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Section I: Awareness of Academic Integrity

Introduction: Defining Academic Integrity

Academic integrity is a frequently cited term, but one that is less definitively defined. While there are parameters and stiff repercussions that are employed by most institutions of higher learning in those cases where academic integrity is breached, the issue also has personal importance as it is a logical extension of what I consider to be honorable behavior. Holistically, academic integrity respects the process of acquiring knowledge, research, writing and personal achievement. In addition, academic integrity is a principle that ensures that original research and literature acknowledges the hard work and pursuits of the individuals who have sacrificed so much to advance human knowledge. As human beings, we are products of what we know. What we know influences the way in which we interpret our pasts as well as the way in which we will evolve in the future. To govern oneself by the principles of academic integrity is to demonstrate respect for the advancement of human knowledge. As a result of the definition and the principles related to academic integrity, the terminology is best considered to be a personal responsibility. Academic integrity is something that should not be practiced out of fear for repercussions. Instead, academic integrity should be an instilled mode of conduct related to one's personal value system. Though a complex term, actually practicing academic integrity is relatively simple. The process of academic integrity necessitates students and researchers do their own work, refrain from cheating and properly give credit to those sources in which they cite for academic purposes. Rather than passing someone else's work of as one's own, there are a variety of citations styles including but not limited to: Modern Language Association (MLA), American Psychological Association (APA), Chicago and Turabian that can be used to properly give credit for quoted and paraphrased work. It should also be noted that part of the individual responsibility of academic integrity is to know when one is potentially violating it. Like in the criminal justice system, ignorance of a law is no excuse for violation of an agreed upon set standard for society.

Academic Integrity and University Significance

Universities are committed to the advancement of human knowledge and also to the process of passing information on to students. As a result, it can be accurately stated that universities are shaping the minds of future generations. If higher education fails its students, it is in turn failing the greater good of humanity as a whole. This makes universities the beacons of establishing, and if necessary, punishing those who threaten to break down the integrity of the system. Universities are training future members of society and if those members are going to carry strong values into the workplace and at the same time possessing skills and knowledge that they earned fairly, they have to be familiar with academic integrity. A student that has not practiced academic integrity will be underprepared in knowledge, skills and in conduct values when he/she enters the workplace. In addition, the way in which they conduct themselves outside of the university is a direct reflection of the institution of higher learning. Universities, understanding their role in the teaching and advancement of human knowledge, are correct in taking issues of academic integrity quite seriously. For many schools, a breach of academic integrity is met with a strict zero tolerance policy that can result in immediate failure of the course or expulsion from school. If anything less is practiced by the institution, the wrong message is being sent. Academic integrity should be the highest value expressed by the institution of higher learning so when it occurs, it needs to be dealt with accordingly. The significance of the concept in the entire post secondary education paradigm cannot be understated.

Student and Instructor Responsibility

Students and instructors both have similar thematic responsibilities for reinforcing academic integrity; however, the ways in which they follow protocol are fundamentally different. For students, their personal role in academic integrity should influence their own conduct primarily, but it also should be cognizant of the conduct related to other students. Being that students and instructors are all part of the university and it is have been established that universities are pivotal for the advancement of human knowledge, ignoring cases of dishonesty threatens the integrity of the entire system. As a result, a student aware of an academic integrity infraction or potential issue should immediately report what they know to instructors or to a proper university authority. In doing so, this will allow the proper channels to investigate the claims and respond to the allegations if necessary. At the minimum, it makes the proper university authorities aware of potential integrity breaches so they can adjust practices or watch certain groups that may be taking advantage of the system.

For instructors, these individuals are in a position of vested authority. As a result, academic integrity is both their classroom responsibility and a university related responsibility. If an instructor catches a student cheating or violating academic integrity, they should respond with an immediate failure of the course. While this is severe and thereby reflecting the importance of the concept, the instructor should also report the incident to the higher authorities of the institution as per the set standards of the university so further action can be taken if the school feels that it is fitting for the infraction. While this is their role in enforcing student academic integrity, they too must practice academic integrity when they pursuing their own original research for higher degrees or for publishing. Instructors will also be students themselves in a variety of circumstances so they too must conduct themselves in an appropriate manner thereby making them more than simply enforcers of a code.

