in quotes, and so on. In that sense XHTML might be liked to a formal language, while XML, which has more leeway, could be likened to a slang. Just as formal English is easier for a wide variety of English speakers to understand than is street slang, XHTML is easier for machines to understand simply because it has more structure. Certain forms always mean particular things, ensuring that the machine does not have to stop and interpret the format. However, newer browsers have been developed since XHTML achieved popularity, and many of them are not compatible with the markup. Due to continued incompatibilities with browsers, many coders now believe that XHTML should not be used and rather it should be replaced with HTML or XML.

2.5 Common Gate Interface (CGI)

Common gate interfaces, or CGI, are used for transferring information between the web server and the program. CGIs can be written in Java or can use Active X controls. The CGI takes the request from the web browser (i.e., the URL), and reads it to see what document the browser requests. It locates the document and returns it to the browser. The CGI provides headers in the document to determine how the document will be displayed (Robinson & Coar, 2004). Another common use for CGI is to provide a feedback system that can be used in assessing things such as quality of teaching, making it ideal for the application in decision support systems in academic institutions.

3. Database Systems

Databases are, quite simply, the framework for a collection of organized and retrievable data within the computer system. Relational data base management systems are most commonly in use in business today (Connolly & Begg, 1999) due to the ease of data retrieval and the ability to collect and sort data based on specific fields.

Database design consists of three phases, according to Connolly and Begg (1999, vii): conceptual design, logical design, and physical design. Conceptual database design is the stage at which the project is developed in concept (the "I think we want" phase). Next, the logical design is developed; in the logical design, the customer's desires are compared to what is possible within the bounds of the system. Finally, the physical design is created and planned, the project is tested and when successful, it is populated with data.

There are a number of databases that could be utilized for the proposed decision support system. Two of the databases that would be appropriate for the decision support system are Oracle and MySQL. There are more than database could be used such as Oracle and MySQL. It has advantage such as the open sources and the flexibility of maintenance.

3.1 Oracle

Oracle is a relational data base system which hold data in tables. Oracle is currently the top database in the world. Its processes manage not only how data is stored, but how it is accessed. The data itself is accessed through a separate query language. Structured Query Language, or SQL, is used with Oracle. Oracle typically uses SQL*Plus as a commnd interface to acess the data and write procedures. Oracle Developer is an application builder in the package that can be used to format reports and graphics. Typically, Developer is used to create web applications that are then run under Oracle's application server (Cunningham, 2005).

When run with HTML database, however, no server is needed. It does not require an additonal license since it can utilize an Apache web server that is typically associated with oracle. Thus it is a much more cost effective way to utilize Oracle and develop Oracle applications. One real disadvantage exists, however; Oracle Developer has a number of add ons, but HTML database can only utilized widgets that were provided by HTML.

The Oracle Enterprise Management (OEM) tool manages the database. The OEM is proived by developerst so that they can fine tune the applications that are being sued and also so that they can monitor what is going on in the database. Oracle can also be used with Java, but according to Cunningham SQL, particularly PL/SQL, offers enough flexability that to use Java would be an unnecessary complication of the programming.

3.2 SQL

SQL is a structured query language that it used to query and manipulate data in a database. SQL can be used directly as a script to manipulate the data base or it can be embedded inother languages. It can also be used in PL/SQL, the procedural language that dictates the programs which are stored procedures inside the database.

3.3 MySQL

MySQL has over 100 million copies of its open source software in use, making it the world's largest and most popular open source database program. Many of the world's highest volume database users depend on MySQL: Yahoo!, Google, YouTube, and even Wikipedia run off of MySQL. MySQL is designed to be a functional part of the series of .Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP / Perl / Python, known as LAMP.

Novell lists a number of benefits of using MySQL over Oracle:

- It is easy, cheap, and secure,
- It is fast, scalable, and runs on many operating systems,
- It supports a number of interfaces, including PHP, for great versatility (Novell).

