Throughout the United States, mentoring programs are being used to emphasize the relationship between a caring adult and at risk youth when utilized to help the youth negotiate difficult life situations and tasks. Daloz points out that mentors are involved not only in the provision of care, but in the use of teaching skills as well as the transmission of knowledge. Thus, mentoring is a partnership, and "in the nurture of that partnership lies the mentor's art" (Daloz, p. 244). This section of the paper will review the use of mentoring in programs for at risk youth. The first section reviews the concept of mentoring; the second section concentrates on applications of mentoring in programs for at-risk youth.

A Brief Review of Mentoring

Gehrke and Kay suggested that a successful mentoring relationship crossed a wide variety of concerns. At the same time, Gehrke and Kay (1984, p. 21) stated that mentoring relationships are "open, informal, and have a high frequency of interaction." Clawson also suggested that a successful mentoring relationship would focus on both quality and intensity of the relationship and the interactions between the mentor and the mentee. Fagan and Walter believed that in order for the mentoring relationship to be successful, it was important for the mentee to identify with the mentor. In developing a successful relationship, they concluded that mentoring "cannot be forced" (p. 5); instead, it is a relationship that must develop naturally between the parties.

Mentoring can occur at all ages, and in all professions and educational levels. It does not have to be only from adult-to-adult at the professional level, it can be from adult-to-youth at the high school level. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention has suggested that by taking an interest in even pre-adolescent children, a good mentoring program can make a difference in the development of the child. Grossman and Garry (1997) stated that mentoring programs for youth were originally based in churches, the community, the courts, colleges, and schools, and focused on helping younger students develop hobbies while older students were helped to develop careers. They suggested that in fact, the movement of mentoring children actually begin in the late 19th century. At that time, there were 'friendly visitors' who helped to serve as role models for children of poor parents.

In 1994, Big Brothers and Big Sisters of America was founded by Ernest K. Coulter as an outreach for children who needed socialized, provided with firm guidance, and to connect with adults who could serve as positive role models. The organization still operates today and is the largest child-mentoring organization. Although many people think of Big Brothers and Big Sisters merely as a social organization the program is quite multifaceted and places a great deal of emphasis on academic change. Studies related to Big Brothers and Big Sisters reflect that youth who participate with an active mentor are 45.8% less likely to begin taking drugs, 27.4% less likely to begin alcohol use, 31.7% less likely to hit someone, more likely to trust adults, and 36% less likely to lie to parents. Although participants also report receiving emotional support from peer relationships, it is in the academic arena that the mentoring program shines. Three percent of the participants reflect better grades, 4.3% of the participants reported increased scholastic competence, 52% were less likely to skip school, and 36.7% were less likely to skip even a single class. As Grossman & Garry point out:

......"youth from single-parent families who are at risk for juvenile delinquency, teen pregnancy, truancy, and dropping out of school are being mentored by legal professionals, members of the military, corporate employees, and other" (pg.5).

The emphasis on education and academic achievement indicate that this is more than just a social organization. Indeed, there is a clear link between the social actions and goals of the organization and the increase in academic achievement of those that are being mentored. The success carries over into mentoring in the classroom.

Mentoring in the Classroom

Bova and Phillips pointed out that the mentor's protégé acquired knowledge in five general areas: communications skills, group skills, technical skills (i.e., skills relating to the subject matters being taught), risk taking, and what it meant to be a professional. These skills were acquired by watching a professional in action and mentoring with them. Hardcastle found that mentors contributed to the lives of those they mentored in four ways: by offering the protégé a new way of looking at themselves, by motivating them to excel professionally, by showing them new ways of doing things and new ways to be, and by offering emotional or spiritual support.

Grossman and Garry stated that:

"Mentoring programs for disadvantaged children and adolescents have received serious attention as a promising approach to enriching children's lives, addressing their need for positive adult contact, and providing one-on-one support and advocacy for those who need it." (pg. 1).

Salinitri pointed out that first year university students who joined mentoring programs and acquired a teacher mentor had higher grade point averages than did students without a mentor. In addition, students with a mentor had a higher level of retention during their first year than did students outside of the mentoring program. Salinitri does, however, point out that when one compares studies involving mentoring, it is critical to understand what the standard of success is that is measured in the study. Some studies use graduation rate as the criteria of study; others use a more vague 'completion' rate as the criteria. In either case, what is being addressed is the "fundamental measurement of an institution's success in meeting student needs."

Salinitri's suggests that there are a number of conditions that cause students an inability to meet academic standards: the inability to adapt to the environment, both socially and academically, changes in personal situations, lack of goals, lack of motivation, other more 'pressing' concerns such as family obligations or money differences, or even just a difference in what the student wants, compared to what the institution can provide. Although the Salinitri study addressed issues of first-year university students, the conditions that cause first year university students to be unable to adapt closely mirror those conditions that face at-risk students who are still in secondary school. As Salinitri points out, "These factors translate into a need for increased academic and personal counseling programs to improve student retention, particularly for low-achieving students." (pg. 854).

Salinitri suggests that students who are lower achievement and were accepted into university on a 'step up' basis are particularly at a disadvantage. They are not prepared for the level of educational work required; have poor study habits, work alone, don't ask for help or know how to ask for help. They have the many of the same types of disadvantages as do at-risk students in the lower educational levels. They simply do not know how to "seek and acquire tools for success," (Salinitri, 2005, pg. 854). A good mentoring program can help students acquire these tools.

Sparger suggested that reflection on the learning process must be part of the learning and mentoring process. Ideally, the mentor would be part of the learning team that created the academic environment for the students. However, Sparger pointed out that not everyone necessarily appreciates the mentoring process. The mentoring process can artificially push teachers into believing that they are "surrogate parent and social worker" (Viadero, 2004, p. 41). In addition, scores in an educational program can drop once mentoring is introduced. This drop may represent a normal result of the retention of students of lower educational achievement, students who would normally drop out. Instead, with an effective mentoring program, students may be retained, yet not be of adequate educational level. The net result may be a drop in achievement scores that does not reflect the actual increase in achievement by students who otherwise would have dropped out.

Mentoring in Conjunction with Learning Communities

Strike (2004) suggests that to be successful, school systems are based on a system of 4 C's: cohesion, coherence, contact, and care. The concept of contact pertains to the formal and informal structures of school that synthesize care. Taken together, care and contact comprise either a close relationship between staff and students, or a successful mentoring program. The Department of Education suggests that mentoring is a factor in the development of successful small learning communities. Tom Vander Ark of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has been quoted as stating that learning is essentially about constructing relationships. These relationships allow the students to connect with teachers and thus with the subjects they teach.

Check & Connect, a program devoted to retaining high school students, was originally developed to help middle schools in urban areas, most specifically with students in the middle school levels who had learning and behavioral issues. The goal was to promote student engagement and to reduce the rate of attrition and prevent dropouts. The most effective way to accomplish this, it was suggested, was to institute an intensive program characterized by the assignment of a monitor to work with students who were having issues. The monitor was, in effect, a mentor. The monitor served as both a mentor and case manager in the small learning community. One of the main advantages of this particular program was the ability to follow students across jurisdictional lines; the service followed the student rather than the program site.

The success of Check & Connect, however, particularly when it crossed jurisdictional lines and claimed success for students who may have gone to another district, raises an interesting question: How accurate are the statistics? It seems likely that in the case of cross-jurisdictional moves, students may be counted once per jurisdiction, or they may 'fall through the cracks' and not be counted at all. The next section addresses this issue.

Limitations of the Data

Tyler and Lofstrom have stated that "close mentoring and monitoring of students appear to be critical components of successful programs" (pg. 77) of programs of dropout prevention. However, Tyler and Lofstrom also point out that one of the difficulties of calculating dropout rates is the ongoing controversy over what constitutes graduation, and what constitutes dropping out. In some states, for instance, entering the GED program is considered dropping out; in others, individuals who complete the GED program are considered to have graduated. Other measures that may skew the calculation of graduation or drop out rates may be by inclusion or exclusion of prison inmates in educational programs, immigrants who may or may not have graduated in their home areas, and members of the armed services.

Fischer and Kmec point out another difficulty with the tracking of dropout or mentoring statistics of at-risk youth: the socioeconomic information used to calculate the rates of improvement of at-risk youth may have led to an inaccurate portrayal of some youth as at risk. Since economic information is self-reported, dishonesty or mistaken reporting can result in inaccurate information reported in studies and governmental statistics.

Campbell and Campbell suggest that much of the reported information may be inaccurate. They assert that many of the existing studies have fatal weaknesses. They state that many studies rely on self reported data; most of the studies are based on a single time point rather than a longitudinal basis; the data is subjective; and there is no evidence of reliability or validity. They state that there is a problem with many of the statistical analyses. Finally, they point out that even though the point of mentoring programs is to retain academic successes of at-risk students, the outcome measures are not generally included in the reports. Thus, it is impossible to determine if the mentoring programs truly have worked, or if the measures of success (or failure) are simply based on the wrong outcome measures.

Summary

A brief review of mentoring was provided, and information was gathered on the status of mentoring in the classroom. Mentoring in conjunction with learning communities was briefly discussed. Finally, the limitations of existing studies were reviewed.

References

Bova, B.. & Phillips, R. (1984). Mentoring as a learning experience for adults. Journal of Teacher Education. May-June, 1984, 35(3), 16-19.

Check & Connect (2010) Check & Connect: A model for promoting students' engagement with school. Regents of the University of Minnesota.

Clawson, J. (1980). Mentoring in managerial careers, in C.B. Derr (Ed). Work, family, and the career, 144-185. New York: Praeger.

Cotton, K. (2001) New small learning communities: Findings from recent literature. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.

Daloz, L. (1986). Effective teaching and mentoring. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Department of Education (2010) Smaller learning communities program. Office of Elementary and Secondary Education.

Fagan, M. & Walter, G. (1982). Mentoring among teachers. Journal of Educational Research, 76(2), 112-118.

Fischer, M., & Kmec, J. (2004) Neighborhood socioeconomic conditions as moderator of family resource transmission: High school completion among at-risk youth. Sociological Perspectives 47(4) 507-527

Gehrke, N.. & Kay, R. (1984). The socialization of beginning teachers through mentor-protégé relationships. Journal of Teacher Education, 35(3), 21-14.

Grossman, J., and Garry, E. (1997) Mentoring - A proven delinquency prevention strategy. OJJDP Juvenile Justice Bulletin.

Hardcastle, B. (1988). Spiritual connections: Protégés reflections on significant mentorships. Theory into Practice, 27, 201-208.

Keating, L., Tomishima, M., Foster, S., & Alessandr, M. (2002). The effects of a mentoring program on at-risk youth. Adolescence, 37.

McNeely, S., & Mertz, N. (1993) The center school: An alternative for the dropout. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association, New Orleans LA, November 10-12, 1993.

Salinitri, G. (2005) The effects of formal mentoring on the retention rates for first-year, low achieving students. Canadian Journal Of Education 28(4): 853-873.

Sparger, T. (2005) An investigation of implementations of smaller learning communities in Florida high schools. Unpublished dissertation, Spring 2005, Doctor of Education, University of Central Florida.

Strike, K. (2004) Community, the missing element of school reform: Why schools should be more like congregations than banks. American Journal of Education 110.

Tyler, J., & Lofstrom, M. (2009) Finishing high school: Alternative pathways and dropout recovery. Journal Issue: America's High Schools 19(1) pp. 77-103.

Viadero, D. (2004, June). Personal touches. Education Week 23 (40), 39-41.

In a world of sky-rocketing tuition paired with increasing competition to secure jobs, it is of exceptional importance to delineate the best and most effective ways to prepare tomorrow's workforce. In the preparation of business students, many have questioned where a pragmatic focus on business skills would be more efficient than the traditional inclusion of liberal arts studies. Liberal arts are courses that teach aspects of social/natural sciences, humanities, and the arts. Those who oppose the inclusion of liberal arts in business degrees argue that courses like history and philosophy have little applied value to the future careers of graduates. Proponents for the requirement of liberal arts courses advocate for education of the whole person. Business students need to develop critical thinking skills, an ability to synthesize knowledge, and a motivation to apply ethics to their business practices. Many of these skills are emphasized throughout a liberal arts curriculum. The following literature review will review research-based aspects of this ongoing debate.

Strategic Curriculum Development

The determination of whether to include liberal arts in the education of business majors has far reaching ramifications. Educational institutions recognize that this question represents much more than a philosophical debate. The way a university or college defines their curriculum is a representation of the values of that institution. Curriculum development also determines the distribution of funding throughout an educational institution. Kumar, Stecke, and Frey have argued that educational institutions should view curriculum development as a strategic management tool. Decisions about what to include and exclude from the curriculum should be based on structured foresight and predictions about what each industry needs for the future.

The argument that college curriculum should reflect industry predictions is not a new one. English and Steffy delineated the need for curriculum development to include long-range planning more than two decades ago. In their article, English and Steffy criticized programs based on systemwide, broad-based requirements. Many of these requirements, frequently termed "general education, are liberal arts courses. English and Steffy acknowledged that such programs supported the development of conceptual thinking skills. Systemwide requirements should be approached with caution; however, as this path represents higher levels of risk and uncertainty related to whether tomorrow's business leaders will be prepared for tomorrow's business challenges.