What Constitutes Academic Dishonest?

Identifying what constitutes academic dishonesty is actually easier than defining the concept. Academic dishonest behavior can generally be established as cheating, helping someone else cheat and turning in work that is not one's own. Cheating is broad term that can be accomplished in many ways. Regardless of how its done, it constitutes academic dishonesty. For examinations, cheating can be defined as giving oneself and unfair advantage over other students. Such unfair advantages could include sneaking material into the test that is not allowed that could aid in the completion of the exam, having someone else take an exam besides the person getting credit for it, using someone else's answers or somehow obtaining advanced copies of the exam. These are by no means a definitive list as cheating can be conducted in many innovative ways that can even include the employment of new technology like cellular phones and portable computers. In the realms of writing and research, academic integrity would constitute turning in work that is not 100% original and completed by the respective student. Anything less than this is plagiarism, which is a serious academic violation. Students that have others write papers for them, that cut and paste from the Internet or that copy work without properly citing it are plagiarizing. Whereas exam cheating is often easier to catch and prove, plagiarism is sometimes complicated to spot. Though advanced software like turnitin and others are employed by many professors, the true process of not plagiarizing is a personal decision and connected to the established integrity variables related to academic integrity.

Factors That Influence Academic Integrity

There are a number of factors that can influence academic integrity amongst students. Most poignantly is the university and their stance on the matter. If a university has a well established academic integrity policy and they are known to frequently catch offenders and punish them with strict repercussions on a consistent basis, students will simultaneously realize the importance of the concept to the school and also fear getting caught. When the potential gains are eclipsed by the potential repercussions, the likelihood of academic integrity infractions becoming widespread is minimized. Even in the most diligent of circumstances and university practices, there will always be people who try to establish an unfair advantage over the competition. This happens on Wall Street, sports, in politics, in the workforce and it will always happen to varying degrees in universities. Like criminal behavior, however, doing the best formal institutions can to limit the activity is of the utmost importance. While students who engage in academic dishonesty will frequently cite pressure, difficult course loads and not being able to balance their academic and personal lives, these are not acceptable excuses for shunning academic integrity. Obtaining a higher education is not supposed to be easy, it takes hard work, balance of commitments and the drive to want to succeed. Conclusions All students at some point will be tempted to violate the principles of academic integrity. How one responds to the temptations will be the ultimate judge of character for that person. Those who value and uphold the principles of academic integrity will be more successful in their personal evolution and likely more successful in their professional lives. This makes the personal responsibility of academic integrity equally as important to the university responsibility. Universities serve an important part in the advancement of knowledge and the education of the future workforce. As a result, making sure that they are best equipped and best prepared necessitates that they are doing their own work and adhering to the principles of academic integrity. Continuing to enforce the codes consistently and stressing the importance of the practice should be the focal point of all post secondary institutes.

Section II: Exploration of Personal Values

Five Personal Values

Personal values are something that can be expressed in a variety of ways. Dividing them into five specific categories is a difficult concept, however, it is an important exercise for the exploration of personal behavior and self expectations. Taking values quite seriously, the following five values are sufficiently robust to establish my personal outlook: respect, family/friendship, loyalty, cooperation and honesty. On the level of respect, this is a context that is applicable to all institutions, people and living creatures. I make it my personal goal to treat all that which I come across with the same type of respect I would hope the entities show me. In some cases, this is difficult and in some cases, I find myself giving respect when I am not getting it in return. These scenarios, however, are the ultimate test of behaving in a pinnacle manner of integrity. Slightly different than this is the selection of family/friendship as another personal value. I chose to combine friends and family because a good friend should be valued like family and family members are often friends as well thereby making the lines between the two too blurred for separation. My friends and family are more dear to me than any treasure or man made possession and though I often fall short, I try to treat them as such.