MySQL's chief disadvantage appears to be that it has less add-ons available than does Oracle. However, given the traffic on websites of companies which use MySQL, it is clear that the database program can handle incredibly high traffic. In addition, because of the fact that it is so popular and also open source, there are many programmers available.

4. User Interfaces

According to IBM, a user interface, or UI, is the combination of things that allows the user to communicate with the computer, and allows the computer to communicate back to the human (IBM, 2010). What the user gives the computer is input; what the computer gives back is output. In the case of the academic decision support system, user interfaces become very important simply because of the importance of being able to tell the computer what the user needs, and the complexity of getting the correct answer back.

Although user interfaces can include hardware (i.e., keyboards, head sets and so on), user interfaces also include the software necessary to get messages back and forth. There are a number of types of interfaces but the types addressed here are those that are most likely to be used with the academic decision support project: a web interface, and the desktop application.

Web interfaces can deal with Java and PHP; desktop applications can just deal with Java. Web based user interfaces, or WUI, generate web pages that manifest in the browser. Newer interfaces include touch screens and

5. System Building

Once the programming language, the database system, and the user interface mode have been established, the process of building the system remains. In order for there to be a successful system, the users must have some type of access to the system. This is generally acquired through a log in screen or portal, preferably protected by a password. To fail to password protect the system would be a mistake of the most basic type.

Once the login module has been established, the user interfaces are created. A separate interface must be created for the instructor or lecturer, and another one for the students. A plan must be created for the modules that will be used each semester, and a description must be created for each module. Each of modules must be labeled with the name of the lecturer who will teach the module. The linked modules are placed next to each, and the optional modules for each semester are defined. The minimum number of optional models is decided and a screen preparing the information is provided.

The expected outcome from each module is defined, and the aim of each module is established and provided. A warning notice is developed to be retrieved if the student chooses the wrong module. An example of the use of this warning screen is if the student should choose the prerequisite module rather than the regular module(s). This planning process is part of the development process defined earlier in the paper, as the conceptual, logical, and physical process.

After careful evaluation of all the options, presented in this paper, the decision has been made to develop the project utilizing Java, as it is well suited to a large project with the number of users the system will need to accommodate. MySQL will be utilized as the database application for several reasons. The first is its flexibility, but perhaps the greatest advantage is the fact that it is an open source program that offers low cost combined with ease of development and ease of finding programmers. Finally, the web interface will be utilized as the user interface because it is able to deal with both Java and PHP, while desktop applications only allow the use of Java.

6. Program Evaluation

During the development process, feedback will be acquired from the lecturers and the academic staff. This is particularly valuable during the design phase. Overall, the evaluation of the project will focus on techniques used in the system. The process of evaluation will continue throughout the life-cycle of the project and changes will be made to accommodate the needs of the users if they are both cost effective and will improve utilization of the academic decision support system.

Program evaluations can be programmed into the academic decision support system as a separate module that pops up when the student performs particular key strokes, such as a request for log out. A separate program evaluation form would be programmed for instructors and would also appear on the screen at a given cue. The student or instructor would be prompted to 'click one' for each answer or allowed to enter short answers. Another process for evaluation would have staff distribute hard-copy program evaluation forms to students and instructors several times a year.

While doing the program evaluation on line would take more time to set up initially, it would save time and money in terms of evaluation cost and time to administer the evaluation form. It is recommended that the program evaluation be ongoing and set to pop up every X number of uses by the student or instructor.

References

Apple (2009) Developer connection: Mac OS X reference library.

Connolly, T., & Begg, C. (1999) Database systems: A practical approach to design, implementation, and management. Essex: Pearson Education.

Cover, R. (2005a) XML applications and initiatives: contents lıstıng for XML applications and industry intiatives. Cover Pages.

Cover, R. (2005b) Core standards: Extensible markup Language (XML). Cover Pages.

Cunningham, L. (2005) Learn Oracle: What is Oracle? August 22, 2005. Toolbox for IT.