Kumar, Stecke, and Frey delineate a specific example of skills that could be included in a more specialized curriculum that didn't include traditional liberal arts courses. In line with the need to predict the future of business, Kumar, Stecke, and Frey posit that all business students should learn to master business forecasting models. With many faculty members underprepared in this area, specialization at all levels would be key. This suggested modification to most current curriculums does not specifically demand the removal of liberal arts courses. Rather, it emphasizes the overall need to assess curriculum from a strategic perspective. What is the most effective way to educate tomorrow's business workforce?

History of Business Education

ENROLLMENT. Between 2007 and 2008, American universities awarded more than 1.5 million bachelor's degrees. Of these, over 335,000 business degrees were awarded. Business degrees represented the most popular path of study. These numbers are a considerable growth from the 840,000 total graduates between 1970 and 1971. The increase of business graduates has resulted in a decrease of arts and sciences graduates. This trend continues. Some universities have responded by bolstering business programs. Others have maintained a steadfast commitment to liberal arts programs.

The types of students enrolling in college have also changed considerably in recent years. Traditional student enrollment has declined. There's been a 45% decline in students who seek a "meaningful philosophy of life" through a college education and a 40% increase in the objective to become wealthy. Prospective students are more cognizant of the competitive workplace and they seek specialized skills. Specific groups, including veterans, are also growing among the ranks of students. Some estimates place veterans making up 20-25% of overall college enrollment. These students enter college with a wealth of real world experience and often year for skills-based training focused on their career.

CHANGES IN CURRICULUM. In the last two decades, many business programs have undergone considerable curriculum changes. Among these includes the addition of at least one Ethics course to most business curriculums. Programs vary widely related to this requirement but many have adopted the importance of ethical business practice into their program objectives. Variation also exists in the inclusion of internships into business programs. Some require them. Others recommend them and the internships themselves vary on accreditation standards.

Recent years have also seen the birth of new business programs. Interdisciplinary programs (i.e. MBA/JD programs) have seen a significant surge in both offerings and graduates. Business programs have begun to recognize specific skills necessary for success as a practitioner. In response, courses that integrate technology and communication have been increasingly added to required business curriculum. Some of these courses are specifically developed for business majors while others have maintained an interdisciplinary, liberal arts perspective.

Feedback from the business industry itself has also been integrated into curriculum development. An article by Tuleja and Greenhalgh identifies the number one skill sought by business employers as oral communication. Similar investigations have revealed the employers have exceptionally high expectations that their employees will have fine-tuned interpersonal skills. Interestingly, these skills are almost never the focus of businesses strictly focused on industry-specific learning objectives. Liberal arts courses, like social sciences and communication, focus more heavily on these sought after abilities. According to research by Kelly et al., liberal arts graduates are finding and keeping high level business positions. Their skills are translating to the real world and are resulting in successful careers.

FUNDING AND CURRICULUM. Many educational institutions have been enjoying mutually beneficial partnerships with corporations for years. In exchange for financial contributions, corporations have established a voice in the development of business curriculum. This relationship is also observable in the alumni giving trend. Both strategic relationships were particularly prevalent in the 1990s with the peak of endowments. Educational institutions provide a public service and many are open to the views of the public in curriculum development. The voices of members of the public, including corporations that are backed with the promise of funding are significantly louder than suggestions about curriculum based on theory or even research findings. This difference is demonstrated in research findings that support a well-rounded education versus the business industry's push for specialization.

Value of Liberal Arts Education

In the delivery of her 2009 TED Talk, Elizabeth Coleman credited liberal arts with the production of "the broadest intellectual and deepest ethical potential." Colman is known for her radical transformation of Bennington College. As President, Coleman replaced many historical systems of higher education, like tenure and department divisions (i.e. business and liberal arts divides) with an intense emphasis on interdisciplinary, interactive, hands-on learning. She describes higher education as a "performing art" and suggests that without societal context-learning is meaningless. Study of the liberal arts provides that context. In addition to setting the stage for technical learning, the pursuit of liberal arts offers support to develop specific skills. As evidenced by hiring trends of liberal arts graduate, these skills continue to prove valuable to employers. De la Vergne. lists a number of skills provided through the study of liberal arts. They are as follows:

ANALYSIS. As emphasized in history and sociology courses, it's not enough to simply study historical events and the trends of people. In-depth understanding allows a student to compare, contrast, and consider different perspectives. The ability to analyze a situation thoroughly is an exceptionally valuable skill to a number of business professions. It's one utilized in business practices from the hiring process of employees to the balancing of budgets.

COMMUNICATION. Many liberal arts courses stress the importance of articulate oral and written communication. The ability to organize one's ideas effectively, consider the audience, and deliver the message clearly is one that requires repetitious practice in a number of contexts. Curriculum movements like Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) and Communicating Across the Curriculum (CXC) have proven effective in improving the overall communication skills of graduates. Communication skills can be utilized to write business memos, respond to business-related emails, deliver presentations, communicate with potential or current clients, and negotiate sales. The ability to communicate effectively has been cited as the most valuable skill according to employers.

CULTURAL LITERACY AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY. Many of today's business professionals must function effectively in a global economy that is virtually without borders. To compete, foreign language fluency is ideal. Many higher education professionals criticize the lessened emphasis on the acquisition of a second (or third) foreign language during undergraduate education. This could be interpreted as a weakness in the American higher education system because most other countries promote the acquisition of fluency in at least two major languages. Beyond language, it's imperative to understand differences in levels of formality, body language, and appropriate pace for speech/activities in other cultures. These skills necessitate an understanding from a sociological perspective as well as a historical one.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Described by some psychologists as the superior form of intelligence, emotional intelligence is the ability to understand the motivations of others, take another's perspective, and appropriately experience/express one's emotions. Emotional intelligence involves the ability to regulate impulses, make difficult decisions, and act in an ethical manner-even in the most challenging and tempting of situations. Emotional intelligence is often noted as the intangible characteristic that separates excellent business professionals from average ones. How many ethical and professional dilemmas could be avoided if one had the ability to empathize with the position of others?

LEADERSHIP. The liberal arts are an ideal arena to develop leadership skills because they facilitate the practice of leadership in a number of contexts and with a diverse group of people. Leading all like-minded followers results in a stagnant motivational approach that fails to reap success in the real world. Real world business professionals vary because they often come from a variety of backgrounds. Business majors, however, in strictly business programs are limited in diversity.

Leadership entails an ability to know oneself while also knowing what needs to be done. It demands excellent communication in the delegation of tasks and a persistence to keep with a goal until it is accomplished. Leadership requires initiative and truly successful leaders find a way to empower others. Through liberal arts, students learn about leaders that changed the world. They also develop self-awareness, communication, and other skills that may allow them to make similarly shattering changes-to the world or to the business industry.

PLANNING AND ORGANIZING. The ability to manipulate ambiguous date to make accurate predictions and then respond accordingly is an invaluable asset for a company. Imagine the ability to predict a company disaster and prevent it before it happens. This level of complex reasoning is impossible if business professionals remain focused on present data and can't look beyond to accurately imagine the future. Planning and organization requires categorization, tracking, and synthesis of information. It's not a singular skill but a collection of competencies that can best be improved through the diversification of liberal arts infused education.

RESEARCH. Successful research of business practices rarely remains in the confines of business journals and magazines. Tomorrow's business leaders study client behavior, consumer trends, economic projections, and evidenced-based practices. And understanding of law is also essential. Most importantly, students of liberal arts learn and practice different ways to research so that they can utilize these methods to update their knowledge base throughout their careers.

SYSTEMIC THINKING. The liberal arts instill an ability for individuals to view problematic situations and challenges in the workplace as interrelated parts that require an equally dynamic approach. Systemic thinkers are innovative. They are able maintain the fine and difficult to achieve balance of both client/customer and employee satisfaction. Systemic thinkers recognize the importance of engaging employees in the workplace to maintain and increase productivity. They recognize the strengths of others and the potential for the organization as a whole.

A General Education

While the benefits of liberal arts are espoused in detail throughout the literature, the need for technical and vocational skills is also apparent. One could easily argue that a strictly liberal arts education lacks the diversity of skills learned in a more focused and skills-based program. For that reason, many scholars have explored the integration of business and liberal arts programs, either through the inclusion of business-oriented liberal arts courses of the infusion of liberal arts scholars in business program faculties. These innovative approaches recognize the value placed on a well-rounded education. Whether one studies liberal arts for one semester or 4-8 years, they often change a student's way of thinking, writing, speaking, and being in the world. This ability to change through education is not one to be overlooked in such an increasingly competitive business climate.

In line with innovative approaches to curriculum development, the following case study illustrates one way that a liberal arts approach has been integrated across the wider curriculum. This wider curriculum could and does include business programs in several educational institutions. As noted by the research findings of Tuleja and Greenhalgh (2008), Communicating Across Curriculums has proven an effective way to improve students' oral communication skills throughout the entirety of their higher education.

Case Study: Communicating Across Curriculums

The communication across curriculum movement (CXC) of the 1980's followed the writing across curriculum (WAC) movement of the 1960's. Social communication, focused primarily on speaking, became a priority with the increased focused on outcomes-based educational objectives. Communication competence was cited as a need across disciplines. In response, CXC courses were created. Communication skills taught and practiced in these courses might support a student in leading a meeting, delivering a speech, participating in a group project, and/or navigating successful business relationships. Studies have supported the success of these programs in expanding students' ability to use critical thinking skills.

TYPES OF CXC PROGRAMS. Most educational institutions have integrated the CXC movement into their curriculums in one of three ways. First, separate instruction CXC courses require all students to take a standalone communications course. Separate courses are typically taught by one member of the faculty and they usually last one semester or quarter. They focus on researching one's speaking topic, organizing a speech, and delivering it well. In contrast, integrated CXC programs combine objectives related to communication with other content-driven goals for various courses. Faculty across the university or college receives training on effective methods of teaching communication skills. Students receive CXC instruction in a number of their courses, including economics, finance, and marketing. The third and final type of CXC program is consultant-based. This model is based on the second program type of integrated instruction but includes the consultation of experts in the field of communication for the creation of CXC learning objectives, assignments, and assessments. These experts may be involved in syllabus development and/or evaluation of students on communication skills. A comparison and contrast of these three types of CXC program is useful to the debate between the inclusion of liberal arts in the study of business as the three types of programs vary on their level of integration and specialization.

EVALUATION OF CXC PROGRAMS. Research conducted by Tuleja and Greenhalgh considered student ratings of effectiveness in addition to other variables to determine the most effective of the three types of CXC programs. Their study concluded that integrated programs were the most effective programs to deliver the necessary communications-related learning objectives to students. Interestingly, students valued the feedback of TA's more than communications experts hired as consultants for the consultant-based programs. A need for some business focus was indicated in the superior outcome of integrated programs over separate CXC programs. These findings support the integration of other liberal arts objectives into the overall business curriculum.

Conclusion

It's difficult to define the exact expectations for tomorrow's business leaders. All business graduates will learn skills related to management, marketing, and accounting. Some stress the need for increased specialization with the demands of today's complex and technical business industry. Others argue that the growing globalization of business necessitates an even deeper understanding of cultural differences, communication across these differences, and awareness of personal strengths/abilities. As summarized by MacDonald and Ramaglia, the real question is how to best integrate liberal arts into business programs.

There are a surprising number of stakeholders interested in the development of business curriculum. Some increasingly question the devotion of funds for the continued support of strictly liberal arts programs. In 2011 Governor Rick Scott of Florida proposed budget cuts that would end funding of liberal arts programs in all of the state's colleges and universities. During the same year, Bill Gates made a similar suggestion to higher education budget adjustments. Both argued that the liberal arts were frivolous in a culture that so desperately needs more math, science, and technology graduates. While impressive leaders in their own rights, Scott and Gates failed to recognize the reality that liberal arts grads are indeed obtaining employment. Some research suggests that when they are hired in the business sector, they often outperform their technically trained colleagues.

Rather than argue for absolutes in terms of funding most, including the students themselves, identify at least some value in liberal arts. The integration of business courses from a liberal arts perspective or taught by liberal arts faculty may be a viable option to meet the needs of both sides of this debate. Such integration might include a reflection on the historical origins and social ramifications of business practices. The Communication Across Curriculum movement is one indication that such integration may lead to positive outcomes. The value of a well-rounded, generalist education is rarely questioned. Instead, numerous stakeholders converge to determine the absolute most effective and efficient ways to adequately prepare tomorrow's leaders to achieve and/or maintain American dominance in all domains of the business industry.

References

Baker, S.M., Faircloth, J.B., Simental, S. (2005). Perceptions of University-Corporate Partnership Influences on a Brand. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 32-46.