Closely tied into the family paradigm is my establishment of loyalty as a value. I am very loyal to those who are loyal to me. I feel that anything less than loyalty is behaving in a manner that lacks integrity. If I wish to count on other people, which I feel is central to human success, then I too have to be someone that others can count on. If I wish to receive then I too must also give and perhaps even give more. Cooperation is closely tied to the construct of loyalty. No great accomplishment is ever achieved alone. In addition, as the world become more globalized and interconnected, the lines between abstract human divisions will hopefully continue to be erased. This will mean that humans can cooperate together to face common problems. Though this is a global example, cooperation is equally important for daily tasks at home, in school and in the workforce.

The final component of my personal value system is honesty. Though it sometimes considered cliche, honesty is the best methodology for success. Though temporary gains can be made by dishonest means, they cannot match the personal satisfaction of living in a virtuous manner and they cannot match the condition of putting something positive back into society. The cliche, you get what you give, can be applied to this notion. If we put out honesty into the world, we are in turn giving a more positive foundation for society to be built upon. Honestly builds cooperation whereas dishonesty divides. Much like those two values are complimentary, all of the values selected for my personal list are best viewed in a complimentary systems capacity. Isolating them loses the impact of their interconnectivity.

Personal Goals and Implementation

As a driven person, I think about my personal goals quite often. While I tend to set very specific and concrete goals for the short term, I purposely keep my long term goals ambiguous so I can be flexible as opportunities arise. In the short term, graduating with a bachelor's degree while maintaining a high degree of academic success is my focus. Academic success, however, I would like clarify as being a reflection experience and knowledge retained. I do not seek to get grades for the sake of having a letter value on my educational experience. Instead, I feel that when I am I achieving high levels of academic success, I am also maximizing my educational experience. To do less is not taking advantage of the opportunities that have been placed in front of me. I recognize that a higher education degree is a luxury that is not afforded to all members of the human population. As a result, to do anything short of my best, even if this sometimes falls short of my expectations, is not maximizing my personal experience. Life is a collective of experiences and with each experience, even the negative ones, there is a lesson and a potential to grow as a person. When this factor is not acknowledged, one is robbing themselves of a full and complete existence.

On the long term levels, I wish to use my undergraduate degree to obtain a rewarding job that I can contribute to and personally grow from. At the present time I am undecided if this will include further education. I have neither made that decision nor ruled it out. Regardless, I will be committed to life long learning whether or not this comes in formal capacities or more informal or personal pursuits. In the time that I have spent on the planet, I have found that unexpected circumstances arise. Due to the certainty of uncertainty, I elect to not make too many formal plans to the future. If one is too rigid in their definition of success and their goal, it is possible that greater opportunities could be missed due to being inflexible. As one grows on a personal level, it is also possible that goals can change and be adapted. This is a logical part of growing and should not be eschewed following a rigid plan that was put together at a previous time or life condition. Success, however, will be defined by measuring my own ability to maximize every experience I am given, by taking advantage of every opportunity and by following and exploring my own personal value system. If I stay true to these dynamics, I will be successful in whatever I choose to pursue. My plan for doing this is being committed to life long learning and to constantly test and reflect on how I am adhering to my values and how I am developing as a person. Each day should be a growth process and if I find myself in a position where I am not growing or not taking advantage of opportunities, I will be deviating from my own long term plan. During this journey, I hope to continue establishing strong family roots, friendships, cooperation and employment that allows me to give back to the community.

Integrity and Honesty: Professional Ethics

What you do in your college years does matter for how you conduct yourself in one's life after school. College is a preparation mechanism for what can be considered "the real world." Though college is "real" and should not be undermined, it is laying the foundations for what is to come. Regardless of the situations and opportunities that arise in an uncertain existence, integrity and honesty will contribute to a better lifestyle and a better quality of life. A person who does not practice academic integrity and honesty during their college years is taking the easy way out of their preparatory experience. As a result, they will be ill equipped for the rigors of the real world and the desire to take the easy way out will nag at them for the rest of their life. Even if they are the only person who knows they took the easy way out, this underlying premise should be enough to remind the person that they did in fact not take the full advantage of an experience and opportunity that was placed in front of them. The value of hard work, integrity and honesty will carry over into professional ethics. Like academic integrity, every occupation, office and field work has a code of conduct that is in place for the greater good of the whole.