Facebook XML (2010). facebook, translated by IE 7.

IBM (2010) What is a user interface?

James, P. (2008) XHTML.

Lee, T. (2007) The use of ınformation technology to enhance the quality of teaching and learning in social work practicum An example from the City University of Hong Kong. Journal of Technology in Human Services. 25(1-2) 123-126

Lehrbaum, R. (2002) Focus on embedded systems: Embedded Linux and Java - Wave of the Future? 2002(94) 13.

Lindholm, T. & Yellin, F. (1999) Java™ virtual machine specification. Palo Alto CA: Sun Microsystems

LINUX Self-Help (2005) 19. Limitations of PHP. Linux Self-Help.

Loukides, M. (2006) At last! Open source Java! O'Reilly on Java.

Machlis, S. (2002) Q&A: PHP creator Rasmus Lerdorf. Computerworld, February 4.

MySQL (2010) About MySQL.

Novell (2005) MySQL for NetWare administration.

Oracle (2009) Learn about Java technology.

Robinson, D. & Coar, K. (2004) The common gateway ınterface (CGI) Version 1.1. Network Working Group, Apache Software Foundation.

Verens, K. (2008) Klog: Popularity of PHP vs Java.

Wilson, C. (2005) The <?xml> prolog, strict mode, and XHTML in IE.

Yegge, S. (2009) Basic Java limitations. Brainbell.

Because I love teaching and know I can successfully complete the program, I seek admittance to Oxford University Teachers College's teacher education program. The positive experiences I have had teaching and refereeing sports fuel my aspiration to teach, while the flexibility, perseverance, and leadership skills I developed as a United States Army Reservist can aid in my successfully completing the program.

Having worked with youth in the past, I know I would love to be a teacher and make a difference in kid's lives. As a volunteer at Immaculate High School I taught French in grades 7 to 12. I developed lesson plans, supervised lunches, and worked with high-needs and at-risk students. This experience was highly rewarding, as I could see that through my efforts students were learning and coping better with the pressures of teenage life.

Additionally I was an Intramural Volleyball Referee and a Head Dodge Ball Referee. Supporting and training new referees and handling conflicts between players and teams were also rewarding challenges, where I was able to use my skills to increase sportsmanship and develop capacities in my peers.

Personal attributes such as flexibility, perseverance, and leadership would no doubt aid in my successfully completing the teacher education program at Teachers College. As an Army Reservist I was highly flexible, balancing academic studies with service as a soldier. This work also required perseverance, as I attended hundreds of hours of training in survival, first aid, and so on to complete my service.

Finally, this work, like my experience refereeing, strengthened my leadership skills, as I helped implement leadership training courses with the Leadership Company last summer. My experiences as an educator, referee, and reservist thus confirm both my passion for teaching and my ability to complete the program at Teachers College.

Urie Bronfenbrenner's Theory of Environmental Influence holds that there are several layers of environment that affect children's development. At the most basic level is the family, which Bronfenbrenner calls the Microsystem; it includes the child's family, which provides support for the child with good nutrition, homework, and communicating with teachers about the child's progress (Ormrod 22). The neighborhood and community provide another layer of support; Bronfenbrenner includes these in the Microsystem, as they all have a direct influence on the child's development. Next is the Mesolayer, which provides connections between the Microsystem and the Exosystem, the next layer. These are important connections between, for example, the family and school, or the family and the child's peers. A difficult family life can mean that the child cannot easily development strong and appropriate relationships with his peers. The Exosystem includes friends of the family, neighbors, mass media, social welfare and legal services. Moving farther out is the Macrosystem, which includes the attitudes and ideologies of the culture. Here, such factors as poverty and ethnicity can affect development in a negative way. Finally, there is the Chronosystem, where sociohistorical conditions can affect a person over his or her lifetime. One example would be the rights women have gained in the workplace over the past 30 years.