Brint, S., Riddle, M., Turk-Bicakci, L., Levy, CS. (2005). From the Liberal to the Practical Arts in American Colleges and Universities: Organizational Analysis and Curricular Change. The Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 76, No. 2, pp. 15 1-180. The Ohio University Press.

Coleman, E. (2009). Liz Coleman's call to Reinvent liberal arts education. [Video File].

Dakduk, M. (2010). From Combatto College.

De la Vergne, S. Liberal arts skills: What are they? The Liberal Arts Advantage- For Business. Writing Blog.

DeNicola, D. R. (1986 December). Liberal arts and business. Nation's Business, pp. 4.

English, F. W. & Steffy, B. E. Curriculum as a strategic management tool. Educational Leadership, 39(4), 276-278.

Godwin, L. and Neville, M.G. (2008). Learning from a Whole-System, Strength-Based Approach: A Case of Collaborative Curriculum Development. American Society for Quality, The Journal for Quality and Participation, Spring, 11-14.

Kelly, M. H., Britt, M., Hardenbergh, T. G., & Hardenbergh, W. E. (2011). Why business schools are bringing military history back to the curriculum. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 3(7), 14-27.

Kumar, A., Stecke, K. E., & Frey, R. (2009). Pedagogical guidance for teaching forecasting in an ERP environment: Revamping the business school curriculum for strategic advantage. Operations Management Education Review, 3, 109-124.

MacDonald, D. B. and Ramaglia, J. A. (2004). Teaching International Business Law: A Liberal Arts Perspective. Journal of Legal Studies Education, 22: 39-64.

Tuleja, E. A., & Greenhalgh, A. M. (2008). Communication across the curriculum in an undergraduate business program: Management 100-Leadership and Communication groups. Business Communication Quarterly, 71(1), 27-43.

Abstract

At no other point in history have diverse demographics of human beings been in greater contact with one another. The age of cultural hegemony has gradually been displaced by a multicultural world. On the most basic of world preparation environments, classrooms are not free from cultural misunderstandings that can both affect the efficacy of the learning environment and at the same time hinder progress for organization diversity interaction when these people enter the global workforce. The purpose of this research is to use a case study of an English for Academic Purpose post secondary classroom to demonstrate how cultural misunderstandings in the classroom manifest. By framing the importance of multiculturalism in the classroom and theoretical adaptations of multiculturalism in the classroom through a review of related literature, this work will then seek to apply that information to the analysis of a diverse classroom through observational research tactics. By doing so, illustrations of how the current literature manifests in an actual diverse classroom can be added to the current body of research on the matter. With increased attention on the subject of diversity in policy making and education, having a large body of literature to demonstrate how theory is working in practice is of the utmost importance for greater social accord in human society. The results of the study indicate that cultural differences manifest misunderstandings based on subtle miscommunications present on the verbal (language) and non verbal levels. The research also suggests that the degree to which these misunderstandings occur in classrooms is quite high and the resolution of misunderstandings if difficult to access because identifying that a misunderstanding has occurred or that an efficacious resolution has occurred is often difficult.

Introduction

BACKGROUND

At no other point in history have diverse demographics of human beings been in greater contact with one another. The age of cultural hegemony has gradually been displaced by a multicultural world. Organizations, who are understanding the strength of having diverse workforces, are scrambling to diversify and the once localized marketplace has become an international theater. Much of this change can be traced to the age of information as ushered in by innovations in telecommunications. With the Internet and related devices, people and information are literally only a click away from each other. To equip people to operate efficaciously in this new environment, having educational environments that are sensitive to the needs of varying cultures and cognizant of the new world conditions is imperative. In reality, however, the change has been so rapid that socially people from diverse cultures have not been able to anticipate or respond to the complexities interacting with people from different backgrounds can cause. Interacting with people from diverse cultural backgrounds always carries with it the potential for unnecessary misunderstandings. On the most basic of preparation environments, classrooms are also not free from cultural misunderstandings that can both affect the efficacy of the learning environment and at the same time hinder progress for organization diversity interaction when these people enter the global workforce. While multicultural curriculum is important and great strides have been made in having more multicultural educational experiences by public and private institutions, the teacher remains at the fundamental level of the equation for crafting multicultural learning environments. Even the most culturally aware educator will likely have some experience with misunderstandings and much of the strength in multicultural educational paradigms is in how these issues are recognized and resolved. Based on this background information, a case study of a diverse classroom will be examined to identify how cultural differences can create misunderstandings.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this research is to use a case study of an English for Academic Purpose post secondary classroom to demonstrate how cultural misunderstandings in the classroom manifest. By framing the importance of multiculturalism in the classroom and theoretical adaptations of multiculturalism in the classroom through a review of related literature, this work will then seek to apply that information to the analysis of a diverse classroom through observational research tactics. By doing so, illustrations of how the current literature manifests in an actual diverse classroom can be added to the current body of research on the matter. With increased attention on the subject of diversity in policy making and education, having a large body of literature to demonstrate how theory is working in practice is of the utmost importance for greater social accord in human society.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Based on the purpose of the research as framed within the context of the available literature on the subject, the primary research question has been proposed, How do cultural differences create misunderstandings in the classroom. Other sub research questions related to this primary question include: (1) to what degree to cultural differences create misunderstandings, (2) how are misunderstandings being resolved, (3) does the present classroom environment seem equipped to deal with the misunderstandings and (4) what can be done to prevent misunderstandings from occurring in the future.

A DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

The following terms necessitate defining for uniformity and proper framing of the research study. Though the research recognizes that these are not definitive universal definitions, they are sufficiently robust to serve as a focal point for the current discourse and beyond.

Cultural differences. Cultural differences can be identified as variations in attitudes, beliefs, manners and other elements that may develop from different cultural backgrounds. Cultural differences are often seen when people from two different backgrounds perceive the same event or stimuli differently. For example, a student from a Middle Eastern background may perceived the role of a teacher as different than how a student from the United States may view a teacher. With cultural differences comes the potential to gain different perspectives which can lead to strength in diversity for a given organization. On the negative end of the spectrum, cultural differences can lead to unintended misunderstandings.

Misunderstanding. A misunderstanding is formally defined by Merriam Webster as "A failure to understand something correctly...[or] A disagreement or quarrel" (p. 1). For the sake of this discourse, misunderstandings will primarily be framed within the context of unintended interpretations. For example, if a student smiled and nodded his head to a teacher from the United Kingdom, the teacher would likely perceive this based on their own cultural background as meaning the student understood what was being said and what the expectations were. In reality, the student may have been conveying confusion. This would be an example of an misunderstanding.

A Review of Related Literature

AN OVERVIEW

According to Konan, Chatard, Armand and Mugny, "Cultural differences in the effects of performance goals on achievement and in the effects of classroom performance goal structure on the subsequent adoption of personal performance goals" are an identifiable phenomenon in an increasingly global world (p. 230). To foster diversity in a classroom takes considerable effort on behalf of the teacher and the curriculum development. Fish identified that discovering diversity necessitates creativity, additional effort beyond the norm, diligence and courage by educators. In addition, the researcher identified the traditional context of the public school system as being less than enthusiastic for making adjustments for students with cultural differences (Fish). Education about cultural differences begins with the educator and this is acknowledged as being a prelude to work or the concept of the "real world" (Jones). In today's organizations, it can be stated that topics of race, culture and gender are very "burning" issues. Though there is a growing recognition in the business world that values diversity, like in education, there is far less training for how to do so in an efficacious manner. According to Eikenberry, only 35% of Western firms do cross cultural training of any type despite their global nature. When these issues are not dealt with by teachers, this trickles down to the student. In addition to fully serving all students in the classroom, it also keeps the students who are not in the minority isolated from developing the respect and toleration necessary to contribute effectively to a sustainable global society (Quezada & Romo). Simply treating all cultures with respect is a start, but it is not enough to foster a truly cultural diverse learning environment where misunderstandings will be avoided and a strong work environment for all will be present (Galanti).

IDENTIFYING DIFFERENCES

A number of important cultural differences can be seen in a culturally diverse classroom that can lead to misunderstandings. Among these differences include but are not limited to body language, gestures, dress, teacher's role perception, making mistakes, correcting mistakes, status, food/drink, gender roles, taboo topics, eye contact, silence, writing styles, interrupting and directness (Case). Typically misunderstandings can originate on any of these levels or combinations of these levels. In the most common level of misunderstanding comes verbal and non verbal communication. For non verbal communication, one's competence in the dominating language can lead to things being said incorrectly or taken out of context. Even in the context of learning a foreign language, fluency is not necessarily equitable to a strong understanding of non verbal communications. In one popular example, Thai people use the smile to indicate a number of meanings that do not directly translate into English culture (Staff). This can lead to communications breakdowns and conclusions that are incorrect on behalf of both parties in an information exchange. On a classroom level, it has been noted by the Carnegie Mellon Unviersity Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence that there is tremendous variation in English proficiency and familiarity with U.S. educational and cultural conventions by international students. International students often have not encountered the same challenged or will not respond to challenges the same way or necessarily in a predictable way from a Western perspective (Carnegie). Teacher Differences

As previously identified, the teacher is the first and most poignant position in the cross cultural paradigm of efficacious educational environments. Considerable differences can be seen even in classrooms who claim to be multicultural based on the perspective of that teacher and their respective background. In a study conducted by Curtis, Pisecco, Hamilton and Moore, cultural differences in how teachers viewed ADHD interventions for classroom management differed greatly from U.S. teachers to teachers in New Zealand. In this particular example, U.S. teachers were found to view pharmacological interventions more favorably than their New Zealand counterparts. This attitude is important because it demonstrates where the educators feel the burden of classroom management lies in these types of situations. The U.S. teachers sees it as a psychiatry issue and the New Zealand teacher sees it in a more social and classroom related manner. Neither is right, but both are very different perceptual paradigms. Often times, the innate perspectives of the teacher can influence the degree of expectations they place on students of varying cultures. As Cartledge, Singh and Gibson explained, "Students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds are disproportionately identified for special education in the most restrictive placements" (p. 29). Whereas more proactive interventions would be much more beneficial for these types of students, educators are misunderstanding problems in second language proficiency as a learning disability, which is incorrect. Unfortunately, as Urdan discovered, the expectations in which a teacher places on a student can greatly impact that student's performance goals. Rather than high achievement expectations for certain cultural groups, as a result, low achievement expectations becomes the norm and contributes to social and societal inequity. To best assuage the current problem related to teacher centered misunderstandings, teachers have to adapt techniques to accommodate students with diverse backgrounds. The beginning steps of this necessitate teachers being aware of stereotypes, ethnocentrism and prejudice. Knowledge of cultural differences make those differences that manifest in the classroom easier to identify by educators.

STUDENT DIFFERENCES

The best way to understand student cultural manifestation differences in the classroom is through the context of expectations. What students expect from the teachers, the classroom and themselves can vary greatly from one situation to the next. In a case study of students from Taiwan and students from the U.S. in the same classroom, Niehoff, Turnely, Hsiu and Sheu identified examples of this phenomenon. For example, U.S. students expected low reliance on mandatory attendance and wanted a more informal classroom (Niehoff et al.). In addition, U.S. students expected professor's to be available after class and looked at educators as relative equals in the power dynamic continuum (Niehoff et al. ). Taiwanese students, in contrast, expected teachers to be available for consultation much less frequently than did their U.S. counterparts and they also indicated more reverence of a teacher as a power position (Niehoff et al.). Rather than seeing the educator as an equal, they saw them as a position of power and this translated into these students questioning grades and decisions far less often than their U.S. counterparts (Niehoff et al.).

While the Niehoff et al example looked at this perspective from a college environment, similar differences were found amongst Japanese and American 5th graders. According to Hamilton, Blumefeld, Phyllis, Akoh and Miura, Japanese student achievement norms were far more related to their respective aspirations than their American counterparts. As a result, it could be stated that the Japanese students were making more connections between what they were doing in the classroom and how they felt this would impact their future goals. Cultural perspective does translate into the world beyond classrooms. As identified in healthcare surveys, Aboul-Enein and Abou-Enein demonstrated how health care expectations differed among Middle Eastern people and Western people. Though there is danger in overgeneralization, Aboul-Enein and Abou-Enein state that there is enough similarities in people form certain regions that understanding and practices can be evolved to accommodate without running the risk of creating stereotypes and making the problem worse. Politics and Multicultural Education

While multicultural education practices is generally recognized to be important in a global world, many of the current policies being adapted are based as much on political distinctions as they are efficacious protocols based on research. Often times, the pull between efficacious educational practice within the multicultural paradigm puts students and teachers in the middle of a much larger issue (Rolstad). According to Seltzer, Frazier and Ricks

..attempts to introduce multiculturalism into the curriculum appear to be political responses, and efforts to infuse the ....educational curriculum with multiculturalism largely partisan activities engaging only those few who are committed to effecting significant educational and societal changes (p. 1).