By adhering to university standards, students are setting themselves up to logically transition into formal workplace standards of honestly that can be tied to very serious consequences. For example, professional ethics in psychology or medicine can mean the difference between life and death in a patient. In a less severe capacity, it could be the difference between helping or compromising someone's privacy. For law enforcement, professional ethics can also be a matter of life and death. In addition, it can more theoretically mean the difference between a justice system that is actually working and one that is broken. In virtually every occupation, professional ethics is designed to protect people. As a humanitarian, maintaing the highest levels of human respect and dignity should always be at the forefront of one's decision making process. Good habits in college will translate into good habits in the workforce, which in turn equals a better cooperating society.

My chosen career path could potentially end up in a variety of directions. Rather than to speculate on those directions, it suffices to say that professional ethics will play an important role in my efficacy in the workforce and in the integrity of my actions as a human citizen. If I were to neglect honesty and integrity in my college years, I would be doing myself and humanity a disservice by not preparing myself to be all that I can be. Preparation for this responsibility necessitates attention to my responsibilities at the present time. Right now, this responsibility involves doing my best in school, balancing school and life and also maintaining a high degree of academic integrity throughout my educational journey.

Course Retrospective: Maintaining Academic Integrity

The main techniques and approaches I will use to help maintain academic integrity will be a mixture of common sense, self evaluation and the employment of proper citation methodology. Though common sense is a broad and disputed terminology, I used it in this context to label a pattern of personal judgment. In the realms of academic integrity, there are formal university rules and then there are proverbial gray areas. It is the habits that people accomplish when official capacities are not watching or when there is a blurred line where personal responsibility is best tested. When a potential issue of academic integrity arises, I will use my personal judgement to determine which course of action to take. Generally, if something is the easy way or if something would give me an unfair advantage over other students, it would be a safe assessment to denote that it would likely be an informal or formal violation of academic integrity. Part of this process for determining potential infractions will be self evaluation.

In addition to determining whether or not an action gives an unfair advantage, the process of self evaluation also includes an emotional component. Psychologically, if something does not feel correct, it is likely that there is a problem related to the action. If the situation were to arise and a I was not sure whether or not a certain behavior would constitute an infraction of academic integrity, it would be necessary to cooperate with someone in an official position of authority that could help me make a better assessment. Like it was stated in the previous discussion, no human being is or will be successful without cooperation. Some people in official positions at universities who could be used in such situations to aid in a cooperative decision are professors, counsellors, advisors, teaching assistants and tutors. In some situations, consulting peers could be appropriate. This should be done only if the situation does not involve that particular peer and if that peer has proven him or herself to be a strong judge of character. Cooperation is truly a function of gathering more information and insight. It would be similar to conducting field research to solve a hypothesis. For example, if the hypothesis was, "Action 'A' would constitute an academic integrity violation," the course of self evaluative research study would be to prove or disprove the hypothesis so the best decision could be employed.

One of the more obvious ways to approach academic integrity is through the proper use of citations. In this regard, it can be stated that anything paraphrased, quoted or statistic cited that is not a matter of common knowledge necessitates a citation. This is a fairly cut and dry process in regards to citations and direct quotations. Determining paraphrases and establishing what is or is not common knowledge can be more challenging. In these situations, if something is in question, I would be more inclined to cite it. Over use of citations, while not optimal for readability, does ensure that one is not creating an academic integrity infringement. When the issue is paraphrasing, basically the rewording of any ideas that are not my own would constitute the necessary use of a citation. The citation style that I will use will be consistent with what is expected by the professor. Currently, I am skilled in the use of MLA, APA and Chicago footnotes. In the case that an alternate style is requested by the professor, the library and internet will provide the necessary details in order to do it correctly.

It is also necessary to be flexible when it comes to academic integrity protecting techniques and approaches. In this capacity, it is likely that I will gain more skills and insights into the matter as my education and experience grows. As I gain better skills, I will blend them with my aforementioned general process of maintaining academic integrity so I can be more efficacious in keeping high standards of integrity. Self reflection is a continuous process and the more we understand ourselves, the better we will get at it.