Popular media gives us examples of how factors like poverty, poor nutrition, and family support systems can bolster or interfere with a child's development. A story in the magazine Georgia Trend discusses the "Poverty Factor" and how poor home circumstances often mean poor school performance. In Georgia, more than a quarter of the children live in poverty, Grillo writes. Educators there say the connections between the stresses of living in poverty and poor academic performance are easy to see. The dropout rate for students from low-income families is shocking: more than four times greater than the rate for students from higher-income families (Grillo 14).

Economically disadvantaged kids are also four times more likely to have lower scores on Criterion-Referenced Competency Tests (CRCT). Many in the education field (as well as parents and other groups) criticize the heavy reliance on standardized competency tests. These tests may give an idea of students' progress but they do little to help the students themselves. Educators need to learn how to better meet the needs of economically disadvantaged students and families-providing the connections Bronfenbrenner's theory shows are so vital to child development.

Poverty affects education in many ways (Sharp). Impoverished students have fewer opportunities to receive educational assistance than do students from wealthier families; their families cannot afford tutors and may not be able to provide help at home, whether due to family members' own lack of skills, family instability (divorce, violence), or parents working long hours to try to pay the bills. The Bangor Daily News reports that poverty's unseen effects on a student's education can include being misdiagnosed with learning disabilities. The president of the NEA, according to this story, says that mislabeling children as disabled when they are not disabled can cause schools to provide services which are not needed and a lack of services which are, thereby resulting in reduced education.

Another big problem that poverty and lack of adequate family support can cause is improper nutrition. The New York Times reports that, although 12 million students across the country receive free breakfasts through a program managed by the Department of Agriculture, many more students need to be receiving this nutrition ("How to Start a Good School Day" A26). Despite the fact that providing free breakfasts reduces hunger and can improve students' academic performance, the New York Times editorial says, there is a huge disparity in the rates of participation in free nutrition programs across the country. Newark, New Jersey provides breakfast to 92 percent of low-income students, while New York City only feeds 35 percent of its students who are at risk for hunger ("How to Start a Good School Day" A26). This gap is disturbing when we consider the importance good nutrition plays in child development. According to Bronfenbrenner's Theory, children who lack this basic element of nutritional support will be at risk of developmental problems.

The important role that education plays in a child's life begins long before first grade. In another New York Times story, it is reported that "children from low-income families start kindergarten an average of 12 to 14 months behind their wealthier peers in language development and pre-reading skills" (Rich A14). Preschool-aged children who come from disadvantaged environments can make up much of this difference through appropriate preschool programs. However, the New York Times reveals, in the 2011-2012 school year, the largest annual drop in ten years in state financing for preschool occurred, falling by almost 10 percent (Rich A14). This has been described as "a state of emergency" by W. Steven Barnett, director of the National Institute for Early Education Research at Rutgers University. Barnett was the lead author of a report showing that "enrollment in state-financed preschool has stagnated at about 28 percent of 4-year-olds and four percent of 3-year-olds" (Rich A14). This is an abysmal rate that is unacceptable in view of the lifetime effects it could have on children whose development will be stunted from an early age. President Obama recently announced a plan, financed by raising federal cigarette taxes, which would fund preschool for all 4-year-olds from low- or moderate-income families. It remains to be seen whether the program will be adequately funded or how it will be implemented by the states.

The above news stories describe issues which could have serious outcomes for education. It is frustrating for an educator to realize that the effects on children of a disadvantaged environment are known: studies have repeatedly shown that poverty, stressful home life, lack of access to educational materials, and poor nutrition have grave adverse effects. It is encouraging that the president is trying to ensure that all children have access to preschool. It is somewhat less encouraging to think about the problems Congress has had (or created themselves) in advancing legislation of any kind, much less for education.

The potential outcomes for education will depend upon how law-makers, educators, and parents react to the problems presented here. There is already some reason for hope, as evidenced by the president's preschool proposal. It helps that the media are reporting things like the National Institute for Early Education Research report. But more needs to be done. Educators need to make sure their voices are heard. Politicians do not react to issues that have no advocates. Cynical as it may sound, if there is no one making enough noise on a particular issue, that issue will die a slow death (or perhaps a quick one) and never be addressed.