Part of this debate and perceptual asymmetry comes from educational perspectives. For example, Fujimoto, Bahfen, Fermelis and Charmine outline categories of work outcomes as being emotional experiences, work attitudes, work dynamics and work behaviors. Whichever dimension a stakeholder places the most value would likely indicate where their position may be on multicultural education policy development. With considerable influence being placed on school accountability, educators and curriculum developers are scrambling to keep classrooms up to code with politics, which may or may not help to develop efficacious educational practices. From after school programs (Bardwell & Kincaid) to classroom management systems, sensitive cultural and political issues like race, class, gender, ethnicity, politics and sexual orientation are increasingly becoming part of the multicultural and diversity paradigm of society (Darvin). Teachers not longer have the luxury of not dealing with the issue of multiculturalism because it is happening in the classroom and in policy development and necessitating change that ranges from technological advances to everyday interactions with students.

Methods

ENVIRONMENT

This observation research study examined an English for Academic Purposes class for three weeks. During that time, the researcher sat in on the classes and observed and recorded the interactions between teacher and students and students with other students. Though the purpose of English for Academic Purposes is generally consistent at many post secondary institutions, each program does have intricacies. This particular program was designed to bring students to a level of English skills that would help them be successful in college courses. This course was designed for students who already had some background in English. The course had a total of 30 students enrolled from various backgrounds. While one non traditional student was from the United Kingdom and there to gain better proficiency in English based on his time away from school, the other students were all English as a Second Language (ESL) students from different areas. Though it was difficult to access all backgrounds based on varying attendance rates, students could generally be categorized as being of Latino descent, Indian descent, Middle Eastern descent and Asian descent.

IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS

To properly collect data, the researcher engaged in a observational task that examined interactions between all members in the class. The way in which these situations occurred, both in accord and misunderstanding, were recorded. In some situations, informal interviews were given to various students and the teacher in an effort to gain clarification of something that occurred. This was particularly important for when other languages were used to express information. After the data was collected, it was then categorized for trends so greater analysis could be fostered. These trends were then examined within the context of how they support, refute or convolute the previously published literature on the topic.

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

The related strengths of the research study are based on first hand observations of a multicultural environment. Rather than looking a issues from a theoretical or a political perspective, this classroom observation demonstrated what was actually happening beneath the umbrella of a much larger subject in practice. Weaknesses related to the study could be considered within the perspective of what degree this particular case study reflects the larger issue. The only way that any reliable speculation on this potential weakness could be made is by framing the results of the study within the context of the literature reviewed on the topic. Being an observational case study, there is also that researcher bias cannot be avoided to some degree. Based on the researcher's own cultural background it is possible that neutrality was not maintained at all times. While this is true to the respective study, it is true to virtually all case study analysis based on observational research. It is estimated by the researcher that the strengths outweigh the negatives to the extent that the study can be considered quite valid and a useful addition to the current body of literature that exists on the subject.

Results

DEMOGRAPHIC COMPOSITION

The teacher of the class could best be described as a British born female who was fluent in Spanish. She was not an ESL student, however, she indicated in a personal interview that she had been working with ESL students for over decade. When asked the degree to which she felt misunderstandings originated in the classroom based on cultural differences, she estimated that it happens quite frequently and that it may even be more frequent than that since many misunderstandings go unnoticed by the educator. Other students in the class consisted of students of Latino descent, Middle Eastern descent and Asian descent. Over half of the students could be considered of Asian descent, however, their Asian backgrounds differed between Chinese, Japanese and Thai descent. The Middle Eastern students were the next highly populated concentration and most of these students appeared to be Islamic. There were also students from India and Latin descent present in the classroom. The split between males and females was almost directly even and this was fairly consistent even amongst the different cultural groups.

STUDENT MISUNDERSTANDINGS

During the course of general interactions, there was very little observable student misunderstandings. These quantified exponentially when group work was required. In general interactions, the students naturally segregated themselves. When the teacher was not present in the classroom, students of similar cultural backgrounds tended to sit together and interact with one another often in their native tongue. During group work, however, the instructor split the group members up and forced them to work with people of different backgrounds. Even during these instances, in the case of a 5 person group that had two Chinese students, those students still typically gravitated toward one another. An observational overview of all the group tasks over the course of the time period revealed at least one or more misunderstanding that could be attributed to a cultural variation. These misunderstandings typically could be categorized as being of the verbal or non verbal communication variety. In some cases, considerable frustration between peer groups was noted. The frustration did not appear aggressive, but when group members were having trouble getting their point across, exasperation was evident. When I asked students about these disagreements, some groups were more open to their personal feelings than others. The Chinese group, in general, tended to internalize these conflicts more and seemed less interested in expressing their feelings or position to the researcher when approached.

TEACHER MISUNDERSTANDING OF STUDENT

During the course of the observational research, at least every other meeting of the class saw one obvious example of the teacher misunderstanding the student. In one particular example, a man of an undermined Middle Eastern background asked a question to the teacher. The teacher gave an answer and at the end asked the student if that "made sense to them." The student then made a non verbal gesture that was interpreted by the instructor as an affirmative response and she went on teaching. At the end of the class the researcher asked the student whether or not the question was answered adequately and he replied, "No, I still did not understand, I thought I made that clear and that the teacher would explain it later because she moved on.... I guessed that she felt it necessary to continue to teaching to make sure we covered all the material." In this particular example, culturally the student felt the non verbal gesture was of sufficient scope to indicate that he still did not understand. The teacher, in contrast, felt he did understand. He interpreted her moving on as being in the best interest of the whole and he was likely confused as to why she did not talk to him later about his issue.

STUDENT MISUNDERSTANDING OF TEACHER

In the previous example, both a student not understanding a teacher was illustrated and a teacher not understanding a student was illustrated. Students misunderstanding teachers was quite observable during the entire research study. It is estimated by the researcher based on further discourse at the conclusion of classes that student misunderstanding of the teacher happens far more than the teacher realizes or that was observable to the researcher. Most of this involved expectations. When the teacher asked a question or gave an assignment, it was often clear that the student was not always cognizant on what was being asked of them. In addition, some of the examples provided by the teacher to students in an effort to help clarify information through connections was regionally and culturally specific and thereby always lost to certain members of the group. In virtually every directive, it could be estimated that at least one student was somewhat unclear on what was being asked of them.

GENERAL ATTITUDES

There were some generalized attitudes that could be seen through observation of the group. The way in which these attitudes were interpreted did affect the way in which the teacher placed expectations on groups. For example, the Asian students placed a high degree of formality on education and the relationship between student and teacher. This was perceived by the educator as "taking the class more seriously" than some of the other groups. It appeared that the expectations of these students in terms of performance was higher from the teacher's perspective. It was also clear that this formal cultural perspective could be where the stereotype of the studious Asian student originates. Unfortunately, however, this generalization did not necessarily mean that other groups took their education less seriously. In the informal interviews that were conducted after class routinely, the researcher found very similar degrees of importance and attitudes toward the importance of education in the perspectives of all the cultural groups. Virtually all groups recognized or identified this class as being one of their most important.

Discussion

The case study conducted by the researcher identified a number of ways that cultural differences can create misunderstanding in the classroom. Most typically and concurrent with the review of literature was the way that language and non verbal protocols can lead to such misunderstandings. Looking at the sub-research questions in context of the study also provide critical details to the equation. Secondary research question (1) asked to what degree cultural differences create misunderstandings. Based on the selected case studies, it can be concluded that cultural differences contribute toward misunderstandings very frequently in multicultural classroom situations. In regards to secondary research question (2), how are misunderstandings being resolved, the answer is more complex. During the case study, misunderstandings were not always resolved because either one party was not aware a misunderstanding took place or one party was not in agreement that a resolution had occurred during an identified dispute. Since a great deal of personal perception is at play in this equation, pure observational research and even follow up questions were not sufficiently robust to make any type of reliable estimation as to how often misunderstandings were actually resolved to the expectations of both parties.

The third secondary research question asked whether or not the present classroom environment seemed equipped to deal with the misunderstandings that occur. Based on the dimensions outlined in the previous secondary research question, if the classroom environment was not equipped to see that misunderstandings have occurred or that resolution had or had not taken place, it can only be concluded that the present classroom environment was not equipped to deal with misunderstandings. This is considerably daunting as the teacher, the fundamental level of multicultural education, was both a decade veteran and proponent of multicultural understanding. She seemed aware of all of the most current research but was unable to translate those theories into practice in her own environment thus brining into question whether or not a single teacher within the larger cultural and political framework can create a truly efficacious multicultural classroom that eliminates misunderstandings. Minimizing misunderstandings, therefore, seems like a more realistic goal for educators and policy makers. The fourth secondary research question, which asked, what can be done to prevent misunderstandings from occurring in the future, is also complicated. At the present time, it is estimated by the researcher and based on literature available on the topic combined with this particular study that continued teacher education about multiculturalism and multicultural environments is still the best way to minimize misunderstandings. In addition, by having curriculum for these culturally aware teachers that compliments what is truly good classroom teaching habits, decisions for multicultural education can be based on efficacy rather than politics.

There are some identified issues that necessitate articulation for better understanding the results. Though this classroom was deemed ill equipped for solving cultural misunderstandings, it is possible that the teacher, though willing and seemingly culturally equipped, was not the best person for the job. To make a better estimation of this, the same study could be conducted with a teacher who was actually an ESL person themselves with a similar amount of experience and cultural understanding. If misunderstandings were limited and resolutions were plentiful, it is possible that teachers who have ESL experience in their personal lives beyond their professional lives may be better equipped for teaching in such environments. The present study also has a homogenous component. The classroom observed was designed for ESL students and 99% of the population in the classroom was ESL students. Future observational case studies on classrooms with heterogenous groupings of ESL and non ESL students would provide additional information that can better frame the results of this study. While this particular classroom is necessary for many students entering into college, it does go against the education protocol known as the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE). Under the LRE, theorists suggest that students do best when they are in heterogenous groupings with various cultures, aptitudes and proactive interventions. This particular environment observed only had culturally diverse ESL students, which makes them bound one large similarity by omitting the entire majority group.

According to Cartlege, Singh and Gibson, placing students in restrictive environments gives these students the least access to general education curriculum and experience which could create further cultural divides rather than assuaging them. It is possible and cannot be removed from the equation that the entire notion of a English for Academic Purposes class is flawed. This theory is equally as reasonable as stating that a teacher who English was not their first language would be better equipped to relate to multicultural experiences than one who English is their first language. Neither the present research study or the literature reviewed when put into context of the study is accurately equipped to make such assumptions without further research into the matter being conducted.

References

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Introduction

The development of criminal profiles in order to aid the investigative process has proven to be useful in the past and it is believed that there is considerable potential in this as yet fledgling field to identify and apprehend criminals. In the words of Kocsis et al, "The fundamental role of a psychological profiler is to use information gathered at the scene of a crime and from victims and witnesses in order to construct a biographical sketch that is as specific as possible to the type of person who perpetrated the crime" (79). It is the job of the criminal profiler to pinpoint defining personality characteristics of the offender. Profilers come from a variety of disciplines and consequently criminal profiling is known by a variety of terms that are used interchangeably such as offender profiling, behavioral profiling, or criminal investigative analysis.

Given the nature of this particular field which tends to deviate from established, scientifically proven investigative techniques, a lot of questions have been raised regarding its use in law enforcement. An examination of the process of criminal profiling as an investigating tool, the need for it and an evaluation of its relative strengths and weaknesses provides one with an understanding of how best it may be used to apprehend criminals.

Criminal Profiling as an Investigating Tool

Criminal profiling is a lengthy and complicated process that calls for the painstaking collection of information pertinent to the crime. For the profiler, the process begins at the crime scene - the pieces needed to solve the puzzle are found here, and it would be tough going to proceed without a thorough investigation of the crime scene. Forensic evidence, details concerning the mode of attack, the victim chosen and other relevant details are collected by the profiler and these serve as the foundation on which the criminal profile is constructed. The evidence gathered at the scene of the crime both physical and behavioral serves as the springboard on which the profiler gains access to the criminal mind and a probable solution to the case.

- RECONSTRUCTING THE CRIME

Data accumulated from the crime scene enables the profiler to reconstruct the crime as it occurred. This provides a valuable insight into the psyche of the criminal. As Lee et al put it, "The objectives of crime scene investigation are to recognize, to collect, to interpret, and to reconstruct all the relevant physical evidence at the crime scene" (7). Therefore, crime scene analysis is the cornerstone in developing a viable criminal profile.

Initially, every scrap of physical evidence is gathered, photographed, and carefully preserved by dint of observation and forensic technology. Physical evidence needs to be treated with care as it serves a twofold purpose - to corroborate any behavioral evidence gathered from the scene and to link the suspect to the scene of the crime. An unnecessarily violent and brutal killing for instance helps one understand the psychological makeup of the criminal and would lead to the logical inference that the criminal is sadistic and possesses an ugly temper.

The characteristics of the victim need to be studied in order to understand the aspects of the crime and the hidden attributes of the criminal. If the victim has survived, a lot of information can be gleaned regarding the personality of the offender. General demeanor, manner of speaking, attitude to the victim, degree of violence employed etc. may be ascertained by interviewing the victim. Even otherwise, the type of victim selected can be very revealing. Valuable clues regarding the offender's nature, motives, habits, needs, and personal grievances can be obtained by studying the personal and physical characteristics of the victim.