Mullins defines motivation as a driving force within people, through which they attempt to reach preconceived objectives. Motivation, in the business environment, considers why people select some specific approach instead of another approach. It further considers why people continue with their selected course of action for substantial periods of time, amid challenges and obstacles.

Mullins has considered many other aspects of motivation through her various works, including many theories of motivation. Aside from the definition of motivation and its general application to the business environment, more detailed considerations of the topic are useful for analysis, so that business can be improved through this driving force. With such an assessment of theories, managers can develop action plans to most effectively and efficiently improve levels of employee motivation. Motivation is important to organizational performance at all levels, while the theories developed on the topic are numerous, including the Content Theory of Motivation, the Hierarchy of Needs Theory, the Two-factor Theory, the Achievement Motivation Theory, process theories, the Expectancy Theory, the Equity Theory, goal theories, and more. The following will introduce three primary categories of the numerous motivational theories (content, process, and reinforcement theories,) then will go into depth in the consideration of Vroom's (1992) Expectancy Theory. Through the analysis, evaluation, and synthesis of the academic theories as it relates to the manager's role, the resultant integration will be applied to the development of a viable action plan to improve employee motivation.

Management, change, and motivation

Mullins' (1985) earlier work considered the fundamental needs of individuals, and how the variety of such needs and expectations often conflict in such a way that satisfaction cannot be reached through a single solution. Meanwhile, the circumstances of individuals in their work environment create additional variables which are relevant to motivation and its applications. Some analysts regard performance, motivation, and satisfaction as entirely distinct elements (Mullins 1985). This is especially true in the language of Vroom's (1992) Expectancy Theory, which (in brief summary) states that people are influenced by the expected result of their actions. Managers need to emphasize the importance of incentives which related to individual levels of performance. Furthermore, they must integrate effort, performance, and incentives, while developing methods for assessing performance.

Categorization of motivational theories

Theories of motivation are predominantly classified according to three primary areas: content theories, process theories, and reinforcement theories (Efere 2005). Through the consideration of these categories, a general sense of the duties of management can be realized from a theoretical perspective.

Content theories give primary consideration to the driving factors of active motivation. Esteemed analysts of content theories, many of which have developed theories in the aforementioned description of theories within the expansive discussion by Mullins' (2006) work, include Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, Clayton Alderfer, Frederick Herzberg, and David McClelland. Meanwhile process theories consider the entire concept of motivation, and give primary focus to how driving factors motivate a person. Such theories focus on objectives and incentives as they relate to the individual. Well-known theorists in this area include Leyman Porter, Ed Lawler, Edwin Locke, John Adams, and the Victor Vroom to be discussed in detail in the following section. Reinforcement theories, lastly, give primary consideration to the concept of an individual's actions being influenced by previous actions and experiences. These theories are also referred to as behavior modification theories, while operant conditioning and similar topics are commonly analyzed in terms of the business environment.

Vroom's Expectancy Theory and developing an action plan to increase motivation

Vroom's (1992) Expectancy Theory emphasizes results rather than needs, while separating the concepts of effort, performance, and results as they relate to motivation. Vroom hypothesized that in order for an individual to be amply motivated towards the achievement of some objective, motivation must be deeply integrated with performance. He further considers three variables which are responsible for such integration: instrumentality, valence, and expectancy (Vroom 1992). Thus, in developing an action plan for improving motivation, managers must evaluate and apply these variables as they relate to the functionality of the targeted employees.

Expectancy, as it relates to instrumentality and valence, provides the foundation of Vroom's theory of motivation as it relates to improving employee performance. Vroom considers the relevance of expectancy to be the mentality that improved effort results in performance improvements. Factors influencing this process may be having appropriate resources readily accessible, possessing relevant skills for performance, and being networked to supportive parties should challenges arise (Vroom 1992). Meanwhile, the instrumentality element is in reference to that mentality that a desired result will be achieved when incentive is proportional to performance. The factors which influence this application are a clear understanding of how results are related to performance, the levels of trust between working individuals, and an understanding of how incentives are related to results. Lastly, Vroom regards valence as the significance which employees consider to be inherent in the expected results. The relevance of the incentive, and its impact on the individual, is the most influential element in this variable. An action plan to increase motivation, under Vroom's Expectancy Theory, must consider these variables as they related to business operations and employee functionality.