Education relies upon politicians to pass the laws which supply the funding that gets programs financed. These are difficult days for finding funding. Budgets are being squeezed beyond capacity and still the available money falls far short of what is needed to accomplish what we know needs to be done. It is easy to get Congress or state governments to react in the face of a catastrophic emergency like a hurricane or a bombing. The tragedy is all over the news; the stories make good television.

Devastation is shown and people's pocketbooks as well as the public coffers open up. But what people need to realize is that the devastation caused by childhood poverty is just as great as any natural disaster or act of terrorism. Once a child is launched on a path of hunger, neglect, misdiagnosis, and unrelenting stress, it is almost impossible for her to recover. Yes, there are a few examples we can find, like the educators mentioned in "The Poverty Factor" who managed to prevail against the odds (Grillo 14-21). But they are the exceptions which prove the rule: in order to thrive, a child must have a nourishing environment.

So, the answer to the question "what are the potential outcomes?" depends entirely on us. It is quite possible that the status quo will remain; cries of "there's no funding for that!" will continue to be heard. Catastrophes with a good visual hook will take precedence over the quiet catastrophe of doing nothing for our children. The money that is made available will be spread so thin that it cannot accomplish any of the goals it was meant to. Children will go to school hungry, have trouble concentrating, fail to learn, be put into classes for the disabled, and either graduate or, more likely, drop out-either way, with an inadequate education.

Or ... educators and parents will make enough noise; politicians will actually be forced by their constituents to listen; priorities will be seen to be skewed and will be reshuffled, putting our children first. It would be nice to be optimistic and say "of course, this will happen." And it can. But only time will tell if it actually does.

Works Cited

Grillo, Jerry. "The Poverty Factor." Georgia Trend 28.4 (2012): 14-21. Print.

"How to Start a Good School Day." New York Times 7 March 2013: A26. Print.

Ormrod, Jeanne E. Educational Psychology: Developing Learners. Boston : Pearson/Allyn & Bacon, 2011. Print.

Rich, Motoko. "Preschool Financing Has Dropped, Study Finds." New York Times 29 April 2013: A14. Print.

Sharp, Kelly. "Poverty Affects Education." Bangordailynews.com. Bangor Daily News, 3 December 2012. Web.

Introduction

The automation of machine tools has been referred to as numerical control since the 1940s. These machines had motors, which were controlled by punched tape. An outcome of these servomechanisms is the machine tools of today, which are computer numerical controlled (CNC). There have been a number of improvements made to these machines which rely on adaptive controls. This type of control is done automatically and relies upon monitoring of the machine performance operation in response to variable conditions. This type of control can prevent damage to machines due to malfunctions. For example, a drill bit may become too dull and cause additional stress on the motor. As the motor overheats due to increased friction, it could be damaged. An adaptive machine would shut the motor down before any damage was done. A more sensitive type of machine would reduce the pressure placed on the drill bit according to its changing level of sharpness. Adaptive machines have reduced the cost of manufacturing. There are many types of manufacturing, which now require only one individual to monitor a computer screen (Tao). This same system may have previously required several individuals to constantly adjust the machines.

Closed Loop Systems

A closed loop adaptive control system uses a recursive identification algorithm in real time to compute the control parameters. These parameters are based on the current values received from appropriately placed sensors. The adjustments depend on the desired performance level of the machine. The controller can be tuned automatically by the appropriate computer software to react to variable conditions. This can be done each time the controller takes measurements or on a predetermined schedule. If a schedule is used it is important that the programmer be certain that the time-frame is appropriate.

It is critical that an adaptive control system using a closed loop have a supervision function. This function should monitor the measurement of operational conditions and the adaptive loop to ensure that the correct operation is being programmed. This prevents the adaptive system from giving inappropriate direction to the machine due to problems with monitoring. For example, a signal may be weak and indicate that the machine requires more power. This could result in the adaptive control sending an excess of power to the machine and causing it to damage the product (Landau & Zito).