Thus an analysis of the crime scene, physical evidence, witness reports, and the unique characteristics of the victim selected can help the profiler reconstruct the crime as it occurred leaving no margin for error or doubt. Chisum emphasized the importance of crime scene reconstruction to the development of a criminal profile by stating, "Criminal profilers have realized the need to reconstruct the crime. To explain the behavior of the criminal they need to know what was done at the scene. The study of the crime scene holds many answers to the motives of the suspect, but only if the crime is understood" (qtd. in Bevel & Gardner 25).

By carefully reconstructing the crime, the profiler can put together the numerous nuggets of information in logical fashion. The modus operandi of the criminal will be understood and this is of particular importance in serial killings, where a link can be established between seemingly unrelated crimes. A skeletal profile of the offender begins to emerge and it is the task of the profiler to sift through the information accumulated from an analysis of the crime scene and to use it to flesh out the emerging profile, thereby putting investigators on the scent of the criminal and closing the gap between the offender and justice.

- DEVELOPING A CRIMINAL PROFILE

It must be understood that the profiler is not a magician, and it is not the purpose of the profile to zero in on the likely criminal, rather the profiler seeks to define probable characteristics of the criminal in the hope of narrowing down the list of suspects and in doing so, link the suspect to the scene of the crime and in the long run to gather enough evidence to convict the criminal. It is the aim of the profiler to use the raw data available from the crime scene analysis to reconstruct the crime and create a profile. Profiling entails providing information about the offender's personality traits, approximate age, and physical appearance, marital status, behavior patterns, and psychological characteristics. The profiler must also try to predict future attacks in order to nab the criminal red - handed. Profiling may be inductive or deductive.

According to Turvey, "An inductive criminal profile is a set of offender characteristics that are reasoned by correlational, experiential, and/or statistical inference, to be shared by offenders who commit the same type of crime" (26). In other words, an inductive profile is created on the basis of experience, anecdotal evidence, and informed generalization. It is a study in averages. An example of inductive profiling was seen in the case of Ginger Hayden first published by Gordon, who was stabbed 56 times. The profile of her killer stated that he was likely to be between the ages of 17 - 24, was known to the victim and had an explosive temper . However, this method has come in for a lot of criticism because of its haphazard technique that emphasizes creative thinking as opposed to scientific rationale. It is also regarded as arbitrary, unreliable, inaccurate, and often invalid.

In contrast, a deductive criminal profile does not rely on averages; rather, it focuses on generating a profile that results from an integration of physical as well as behavioral evidence obtained from an analysis of the crime scene. Conclusions drawn about the offender have their basis in physical facts that can be verified and is therefore reliable to an extent. Provided the interpretation of the available facts is correct, chances are the investigators are on the right track. An example for deductive method in creating a criminal profile is the Torney case mentioned by Gudjonsson and Haward: The defendant suggested that it was his 13 - year old son who was responsible for the murders as he gone 'berserk'. Gudjonsson was called in his professional capacity to testify for the crown. On the basis of the physical and behavioral evidence gathered from the crime scene, he found that the murders appeared to have been perpetrated by a cold - blooded killer, proficient in the use of firearms, who went about his business with efficiency. It was a planned execution, one that a 13 - year old gone berserk could not have possibly carried out. Following this testimony, the defendant was convicted.

The British approach to profiling is closer to the deductive methods whereas the American approach was mostly inductive. But nowadays, a combination of inductive as well as deductive reasoning techniques are used since it is acknowledged that there are benefits to both and this makes for a far more flexible approach. The profiler's approach usually depends on the type of crime.

- CRIMES SUITABLE FOR PROFILING

It must be remembered that not all crimes under investigation may be suitable for criminal profiling. It appears that profiling is most useful in those cases where there are indications that the perpetrator is psychologically deviant. Such offenders leave telltale signs that include evidence of sadism, necrophilia, fetishism, rape, and particularly violent acts like eviscerations, decapitations, and the like. According to Hazelwood and Burgess, "...certain crimes are particularly appropriate for the process; these crimes include a series of rapes, serial murders, child molesting, ritualistic crimes, threat communications, violence in the workplace, and serial arson" (qtd. in Holmes & Holmes 10).

The Need for Criminal Profiling

Over the years, forensic technology has improved vastly and has had a tremendous impact on police investigations as we know it. Some people go as far as to say that the infamous Jack the Ripper would have been nabbed if Scotland Yard had had the benefits of the enhanced forensic technology available today. Be that as it may, evidence in the form of a fingerprint left on the crime scene, a shoe print, physical evidence like hair, fibers, semen, blood, or other bodily fluids can go a long way in helping the police identify the perpetrator. Locard's Exchange Principle was a groundbreaking development in forensic technology.

According to Saferstein, it "... states that when an offender comes into contact with a location or another person an exchange of evidence occurs. Consequently, the perpetrator leaves a part of himself behind while also taking something with him that is bound to link him to the crime. Physical evidence left behind may be compared against a database of known offenders and more often than not the identity of the perpetrator can be established. Fingerprint technology and DNA profiling can further be used to create an airtight case against the offender. Therefore, as Weston puts it, "It is against this background of rapidly increasing technology that the crime scene is now examined" (22).

Many people believe implicitly in forensic technology grounded as it is in pure scientific rationale and wonder if there is any need for criminal profiling, particularly as the latter calls for behavioral expertise and innovative thought processes that deviate from established scientific methodology. The answer is that forensic technology can do only so much in certain cases. According to Ainsworth, "FBI investigators noted that whilst much forensic evidence can prove a link between a perpetrator and certain crime scene, such evidence is only of real value once a suspect has been identified through other means" (99). There are cases where sophisticated criminals and repeat offenders who have managed to elude arrest are involved. These offenders are meticulous and cautious about leaving physical evidence behind. In these cases as well as cases which are very difficult to solve because they are lacking in clues, particularly serial killing and the like, criminal profiling can be used to narrow down the list of suspects and to point the investigation in the right direction. The profilers of course rely heavily on forensic evidence to glean behavioral information from the scene of the crime. Therefore, it may be concluded that criminal profiling, crime scene analysis, and forensic technology are best used in tandem in order to supplement the results gained using these respective techniques.

The need for criminal profiling was recognized a long time ago in the history of mankind. Over the ages, investigators have made many attempts to determine behavioral characteristics of criminals and have successfully made forays into the criminal mind. However, there is very little documented evidence on the history of criminal profiling save many a dramatic write - up to be found in newspaper clippings or the works of profilers themselves who may be biased in their own favor. Having said that, it must be mentioned that Dr. Brussel is widely regarded as one of the pioneers in the field who drove home the need for criminal profiling on account of the results he was able to achieve. His abilities were successfully showcased in the case of the 'Mad Bomber' who terrorized the city of New York during the 1940s and 1950s. Dr. Brussel developed a profile of the offender that included revealing physical as well as psychological characteristics that were published in a leading newspaper. When George Metesky was apprehended (wearing the double - breasted suit Dr. Brussel predicted he would be wearing' for the bombings, Dr. Brussel's profile was found to be remarkably accurate. It was without doubt a triumph for criminal profiling.

Criminal Profiling: An Evaluation

Criminal Profiling has come in for a lot of criticism in recent times. It has been suggested that its greatest failing is the lack of professionalism and unscientific approach. But this approach is demanded by the nature of the work done by profilers. Every profiler has his own unique style and any attempt to create and follow a prescribed procedure on the basis of scientific fact will merely hinder rather than help the creative process that is called for in this line of work.

Still others point to the meager success rate profilers have. Studies on the effectiveness of criminal profiling as an investigative tool have been few and far between and even these have failed to yield concrete results. While the media lauds profilers who appear to have miraculously drawn up a profile that led to the perpetrator's eventual arrest the fact remains that there are many more cases were profiles have proven to be woefully inaccurate or misleading. And these spectacular failures usually go unmentioned. According to Campbell, "... profiles offer no more information than could be obtained from the local bartender; that they are so vague and ambiguous as to be no more than common sense and the only reason the police take any notice of them is that they are impressed by the qualifications of academia" (qtd. in Dwyer 58).

Despite these facts, it would be wrong to dismiss the use of criminal profiling as it has plenty of potential that needs to be tapped and harnessed in order to fight crime. Profiles drawn up by the FBI they claim helped win a conviction against Wayne Williams in the 'Atlanta Child - Killings Case" (Holmes & Holmes 45). Another example of successful profiling was seen in the 'Railway Rapist' case where John Duffy was arrested for a series of rapes and murders thanks to the profile drawn up by Professor David Canter. This profile was drawn up by the careful integration of behavioral theories and forensic data and it helped narrow down the field of suspects leading to the capture of Duffy. Results such as these are encouraging for the future of criminal profiling. Besides it would be unwise to ignore the genuinely talented profilers who have the special knack of striking a balance between scientific rationale and intuition in order to draw up useful profiles. Provided one is aware of the limitations of profilers, there is no reason to prevent the development of criminal profiling.

Another serious charge leveled against profilers is that sometimes profiles are manipulated to fit the attributes of the most likely suspect and merely serve to strengthen the case of the prosecution. This leads to bias against the suspects and it is a pitfall that needs to be avoided in order to avoid prosecution of the innocent. In this regards it must be mentioned that forensic technology is also not exempt from errors arising from bias. In the words of Field and Thomas, in police investigations once a suspect has been identified, "... the objective of the inquiry becomes the one -sided collection [and sometimes 'manufacture'] of evidence to support the police version of what happened" (qtd. in McCartney 31). If profilers and investigators are made aware of this pitfall there is no reason they won't employ caution to keep their minds free from bias.

The limitations of criminal profiling were also apparent in the 2002 'Beltway serial sniper' shootings. Here the tendency of profilers to over - generalize the usability of existing research is evident and consequently, "Many profiles were generated following this series of random shootings. When the individuals accused of these crimes were later apprehended, little congruence emerged between the profiles and the accused persons" (Kocsis & Palermo 333). This complaint is common as misleading or inaccurate profiles can derail the police investigation allowing the criminal to make a clean escape.

Taking these factors into consideration, it must be said that neither forensic technology used in crime scene analysis not criminal profiling taken alone are infallible when it comes to crime detection. Therefore, the best points in both methods must be incorporated into the process of criminal investigation in order for it to be effective.

Conclusion

In light of the facts outlined above it may be concluded that criminal profiling has the potential to serve as a useful tool in the arsenal of law enforcement. It may be used to identify suspects, link them to a crime scene, and secure a conviction. It also helps to supplement the information gathered during the crime scene analysis. When taken together with forensic technology the two make for a formidable combination and make the investigative process easier. However, one must remember the shortcomings of this approach and proceed with caution.

Works Cited

Ainsworth, Peter, B. Offender Profiling and Crime Analysis. Cullompton: Willan Publishing. Print.
Bevel, Tom and Ross M. Gardner. Bloodstain Pattern Analysis: An Introduction to Crime Scene Analysis. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2002. Print.

Brain, Christine: Advanced Psychology: Applications, Issues, and Perspectives. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd. , 2002. Print.

Dwyer, Diana. Angles on Criminal Psychology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd. , 2001. Print.

Holmes, Ronald, and Stephen T. Holmes . Profiling Violent Crimes: An Investigative Tool. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications Inc. , 2002. Print.

Kocsis, Richard, N. et al. "Criminal Psychological Profiling in Violent Crime Investigations: A Comparative Assessment of Accuracy" . Criminal Psychology and Forensic Psychology: A Collaborative Approach to Effective Profiling. Ed. Grover M. Godwin. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2001. 79 - 104. Print.

Kocsis, Richard, N. and George B. Palermo. "Contemporary Problems in Criminal Profiling" . Criminal Profiling: International Theory, Research, and Practice. Ed. Richard, N. Kocsis. Totowa: Humana Press, Inc. 2007. 327 - 346. Print.

Lee, Henry, C. et al. Henry Lee's Crime Scene Handbook. San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press , 2001. Print.

McCartney, Carole. Forensic Identification and Criminal Justice: Forensic Science, Justice and Risk. Portland, Willan Publishing, 2006. Print.

Turvey, Brent, E. Criminal Profiling: An Introduction to Behavioral Evidence Analysis. 2nd ed. San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press, 2001. Print.

Weston, Norman. "The Crime Scene" . Crime Scene to Court: The Essentials of Forensic Science. 2nd ed. Ed. P. C. White. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2004. 21 -55. Print.

Abstract

This paper is concerned with the relationship between social identity and bilingualism. Language is not only a means of communication, but an important part of how people see themselves and relate to society. Language can serve as a bridge for membership in social groups. Individuals that are bilingual can be expected to have membership in more than one social group and the possibility for increased self-esteem. Studies have indicated that there is a positive correlation between language proficiency and successful integration into a culture which speaks that language. Bilingual individuals frequently feel as though they are members of more than one cultural group. This can be an advantage when an individual is attempting to adapt to a new culture. Individuals that master a language, which is similar to members of a social group, are more likely to be accepted as members of that group. Second generation immigrants who are fluent in the language of their heritage are more likely to feel a part of their native culture (Lee). This serves the purpose of providing these individuals with a more secure sense of self and higher sense of self-esteem. Second-generation immigrants who are adept at the dominant language also have increased self-esteem. Immigrants who are the most successful and have the highest self-esteem are bilingual and completely fluent in both their heritage language and the dominant culture language. Bilingual individuals have the advantage of being members of their heritage cultural group and the dominant culture.