Considering all three variables of Expectancy Theory, motivation can be considered in terms of the relationship between employer and employee. The development and applications of action plans to improve motivation can also be considered. Under the Expectancy Theory, if an individual is either under the assumption that i) their improved efforts will not result in any enhancement in the level of performance, ii) that their enhanced level of performance will not result in a subsequent increase of any sort of compensation, or iii) that the available compensation will not actually benefit them, then the employee is not motivated. This consideration illustrates the challenges faced by organizations, as even successfully achieving two of these items will not result in any feasible level of improvement in motivation. Thus, viable action plans to increase motivation must ensure that all three of these elements are satisfied.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

While Mullins' (2005) definition of motivation considers the drives of individuals as they aim to reach objectives, Vroom's (1992) Expectancy Theory takes a three-tiered approach to the process type of motivational theories. It takes the variables of expectancy, valence, and instrumentality for form three primary objectives which must be simultaneously achieved to guarantee an increase in motivation.

A classic, albeit generic, approach to developing an action plan is to choose techniques relevant to business processes and target employees, adjust procedures to facilitate achieving the objectives of the new plan, and make any final preparations to set the plan in motion and evaluate its results (OIRA 2009). Vroom's expectancy theory teaches that in order for an action plan to increase motivation to be successful, it has to include a way for employees to improve performance through increased effort, a means to increase reward for improved performance, and the assurance that rewards are appropriate to the individual employee. If managers can respectively analyze and evaluate employees and the business environment, and use this data to create an action plan which fully addresses these three critical requirements, then it will theoretically achieve the desired result of improved motivation.

References

Efere, P 2005, Motivation and Job Satisfaction, Trans-Atlantic College, London.

Mullins, L 1985, 'The Process of Motivation', Industrial Management and Data Systems, vol. 85, no. ¾, pp. 5-8.

Mullins, L 2005, Management and Organizational Behavior, 7th edn, Pearson Education, NJ.

Mullins, L 2006, Essentials of Organization Behavior, Pearson Education, UK.

Office of Institutional Research & Assessment (OIRA) 2009, 'Student Ratings of Teaching Effectiveness: Creating and Action Plan', Syracuse University, New York.

Vroom, V & and Deci, E 1992, Management and motivation: selected readings, Penguin, NY.

A fraudulent custom writing order made from a payment card owned by: CH (Dallas, TX).

Performance and Knowledge

A Conceptual Overview

Increasing performance within an organization is a topic that has been given much attention in labor and academic research as it is of universal importance to the business world. Quite simply, higher performance is a strategic advantage and how to motivate staff to achieve pinnacle results is a matter of immense consequence. While elements like leadership have been established as being highly important in efficacious organizations, so has employee compensation. How employees are compensated can be considered one of the root elements in how a staff member perceives the organization, their role in the organization and their commitment to the organization. Two strategic plans that have been utilized to establish compensation for organizations, teams and individuals are pay for performance and pay for knowledge. While pay for performance is based on typically agreed upon logic and it is frequently utilized, pay for knowledge is more unconventional. The success of both plans as a motivator, however, do not have universal results. Both methods have positive and negative elements and mixed data proving their efficacy. A review of related data suggests that both programs can be successful if used under the correct conditions with the correct team. Neither, however, are universally adaptable and successful in all organizational application.

Pay for Performance

The theory behind pay for performance is a simple one and one that seems logical within the spectrum of most individuals. Essentially, a team or facility is paid based on their ability to achieve or exceed a given goal. Many government subsidy programs rely on pay form performance by basing grant money and other funding on how well an organization achieves an established goal. For organizations, pay for performance is often a way that an organization seeks to motivate staff members through financial benefits for reaching certain marks. As Carroll stated, "To most people it's a no brainer that we should pay for quality not quantity" (p. 1). While logical, the results on pay for performance differ greatly according to the study and the industry in which it is being adapted. For example, one pay for performance cross section of the business world that has been successful for a long period of time is in sales. Most set ups have higher performing sales teams receiving more benefits or compensation depending on established goals by the organization.