There are two general types of adaptive control closed loop systems. The first is the self-tuning operation. This type of adaptation begins when there is degradation in performance. It stops when the performance has been restored. With the second type of operation, there is an algorithm which controls the machine operation at all times. Either of these methods can be useful and frequently depend on the type of machine and conditions in which it is being used.

Open Loop Systems

With an open loop control system, the inputs which can be monitored and delivered to the program are specified ahead of time (Tao). This is done when it is assumed that there are no uncertainties in the system, and it will be operating under specific conditions. There is no output information from the system which must be used to generate the input signal used for control. The disadvantage of this type of system is that it cannot change appropriately regarding unanticipated conditions. This lack of adaptation makes it less effective when the tasks being controlled are more sophisticated. For this reason, the open loop system of adaptive control is used less frequently. However, there are instances when this type of system is warranted and works well.

Adaptive control open loop systems have been used successfully for over two decades. An example is provided by multi-locomotive trains. This type of control has the goal of maintaining a specific velocity. It can also be used to reduce noise caused by changes in grade and keep the coupler forces below a pre-specified limit. The controller is set to determine the appropriate throttling and braking necessary for the train to accelerate and decelerate appropriately. This allows the locomotives to act in a fashion, which causes the nonlinear rolling resistance to assume a linear force despite velocity and grade changes.

The open loop control system for multi-locomotive trains has been found to work appropriately even with a relatively primitive 16-bit microprocessor. Full-scale testing was done over a six-week period of time. There were side and crosswinds of up to 10 m/s which did not interfere with the train's smooth operation. In fact, the wind had almost no effect on the performance of the system. This was taken to indicate that the open loop control system was robust. The same microcomputer was used for monitoring engine temperature, alternator output, and oil pressure (Chalam). These types of systems are now more common.

Conclusion

The advent of computer numerical control machines have allowed for adaptive controls. These types of controls work automatically by monitoring the performance of a machine and adjusting its performance in relation to present conditions. This prevents machines from operating inefficiently or damaging themselves.

A closed loop adaptive control system uses an algorithm with recursive identification to provide real-time control of operational parameters (Landau & Zito). The parameters are based on information provided to the computer by sensors. These sensors can be set to act constantly or on a schedule. A closed loop which is self-tuning begins to operate when there is a reduction in performance. It adjusts the machine until performance has been restored. There are also systems, which work according to an algorithm which controls the machine at all times.

An open loop adaptive control system has inputs, which are predetermined. This type of system is less common but can be effective for certain applications. An example of an open loop control system developed more than 20 years ago is a multi-locomotive train. A 16-bit microprocessor was capable of analyzing changes in the rail grade as well as coupler forces. The train maintained appropriate throttling, reduced noise, and a reduction in coupler tension (Chalam). These systems are now more common.

References

Chalam, V. V. (1987), Research study on adaptive control systems: techniques and applications, Marcel Dekker, New York.

Landau, I. D. & Zito, G. (2006), Digital control systems: design, identification and implementation, Springer, London.

Tao, G. (2003), Adaptive control design and analysis, Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey.

Introduction

Computer aided process planning uses computers to help with the development of a manufacturing process for a product or part. This can be conceptualized as linking computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). The product is developed by computer-aided design. Computer aided process planning designs the manufacturing which will be assisted by computers.

Process planning involves deciding on the sequence with which single manufacturing operations take place in order to make a part or product (Alavudeen & Venkateshwaran). The particular sequence developed is documented on the route sheet which is usually a digital representation. This route sheet is a list of the machine tools and operations necessary for assembly of the product.