Introduction

Language is not only a means of communication; it is also an important part of how people establish their social identity (Jaspal). Many people use language as a way of establishing their distinctiveness relative to others. Language can be used as a means of indicating one's social status, membership in groups, and general orientation to the environment. Individuals that are members of a social group will often use distinctive terms, which help to establish social ties.

An individual's identity is formed by a number of factors, one of which is a membership in social groups. The social identity of the group is formed through a sharing of respect, which encourages self respect of the group members. Social psychologists point out that an individual's self identity can be threatened if there are significant changes in the social context of their life.

Language has also been noted as a means of establishing one's cultural identity. The native tongue is particularly important with regard to ethnic identity. Many people view their ethnicity and native tongue as an inheritance which cannot be altered. For many people, the ethnic group to which they feel a member is vitally important to their self-concept. This is especially true early in life. As individuals develop, they often consider themselves to be members of additional subcultures, which add to their sense of self. For example, many people become strict followers of a certain religion. People can also become members of a profession. All of these groups are likely to have distinct terminology and language patterns, which will affect the individual's language and self-identity.

The way in which a social identity is affected by language is a complex and intricate process. An individual's attitude toward the language, or languages, they use must be taken into account. For example, the Persian language has a number of Gallicisms, which are associated with the French language. However, Iran was never colonized by France. Further investigation into this curious phenomenon reveals that historically there were many Iranian intellectuals who studied in France. These individuals viewed the French culture with respect and integrated French into the modern Persian language.

The fact that an individual's social identity is partially based on their language brings into question the effect of being bilingual. This paper explores how bilingualism affects an individual's social identity. There will also be an attempt to determine if there are advantages of being bilingual.

Social Psychology

The effect language has on an individual's social identity has been explored by scholars from both social psychology and sociolinguistics. One theory which social psychologists have used to explain how language affects an individual is the Self-Aspects Model of Identity. This model considers there to be both a collective identity and individual identity. The collective identity is formed by the socially shared self. The individual identity is a self interpretation which is based on a number of aspects. In other words, people consider themselves to be individuals and members of a group simultaneously.

Another important theory used by social psychologists regarding language and social identity is the Identity Process Theory (Jaspal & Coyle). This explanation considers that individuals may use a language in response to an identity threat. In this situation, it can allow a group or individual to establish their distinction from a dominant majority. The language is being used as a coping strategy for dealing with the identity threat. Identity Process Theory explains that there is both an evaluation and assimilation-accommodation process which occurs when a social identity is formed. An individual will assimilate new information and accommodate themselves to the situation. They then enter the process of evaluation and determine how to properly adjust their social identity.

Bilingualism and Socialization

Jaspal & Coyle investigated the socialization of bilingual second-generation Asians in the United Kingdom. All of these individuals had become fluent speakers in English, yet had retained the ability to speak the native language of their parents. These bilingual individuals were fluent in both languages.

It has been suggested that increased identification with a culture will lead to proficiency in the predominant language used by the culture. However, the subject is complex and a number of questions have arisen with regard to this phenomenon. One question which arises is the direction of causality. In other words, do individuals become more proficient in the language because they identify with the culture, or do they identify with the culture because they are more proficient with the language?

Bilingualism and Bicultural Identity

A study by Chen, Benet-Martinez & Bond investigated the relationships between bilingualism, bicultural identity, and psychological adjustment. The groups which this study focused on were Filipino workers in Hong Kong, mainland Chinese immigrants to Hong Kong, and college students in Hong Kong as well as mainland China. The study hoped to determine if theories, which had been applied to Canada and the United States were applicable to immigrants in Hong Kong.

The study found that bilingual competence was a significant predictor of adjustment to the society in Hong Kong among the Filipino workers. This was particularly interesting since many of these workers were only in Hong Kong for a short period of time as domestic helpers. All the groups studied experienced negative effects on their sense of well-being in relation to acculturative stress. This type of stress was brought on by feeling as though they were culturally isolated, objects of discrimination, and stress in the linguistic domain due to problems learning a new language. It is particularly interesting to note that all three groups experienced problems learning a new language as a significant acculturative stress.

Immigrants to Hong Kong who experienced significant acculturative stress were at risk for developing clinical symptoms of anxiety and depression. This was true even when an analysis of covariance was used to eliminate the effects of pre-existing personality traits. An Individual which experienced learning the new language as taxing was significantly more likely to experience acculturative stress which led to depression or anxiety.

The study by Chen, Benet-Martinez & Bond found that there were complex interrelationships between language, intercultural relations, and work. For example, individuals that learn the dominant language of their surroundings were more likely to have jobs in which they were satisfied and have good relationships with people from the other culture. However, it is difficult to draw cause-and-effect conclusions from the study due to its correlational nature. While it is true the study found individuals which were more competent in the new language were better adjusted, it cannot be concluded that their language skills are the reason for their superior adjustment. There could be a 3rd factor responsible for both such as intelligence or socioeconomic status.

Bilingualism and Education

The level of bilingual literacy can have a significant effect on educational success. This is an important concept since the world is becoming an increasingly global society with an increasing number of individuals attending schools, which use a language which is not native to the student. For example, between 1970 and 1995 the number of immigrant children in the United States attending school rose from 3.5 to 8.6 million. More than 50% of these children were from the Caribbean or Latin America, and Spanish was their native language (Bartlett).

There are complex relationships between bilingual literacy, membership in social groups, and the success of academic achievement. A student's bilingual literacy often provides the framework for determining which social group they associate with. A number of schools with bicultural students are also bilingual. The course instruction is likely to be in the predominant language of the region. Many of the students may have a different native language. There is a tendency for groups of children who have similar language proficiency to gather into social groups. There is also a tendency for the groups which are more proficient in both languages to be higher academic achievers. A student who finds themselves good at both languages is more likely to be accepted into a group of peers who are similarly gifted. This group is also more likely to be successful academically and value the pursuit of goals, which require academic success.

A case study was done by Bartlett to investigate the relationship between bilingual literacy, social identity, and academic success. The individual upon whom the case study focused was Maria. She was a Spanish speaking student entering a bilingual high school for students who are Spanish speaking immigrants to New York. The school teaches in English, but most of the teachers have Spanish as their native language.

Maria was chosen for the case study due to entering the high school and being identified as a student with interrupted formal education. This is a status assigned to immigrant students who are similar to the "special needs" children of mainstream schools. Maria was found to be significantly behind her peers with regard to her educational level. Despite this humble beginning, Maria had a number of academic successes, which are likely to lead to her attending a university. She accomplished these successes by working hard at her coursework, focusing on learning English, and being accepted by a group of students with a high level of bilingual literacy. Upon acceptance into this group, she was surrounded by peers who shared her values regarding the importance of education and language.

Linguistics and Group Acceptance

An article by Bucholtz examined the relationship between linguistic practices, and the different social groups two Laotian American teenage students identify with. Despite similar family and cultural backgrounds, the two girls identified with very different cultural groups. One of these cultural groups is referred to as the "model minority nerd" while the other is referred to as the "dangerous gangster". Both girls were first-generation immigrants to the United States.

Linguistic structures can be used to identify social positioning, and this is frequently referred to as "style" (Bucholtz). Style is especially important in the life of teenagers who are attempting to negotiate an institutional structure such as an educational system. These teenagers will frequently form groups, which mirror the distinctions present in the surrounding society. The linguistic style they choose is a way of identifying themselves as members of a group and strengthening alignments with other members.

Linguistic styles are a technique used by many individuals to help establish an identity in emergent social situations. The way in which language is used with regard to practice and performance can be an important part of establishing a social identity in a new environment.

The case study done by Bucholtz studied two Laotian American teenage girls and emphasized the different social identities which can be developed through language. The two girls assigned themselves the Americanized names of Nikki and Ada for the study. Both were from working-class families that were Laotian refugees. Even their choice of a name is indicative of their differences. The girl who decided to follow a gangster style chose the trendy name of Nikki. The girl who identified herself with the traditional and nerdy group chose the more traditional name of Ada, which was pronounced as "aedÉ™". This is characteristic of the nerdy group which identifies itself with more advanced written languages.

The speech patterns of Nikki and Ada were observed in interviews and exhibit the importance of speech style with regard to social group membership. Nikki used informal language such as "when you in a gang... you have a little clique." (Bucholtz, p 134). She participated in a number of gang practices such as wearing a blue bandanna and clothing which was oversized. While completely fluent in both Laotian and English, Nikki chose to speak like other members of the gang she associated with.

An interview with Ada revealed that she spoke middle-class American English. She viewed gang membership and success in school as being mutually exclusive. She shied away from gang membership in order to be successful in her academic endeavors. She placed a high value on intelligence and avoided any colloquial or slang use of English. Her English was impeccable and precise.

Language and Ethnic Identity

Identity is a complex combination of many factors such as culture, education, religious orientation, belief systems, and family values (Brown). Ethnic identity involves how an individual views themselves as part of a particular cultural group. This is an important concept for minority groups that have a different cultural background and language. It is generally true that the social identity of a minority group member is more important to them than social identity is to members of the majority group.

There is a positive relationship between how individual feels about their ethnic identity and their level of language proficiency in the heritage language. Second generation immigrants who are more proficient in the heritage language frequently feel as though they have stronger ties to their ethnic group. For example, second-generation Korean-Americans who were more fluent in the Korean language tended to have a stronger sense of ethnic identity. This has also been found to be true with second generation Puerto Rican children with regard to their competence in Spanish.

Second generation Korean Americans who were fluent in both English and Korean had a stronger sense of ethnic identity than similar individuals that were not as fluent in Korean. This a stronger sense of ethnic identity was associated with a more secure self-perception and increased self-esteem. Mastery of the heritage language served as a method for these individuals to feel grounded in their history. It also led them to feel as though they were members of a group. Both factors led to an increased self-image and a more secure cultural identity.

Language and Identity Threat

Language is a part of how people determine their social identity and can also the used as a defense mechanism when an individual feels their identity is threatened. A study of British South Asians focused on the linguistic repertoire of these individuals. The complex linguistic repertoire of many members of this group has been both criticized and praised in the British media. A number of cognitive advantages associated with bilingualism have been reported. On the other hand, there have been politicians from the United Kingdom, who have criticized this group for not speaking English in their homes. This is seen by some as a barrier to becoming true British citizens.

The media attention, and occasional criticism, of British South Asians with regard to their language provides an opportunity to explore their response to the identity threat. Their response was studied using the model of identity process theory. This theory asserts that there are four universal processes, which determine an identity. These processes are distinctness from others, continuity through time, control of one's life, and feelings of social value. Recently, scholars have added the motives of belonging and life purpose.

One strategy which the British South Asian immigrants appeared to have adopted is to more readily identify with the majority language. In this particular case, the British South Asian individuals evaluated English as being a language which is preferred over their native tongue. This appears to be an attempt to enhance their feeling of social value and belonging in British culture.

It is important to note that despite the tendency to offer a more positive view of the English language when their social identity was threatened, most of these individuals also maintained the importance of their native language. They were using a coping strategy of maintaining their self-identity through the maintenance of their native language, while increasing their social status by a greater acceptance of English.

Bilingual Proficiency and Self-Esteem

A study by Lee investigated the effect bilingual confidence had on the self-esteem of Chinese students between the ages of 11 and 18 who were enrolled in a Chinese language school in western Canada. A number of measures of self-esteem were used including the Cultural Free Self -Esteem Inventories, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Multi-group Ethnic Identity Measure. A multivariate analysis of covariance was used to remove the effect of grade point average.

The study done by Lee involved 110 Chinese Canadian students ranging in age from 11 to 18 years old. The average age was 14, and their grades were between 7 and 12. There were slightly more girls, at 59%, than boys. Approximately, 40% of the sample was born in Canada. The largest majority born outside of Canada were native to Hong Kong. Nearly 32% of the sample had lived in Canada for more than 6 years.

Data analysis of this study revealed several important relationships between self-esteem and other measures of the study. Specifically, global self-esteem was positively correlated with ethnic identity, grade point average, and confidence in speaking English. Academic self-esteem was negatively correlated with age, and positively correlated with the grade point average. Individuals that had a stronger ethnic identity and were more proficient with English had higher academic self-esteem. Social self-esteem was positively correlated with the length of time an individual had been in Canada and their level of proficiency with English. The strongest predictor of self-esteem among the Chinese youth in Canada was English proficiency. Members of this group who were more proficient in English had a higher self-esteem.