Schools, in contrast, have a pay for performance modality under the No Child Left Behind Act. Schools that do not meet certain performance criteria do not receive certain aid and can ultimately be seized by state/federal authorities until they meet student performance demands. In health care, pay for performance has been controversial. While some studies have demonstrated that it is efficacious, others have demonstrated no improvements compared with conditions without financial incentives (Carroll). Some medical performance related benchmarks have included mortality rates, heart condition control and bypass grafts. The problem with pay for performance lies in the target performance and how much control over that target the individual or team actually has. Quite simply, if the target is unfair or not an accurate measurement of quality, the performance of the organization may not go up.

This phenomenon can be demonstrated within education. For example, if an independent organization began to hold teacher's accountable for individual student performance, it is possible that the quality of education would go up, but it's also possible that it could get worse. In terms of the latter, if classroom teachers began dropping the standards on which they judged student performance, they may be compensated more because they have achieved a goal, however, the students would not be getting a higher quality education. If an organization established a goal of 90% quality on manufactured products for a team and they achieved it but at the same time they lost 25% output efficiency, a full victory has not occurred. Pay for performance rests on the premise that the goals established are in the best interest of the organization and that they can be controlled by the team or individuals expected to meet that goal. In terms of motivation, it is well documented that when individuals perceive goals for rewards as being unfair or unattainable, they will become less motivated thereby counteracting the intended effect.

Pay For Knowledge

Pay for knowledge is a non traditional compensation system in which employee wages are based on the repertoire of jobs that an employee is trained to do (Gupta, Schweizer & Jenkins, 1987). In a traditional compensation set up, the employee is paid based on the job they actually do. In an organization, a janitor would be paid to be a janitor and an engineer would be paid to be an engineer. Under the knowledge plan, a typical employee starts out at a base rate and as the individual learns different jobs within the organization, that pay rate also increases (Gupta, Schweizer & Jenkins, 1987). Continuous learning, therefore, has a financial incentive and theoretically, such an organization would have a more knowledgeable and better trained staff than a traditional one. A payment level plan can be infinite or more often, it has a set number of levels in which a staff member can achieve.

In the modern workforce, it has been found that flexibility and flattened tiers of management are advantageous over traditional rigid job structures (Acona). The pay for knowledge system, in theory, falls within the parameters of what analysts like Acona have suggested is important for a 21st Century organization. Like pay for performance, the actual results of whether or not pay for knowledge works are split and controversial. Unlike pay for performance, however, pay for knowledge has not seem the same level of adaptation as it goes against convention. One major issue with pay for knowledge is that it is not always adaptable to all positions within a company. Pay for knowledge plans are used primarily for production employees and most studies related to such programs are on production employees (Gupta, Schweizer & Jenkins). It has also been noted that lack of support from first line supervision is a common problem with pay for knowledge plan because it can potentially threaten traditional roles. Most research related to pay for knowledge plans suggest that under the right set of conditions and staff, such plans can be highly efficacious.

Conclusions

Both pay for performance and pay for knowledge can be successful. As demonstrated, in sales situations and in situations where established goals and benchmarks are actually within the control of team/staff and a fair measurement of what their job entails, pay for performance can be an efficacious motivator. In some examples, like healthcare and education, however, pay for performance has produced lackluster results. Pay for knowledge, similarly, has shown some success in certain teams and in manufacturing style jobs. In some situations, like complex organizations with many different types of jobs and levels of training to get those jobs, pay for knowledge can become cumbersome and perceptually unfair to staff members. Knowing when to use which program and understanding their strengths and limitations is critical for efficacious adaptation.

References

Acona, D. Managing for the Future. Canada: Thomson.

Carroll, A. (2014). The problem with pay for performance in medicine. The Upshot.

Gupta, N., Schweizer, T. & Jenkins, D. Pay for knowledge compensation plans: Hypothesis and survey results. Monthly Labor Review, 40-45. Newman, M. (2008). Emotional Capitalists. New York: Jossey Bass.