Computers significantly enhance process planning. The design information produced by CAD is translated into efficient processes, which can be utilized by CAM. Computers are used throughout this planning process and include digitized drawings, and data regarding parts, specifications, and materials necessary. Computer modeling can enhance product demand forecasts. Computer software is available, which can handle routing, that indicates the necessary work centers, operation sequences, fixtures, standards, and tooling necessary to produce a product. This software generally includes the ability to create process plans, which provide step-by-step manufacturing instructions.

Variant Process Planning

Variant process planning involves a group of technologies (Narayan, Rao & Sarcar). With this approach, the process plans for types of parts are stored using a coded system. The plans are standardized and can be retrieved when necessary. The plan can be edited to meet any new and specific need. It is important that this type of software uses organization of files, which is intuitive to the planner. The coding enables retrieval of the necessary plans which match the file organization.

Variant process planning uses distinct files for each general type of part. The computer also creates and stores the operation sequence and machine routing. Algorithms allow the user to identify the general type of part and enter an appropriate code number. The computer will then search for the necessary file. Once the file is located, a standard operation will be provided for the user. The user can then edit or modify the standard plan as necessary given the particular circumstances. The computer allows the process plans to be developed with increased accuracy and speed. The standard plans are already stored and can be quickly edited.

Generative Process Planning

Generative process planning involves designing the production of a product from scratch. There is no standardized plan available for the part or product type which can be retrieved from a computerized database. Software used for this type of process planning makes use of programming, which makes logical and technical decisions. These decisions are made using information previously stored regarding the machine tools available and their capabilities. The planner enters a description of the parts into the computer, and an appropriate process plan is developed. The computer will indicate the optimal process sequence. This description is based on the machining capabilities and the description of the product or part provided by the user. This type of software can make decisions and comparisons faster than a human. The plans are generated quickly and consistently.

In order for the generative process planning to work properly, the product must be defined specifically. This means its initial state must be known as well as the completed state. The computer develops the process plan according to the difference between the initial and completed state. This type of planning can be forward or backward. Forward planning begins with the initial state while backward planning begins with the completed state.

Hybrid Process Planning

There are process planning systems available, which are hybrids between the variant and generative systems (Elanchezhian, Selwyn & Sundar). Some consider these types of systems to be advanced examples of the variant technology which uses generative features. This type of software will work in cooperation with a planner who has technical knowledge. These systems require the planner to understand and interpret the working drawings and decision data.

The hybrid computer aided process planning systems have a number of uses. They can develop the overall process plan and allow the generative component of the system to make the necessary modifications. This type of hybrid system can also create a process plan and allow the variant component to make the necessary adjustments regarding details.

The hybrid computer aided process planning systems are flexible with regard to the user. A process planner can select a variant approach when they are developing a product which is already known to have similar process designs. If the user is unable to find a similar product most of this software will allow switching to a generative approach in which the computer decides on a new type of process plan.

Conclusion

Computer aided process planning can be understood as providing a link between computer aided design and computer aided manufacturing. There are two different general approaches to process planning. Variant process planning involves storing the processes for groups of parts in a coded system. This allows a planner to identify a similar part and enter the appropriate code into the computer. The software will then provide the planner with a general approach that can be modified to meet the specific needs of the situation.

The other type of computerized process planning involves the generative approach. This type of software will create a new plan for a product or part when no standardized plans are available. This is especially helpful when a new type of product is being developed. The software makes the decisions regarding technical matters, but must be provided with the appropriate information. The machining capabilities and description of the product must be input to the computer. Both the products initial and finished state must be described in detail.

There are also a number of computer-aided process planning systems, which are hybrids between the generative and variant approach. The majority of these systems are designed to use both types of information and are more flexible regarding their approach.

References

Alavudeen, A. & Venkateshwaran, N. (2008), Computer integrated manufacturing, Prentice-Hall of India.

Elanchezhian, C., Selwyn, T. S. & Sundar, G. S. (2007), Computer Aided Manufacturing, 2nd ed, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi, India

Narayan, K. L., Rao, K. M. & Sarcar, M. M. (2008), Computer aided design and manufacturing, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, India.