The study done by Lee confirmed the findings of other research projects that social identification with one's culture of heritage is an important part of an individual's self-esteem. Students who were closely aligned with their cultural heritage had higher self-esteem. The findings also noted that individuals that were more proficient in English had higher self-esteem. The students who had the highest self-esteem were those who identified with their culture of heritage and fully embraced the English language (Lee).

Conclusion

Language is an important part of how people develop their social identity. Language can be used as a method of communication as well as an indication of group membership. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of being bilingual has on an individual's social identity, and if there are any advantages to being fluent in two languages.

Studies have shown that there is a relationship between levels of language acquisition and social group membership. The study by Chen, Benet-Martinez & Bond looked into the relationship between bilingualism and bicultural identity. It was discovered that immigrants to Hong Kong, who were more proficient in the language had better jobs, stronger social relations, and more satisfying lives. People who were fluent in both languages identified with the culture in Hong Kong and their own culture of heritage. The relationship between language and social identity was also supported by the research of Bartlett. These researchers discovered that a student, who was academically disadvantaged, could use language to help her become a member of a social group which was academically successful. Membership in this group helped the students achieve academic success.

Social identity and self-esteem are a complex phenomenon affected by a number of factors, including education, culture, religious orientation, belief systems, family values, and language. Second-generation immigrants who develop proficiency in the language of their heritage feel a stronger sense of ethnic identity. This ethnic identity leads to increased self-esteem and a more stable concept of self. The study by Lee supported these findings and indicated that the self-esteem of both second generation and first-generation Chinese immigrants to Canada had increased self-esteem if they were proficient in their heritage language. It was also discovered that these individuals had higher self-esteem if they were more proficient in English.

The majority of studies indicated that for immigrants to a country with a different language, being bilingual had several advantages in relation to social identity. Individuals that are fluent in their language of heritage feel closer to their familial roots. This leads to a more stable sense of self and higher self-esteem. Individuals that are fluent in the majority language feel like they are more respected members of society, have better jobs, and better social relationships with the majority culture.

References

Bartlett, L. (2007). Bilingual literacy, social identification, and educational trajectories. Linguisticsa and Education, 18(2), 15-31.

Brown, C. L. (2009). Heritage language and ethnic identity: A case study of Korean-American college students. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 11(1), 1-16.

Bucholtz, . (2004). Styles and stereotypes: The linguistic negotiation of identity among Laotian American youth. Pragmatics, 14(2/3), 127-147.

Cavazos-Rehg, P. A., & DeLucia-Waack, J. L. (2009). Education, ethnic identity, and acculturation as predictors of self-esteem in Latino adolescents. Journal of Counseling & Development, 87, 47-54.

Chen, S. X., Benet-Martinez, V., & Bond, M. H. (2008). By cultural identity, bilingualism, and psychological adjustment in multicultural societies: Immigration-based and globalization-based the acculturation. Journal of Personality, 76(4), 803-838.

Jaspal, R. (2009). Language and social identity: A psychosocial approach. Psych-Talk, September, 17-20.

(a) Jaspal, R., & Coyle, A. (2009). Reconciling social psychology and sociolinguistic can have some benefits: Language and identity among second-generation British Asians. Social Psychological Review, 11(2), 3-14.

(b) Jaspal, R., & Coyle, A. (2009). Language and perceptions of identity threat. Psychology & Society, 2(2), 150-167.

Lee, J. W. (2008). The effect of ethnic identity and bilingual confident on Chinese youth's self-esteem. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 54(1), 83-96.

The United States has strict anti-corruption policies preventing US citizens, firms and officials from offering or accepting bribes in the areas of business or government. First enacted in 1977, the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) set anti-corruption regulations for firms operating abroad. The FCPA had two principal components - one dealing directly with anti-bribery, and the other with and transparency in record keeping. A subsequent amendment to the FCPA prohibits "...payments to any foreign official for the purpose of influencing any act or decision of such foreign official in his official capacity, or inducing such foreign official to do or omit to do any act in violation of the lawful duty of such official" (Section 5003 of FCPA). In other words, offering bribes is prohibited in foreign business dealings just as it is within the United States, regardless of the local customs prevalent in the places where business is being done. While sources indicate that the FCPA was not consistently enforced during the first few decades following its enactment, nowadays, its enforcement is quite strict, offering consistent opposition and prevention of bribery in foreign business interactions.

Preventing corrupt practices such as bribery is in keeping with United States business ethics and values. The intention of the FCPA has always been to enforce the implementation of US values even when business is done abroad. However, when doing business in societies where bribing is a regular and accepted component of commercial practices, it is sometimes argued that strict adherence to US anti-bribery laws may put US companies at a competitive disadvantage in terms of international trade with foreign companies. US companies may be unable to compete effectively with firms from other countries which are willing to engage in or tolerate bribery, and therefore have an increased opportunity to attract and negotiate contracts. Since the enactment of FCPA regulations, these losses may have been substantial; for example, a 1995 study valued the loss in contracts due to US refusal to engage in bribery at an estimated $45 billion dollars.

Despite what seems to be a clear financial incentive to relax the enforcement of anti-bribery laws, the United States has, with some success, attempted to alleviate the competitive disadvantage described above by negotiating more stringent and consistent international regulations. This international cooperation with regard to anti-bribery and anti-corruption legislation had always been the intent; however, according to Low and Trenkle, early attempts to do so had failed in the 1970s. However, by the late 1980s, negotiations progressed, and five of the top ten export economies - the United States, Canada, Germany, Japan and the United Kingdom- took coordinated steps toward ratifying anti-bribery regulations, as did five other OECD members - Iceland, Norway, Hungary, Finland, and Bulgaria (Low and Trenkle). Moreover, with regard to these and other economically developed nations, anti-bribery laws have not only been ratified, but are also being strictly enforced on an ongoing basis.

Because of the increasing coordination of international standards, American firms are no longer faced with a preponderance of competitors who eschew such standards. As a result, the economic disadvantage of enforcing FCPA regulations is gradually dissipating. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has given a great deal of attention to anti-bribery regulations, and member countries typically have strong and consistently enforced policies. For example, the UK Financial Services authority imposed 5.25 million (in Pounds Sterling) fine on Aon Ltd., a British subsidiary, for failing to establish sufficiently powerful anti-bribery controls ("The Extraterritorial Reach of US Anti-Bribery Law"). Developing countries, likewise, are beginning to show the initiative in domestic investigations of bribery cases. It is admirable that, instead of abandoning their high standards of business ethics on the international market in view of competition, The United States instead initiated a similar process of regulation adherence among other powers. There are strong social and ethical reasons to resist corruption in business practices.

When business practices are generalized throughout a society and their broader effects are considered, it becomes undeniable that corrupt practices exist to the detriment of the society as a whole, even when short term advantages seem to be present. Logue suggests the following detrimental effects of bribery: First, an economic system which accepts or does not prevent the practice of bribery reinforces existing inequities in resources, disenfranchising those without resources and empowering those who have them, thus accelerating the inequitable effects of capitalism. Furthermore, bribery and corruption become barriers to economic development, as the system prevents economic improvement that is generalized throughout a society, concentrating financial gain among already affluent individuals. In fact, in 1996 both the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) stated that corruption is "... the enemy of development". Finally, bribery tends to weaken the constructive and regulatory powers of government, eroding or preventing the rule of law.

For all of these reasons, despite the fact that it may constitute a short term advantage and may indeed be resonant with some cultural practices, bribery ultimately creates an unhealthy international trade environment. Increasing the strength and level of enforcement of anti-bribery laws will, in the long run, create more hospitable conditions for world trade. Currently, due to international cooperation on standards, the short term disadvantages of the US anti-bribery laws are disappearing, and the superior ethical standing and long term benefits seem clear.

Bibliography

Aubin, Dena. "Anti-bribery act could weigh on corp ratings". Reuters.

Logue, Niles. (2005). "Cultural Relativism or Ethical Imperialism? Dealing with Bribery Across Cultures". Proceedings of the Christian Business Faculty Association National Conference at Point Loma Nazarene University.

Low, Lucinda A. and Trenkle, Timothy P. (1999). "U.S. antibribery law goes global: Standards tightening up". Business Law Today.

Seitzinger, Michael V. "CRS Report to Congress: Foreign Corrupt Practices Act".

"The Extraterritorial Reach of US Anti-Bribery Law". (2009). Freshfields Bruckhauser Deringer LLP.

Introduction

Despite much progress in gender disparities, equality in the workplace remains a predominant point of concern among women, specifically, as this study concludes, in Canada. Disparities, however, become all-encompassing and can refer to issues across a broad spectrum of situations and places making it important to examine the most concerning differences women face in today's workplace. In terms of gender gaps, a woman's income is typically about 61% of a man's in non-unionized jobs and 82% in unionized environments (Center for Social Justice). Women tend to be over-represented among the contingent workforce, indicating that statistical objectives do not pay close attention to accuracy whereas national organizations-and employment groups-fail to address the very root of the gender gap leaving Canada's working woman with few promising choices for making a decent living. These issues are disconcerting as many disparities can be resolved at the management level, indicating a central point of contention might be related to poor management due to inadequate training. As such, this paper aims to explore the gender gap with strong focus on wage disparities and treatment in the workplace while the writer also examines strategies of change that impart significant and long term changes for Canada's female worker. The premise of this study relies on the examination of change as a progressive tool and method to promote positive and equal treatment for women, reducing the gender gap in terms of job roles and earnings, and how workplace management must be knowledgeable and compliant in areas of equality for additional and continued improvements to be noted.

Overview

Historically, Canadian women are overlooked for positions that could prove fruitful for household incomes and companies throughout the nation. Sadly, the positions have not changed as much as some would believe. In cases where women have obtained a quality education, their earning potential remains significantly lower than men. In fact, studies indicate that females with higher degrees are likely to encounter greater inequality due to heightened discrimination by their male counterparts who view their advancement as a threat.

Davies, Mosher and O'Grady reveal two distinct competing explanations of gender inequalities in the workplace, the first being a "function of disparities in productivity" (p. 126) which leads to wage discrepancies. It is further believed that women and men are paid unequally because they bring different levels of education, training, experience, or other generators of productivity to the workforce. Moreover, Davies, et al. claim that "women receive humbler returns to experience because their domestic duties produce interrupted employment histories [that] are unattractive to employers (p. 126). While some aspects of the authors' claims might be accurate, there remains a large portion of these claims that do not coincide with current law and the fact that women have proven themselves to be equally competent in terms of education and training; however, their male counterparts and specifically male supervisors do not see the woman worker as contributing as much in terms of human capital in the workplace.

At present, the Canadian workforce consists of over 12 million workers with nearly 6 million being female. Despite sluggish change in the gender gap, the number of women in the workforce has steadily increased with reported changes between 1976 and 1999 being 37.1% to 45.9%. While the authors report that most women work in what are considered to be traditional jobs such as clerical or nursing, the Center for Social Justice reports in greater detail articulating how "women are over-represented in the ranks of the poor and under-represented among upper income earners" (par. 3). Specifically, the Center reports that women tend to be "segregated by occupation, having too few good jobs and too many contingent jobs" and are "additionally marginalized if they are women of color, aboriginal, with disabilities, younger or older" (par. 3). Single mothers tend to comprise a large portion of Canada's poverty stricken with very few making it to the ranks of the wealthy.

In what the Center for Social Justice refers to as a 3-fold factor, women are consistently under-represented in the top 20% of Canadian earners with only 11% making it to the top 20% compared to 29% of men with incomes exceeding $32,000. Further, occupational segregation contributes to the trend as women continue to hit barriers when seeking to progress to high paying professions and jobs. In specific categories, women comprise "only 5% of skill trades, 10% of fire and police forces [and] 21% of senior managers. Barriers are ever-present and remain significant including barriers that limit a woman's access to post secondary education due to high tuition costs and decline among available scholarships.

The contingent workforce is the fastest growing sector for women's employment in Canada, but they remain greatly over-represented with significantly lower wages and working part-time positions that are "non-unionized and insecure" (Center for Social Justice, par. 4). Disturbingly, women in the contingent workforce-including the self-employed-earn less than $11,000 or 59% less than men. Unions, however, have difficulty representing the female population because of the inability of females to participate in union activities. While union membership is fairly equal, the lack of representation by of women makes it al the more difficult for unions to adequately recognize some of the issues women face in the workplace. According to Cooke-Reynolds and Zukewich, women also face challenges as they are reported to be among the highest group with inconsistent patterns of employment. Nearly 41% of Canadian women are involved in non-traditional work arrangements such as teleworking (e.g work at home), part-time or temporary work assignments.

Based on this information, there is a clear avenue for examining the disparities in the workforce and to analyze ways to educate management on how to reach the female population to increase gender diversity in the workplace and to work toward making the overall job market more attractive for the female worker (e.g. equal pay, benefits, advancement opportunities, et al). However, the first step is for current companies-at the management level-to work collectively to eliminate inequality and discrimination in the workplace. As a result, Canada would see a greater input from all its citizens, thereby making its economy stronger and the collective nation more united. Further, by reforming gender-based laws, Canada would open the doors to a new and balanced workplace system that promotes innovation, productivity, and competitiveness, while it also promotes stability in the one-parent family household.

JOB ACCESS AND PAY EQUALITY

Equal access to jobs and training and pay equity are listed among the relevant issues for women by the Canadian Labour Congress (CLC); however, specific data relating to these same topics through CLC is limited. In fact, the majority of information sources available point to collective workforce dilemmas with little-if any-reference to women workers. For example, according to the CLC, GM recently announced plans to cut jobs in Oshawa, which some claim is a sign of disrespect for Canada, Ontario and the local community as the announcement was made "with no warning just as workers and their families are getting ready for the holidays" (Gruending, par. 2). Cuts are expected to impact 1,000 of the current 2,200 workers in GM's Camaro production facility. Collectively, GM employs 4,000 in Oshawa, down from its previous 23,000 employees several years ago. In terms of how GM cuts will impact the female workforce, again, the CLC does not specify; however, given the increasing number of women working on assembly lines-especially those in need of second jobs-the cuts can be expected to further impact the female working population and increase disparities in other industry sectors.

Canada's HR Reporter claims that Canadian women currently face struggles accessing "hot jobs" which widen the gender gap (Reaney). This author specifically explains that women are "blocked from advancing in their careers because of unequal access to high visibility jobs and international experience, according to a new report" (par. 1). Women with the same educational level typically start lower level jobs and receive less pay than men. Similar studies reveal that certain on-the-job experiences (e.g. high visibility projects, having mission-critical roles, and international experience) predict advancements and, sadly, most women are not given equal opportunity to achieve or obtain these "critical experiences" (par. 2). Among workers with high profile jobs, 62% say their jobs have the greatest impact on their careers whereas only 10% credit corporate training as a long-term positive impact. Further, among men and women working similar projects, projects with male heads are twice the size of those led by women; more men oversee bigger teams, "have greater corporate visibility and roles with critical responsibility, and managed budgets over $10 million" (par. 10). Despite the efforts by women to exert the same quality of work and collectively apply the same efforts, the results are less for women than men across the board.

The consistent inequality in job access and lower pay is one reason Canadian women have increasingly entered into self-employment and small business ownership. Interestingly, women entrepreneurs contribute "an estimated $18 billion to the Canadian economy" and have attracted "much attention from policy makers and academic researchers alike" (p. 107). Despite these impressive figures, women entrepreneurs face similar challenges when entering a business world dominated by men. As such, on both sides of the workplace, women continue to experience fewer opportunities, stagnant or limited results from engaging in traditional male-dominated roles, and find that others tend to view their presence as less than that of a man in the same position. Hughes reports "there is growing evidence of diversity among Canadian women entrepreneurs, both in terms of their economic performance and success, as well as their motivations for pursuing their own business" (p. 107), which leads one to question what can be done to improve the woman's position in the workplace.

As previously stated, many workers in high end jobs claim that corporate training has little-if any-affect on advancement and success. If this claim is true, how can corporate training improve to meet the needs of women workers? What can be done to ensure women received equal pay and equal access to jobs? There are a number of options with the two most prevalent being stronger and tightly enforced laws that protect women's equal rights in the workplace and a great understanding and application of accurate corporate training programs that stress and enforce a gender-blind opportunity for individuals within the company.

LAW REFORM

Despite the presence of pay equity laws, "only Ontario and Quebec have proactive pay equity laws which cover both the public and private sector" whereby "other provinces enacted pay equity legislation that covered only the public sector and didn't require pay equity to be maintained" (A Quick Education in Pay Equity, par. 10). Most jurisdictions and Canadian federal law include combine pay equity or equality provisions within human rights laws where women are required to file an official complaint against the employer with no guarantee for resolution and a greater risk of losing one's job. While Section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states that "every individual is equal before and under the law and has the right to the equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination" (L'Heureux-Dube, p. 31), current equality conditions illustrate the lack of enforcement in Canadian law where gender is concerned. Arguments concerning financial inabilities and overall fairness are consistently presented in case after case which indicates a serious problem that must be addressed and remedied.

The history of reform efforts shows some signs of change although they are too few to be considered overly significant. As such, collectively, women and their respective rights organizations must ardently lobby lawmakers to push for continued reform. These efforts, however, will be limited to the extent of the urgency stressed by women and often take years to become law and even longer to be uniformly applied. As such, the urgency to implement corporate training programs designed to address issues of diversity and equality in the workplace appears to be the most effective and expedient method to reduce inequality and discrimination in the workplace. It is important to note, however, that such training programs must be concurrent to law reform efforts.

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Women continue to fight for equality workplace and find they often face a two-fold battle: gender rights and racial discrimination. The struggles are compounded by the fact that many women are battling one another in the workplace. Regarding conflict resolution in the workplace, the Canadian Journal of Sociology reveals that the stresses women face have spilled over into the workplace (Srivastava). In a setting using a therapeutic and conflict-resolution framework, disparities between female coworkers were found to be race-related with the most reported distresses coming from white females. The most common reactions are resistance ("Don't talk to me about any of these issues"), vulnerability ("I can't handle it"), and reproach. According to recommendation by Srivastava, the use of a framework option has been successful, specifically as the framework ardently works to address the issues and reactions of women (p. 55). However, there are limitations with the most common being women's inability to engage in the "let's talk" approach, which Srivastava reveals does not appear to aid in reducing workplace stresses (p. 55). In fact, historically, women have held a position of subservience thereby rendering their ability to "talk it out" a hard effort.

Eichler credits such problems as being related to the woman's reduced standard of living compared to their male counterparts. This is particularly true among single women or single mothers where pressures to fulfill the duties of the household caretaker while also being thrust into the workplace are compounded. Furthermore, based on the limitations listed by Eichler, these problems are also related to the issues faced in the courtroom, lack of judicial discretion in this area, and the imperative need for reform (e.g. issues with formal and substantive equality).

L'Heurex-Dube explains formal equality as the provision that "every individual is equal before and under the law and has the right to the equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination" (p. 31), whereas substantive equality requires a more intense level of thinking and approaching differences (p. 31) as it "mandates close scrutiny of legislative distinctions to ensure that they do not single out historically disadvantaged and socially vulnerable groups" (p. 31). In the context of equal jobs and equal pay, substantive equality rests on the female gender as less important than the male gender. Furthermore, in spite of arguments against the validity of gender inequalities, Canada has a long history of having a high level of suffering in the human rights arena, particularly where women are concerned. As such, these are among the very issues that should be included in corporate training programs to ensure that all workers-regardless of gender or race-are provided with the educational material and tools to modernize their thinking and to accept diversity and non-discriminatory policies, including the ramifications of breaching such policies.

Conclusion

Without a doubt, gender inequality remains a major issue among Canada's female population. While some progress has been notes, gender disparities-particularly in the workplace-remains a significant concern among women. As the Center for Social Justice has revealed women earn about 61% compared to men in non-unionized jobs and 82% in unionized environments. Current statistics are inaccurate as women tend to be over-represented among the contingent workforce. Further, as this study has revealed, national organizations-and employment groups-fail to address the very root of the gender gap at every level (e.g. job access, equal pay, discrimination) leaving Canada's working woman on the low end of the business world and with reduced chances to earn a decent living. While laws exist, they are limited with most being fully applicable to certain jurisdictions, indicating law reform is an urgent need. Nevertheless, law reform is a long and cumbersome process. Corporate training, though ineffective according to some, is the most promising and expeditious method of addressing inequality. Equal jobs and equal pay for women in Canada will only begin to see significant improvements after companies at the management level stringently implement and enforce corporate education and training programs and enforce strong policies that project women in the workplace.

References

Akyeampong, E.B. Working at home: An update. Perspectives on Labour and Income, 16-18.

Akyeampong, E.B., & Nadwodny, R. (2001). Evolution of the Canadian workplace: Work from home. Perspectives on Labour and Income, 2(9), 30-36.

Center for Social Justice (2012). Overview. Key Issues: Gender Inequality.

Cooke-Reynolds, M., & Zukewich, N. (2004). The feminization of work. Canadian Social Trends, 2(72), 24-29.

Davies, S., Mosher, C., & O'Grady, B. (1996). Educating Women: Gender Inequalities Among Canadian University Graduates. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 33(2), 126.

Gruending, D. (2012). GM job cuts in Oshawa sign of disrespect: CLC says governments must work to reverse decision. Canadian Labour Congress.

Hughes, K. D. (2006). Exploring motivation and success among Canadian women entrepreneurs. Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship, 19(2), 107.

L'Heureux-Dube, C. (1999). Changing face of equality: the indirect effects of Section 15 of the Charter. Canadian Woman Studies, 19(1-2), 30-6.

Reaney, P. (2012). Unequal access to 'hot jobs' obstructs women's careers: Report. Canadian HR Reporter.

Introduction

Education is vital to the development of every human being. Unfortunately, not everyone has access to quality formal education. Children in refugee camps, particularly, are often disadvantaged in terms of access to education. Many refugee camps only offer basic requirements for survival, and education is considered secondary. Nowadays, however, schools can be found within refugee camps, but most of them are riddled with problems. A substantial body of literature exists on the challenges faced in providing quality education in refugee camps. This paper will discuss selected literature that shed light on children education problems in refugee camps.

The global rise in numbers of juvenile refugees suggests the need to examine the capacity of the camps to provide education opportunities. Educated children have higher chances of experiencing a smooth transition to citizenship than uneducated ones do. The literature reviewed in this paper analyzes the social and psychological problems, such as overcrowding, insufficient learning materials, poor infrastructure and insecurity, high rate of school dropout, and shortage of competent teachers. This study bears in mind that the difficult experience of the changes of family structure, exile and religious, ethnic, cultural, and legal differences can affect the ability of children to acquire quality education. The problems mentioned here can only increase the difficulty experienced in learning for child refugees. All efforts should be channeled toward eliminating or mitigating these problems and making learning as comfortable as possible for children in refugee camps. This report is not only useful for organizations involved with refugees; governments can also gain insight on how children's education can be affected by various issues inside and outside of refugee camps.

Theoretical Framework

The social and psychological effects of various problems facing children in refugee camps are examined in the literature from various angles and disciplines such as sociology, behavioral sciences, psychology, urban geography and epidemiology. Many studies focus on the effects of these problems in school-going children. Some of the works analyzed the coping mechanisms of individual children in the context of the challenges they face in schools in refugee camps. Many of the children exhibited coping mechanisms such as withdrawal into personal space for emotional and psychological renewal. These coping mechanisms were threatened by many different social interactions that caused sensory overload on the children. Such theoretical formulations influenced studies that were conducted later; these latter studies maintained a focus on the children in refugee camps. The scholars acknowledged the importance of education for child refugees because it can provide them with a sense of hope and security; these aspects often lack in refugee settings. Education can play a vital role in helping to restore a sense of normalcy into the lives of children displaced from their homes to refugee camps. Educating refugees provides many benefits and produces an immediate and positive impact on society. Educated children learn self-reliance and other values necessary for human development. Education can also provide psychosocial and physical safety for children. It can be an important instrument for ensuring the children's future success. Despite the numerous benefits of education, many refugee children cannot attend school, and for those who manage, the quality is often low and ridden with problems. These issues compelled various scholars to carry out research on how to deal with them.

LITERATURE REVIEW

This review examines different problems and challenges that children in refugee camps undergo in their endeavor to gain quality education. It looks at the literature on refugee resilience in the face of these issues. It also discusses a range of interventions for dealing with the problems hampering provision of quality education to refugee children in schools.

Overcrowding

Most refugees have inadequate classrooms in which children can learn in a formal setting. The buildings that act as schools are often poorly constructed. Where structures exist, they are often overcrowded. Mareng distinguishes between spatial density (the floor space per child) and social density (the number of children interacting in the school). These concepts are all relevant to the context of children schooling in refugee camps globally. The concept of subjective crowding occurs as refugee children feel the effect of the conditions of overcrowding. The American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise concludes that the number of classrooms available plays a massive role in determining how the child will interact with classmates, and is related to poor educational quality. Land for providing school extensions is becoming scarce within the boundaries of refugee camps. Some classrooms often accommodate 50 to over 60 students each in contrast to an average of 15 to 20 students in classrooms outside refugee camps. The research found that overcrowding led to problems of conduct among refugee children. In particular, there was increased fighting for space among children in refugee camps. There were also findings in the literature on the connection between overcrowding and health. Studies affirm that the transmission of communicable disease is enhanced among children staying closely together. Overcrowding raises the risk of infection because the number of possible transmitters increases. Consequently, children learning in crowded conditions acquire more infections; infections affect their ability to learn. The study suggests that illnesses such as influenza, whooping cough, diarrhea, acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI), hepatitis A and B, helminth diseases and chronic diseases may be related to crowding. In refugee camps, the respiratory diseases are predominant in children under 5. In one instance, it was reported that 48 percent of elementary schoolchildren in three camps were infected with parasites in the intestines. The children then suffered malnutrition immediately after the parasitic infections. This incident made the children more vulnerable to other infections than before. The study found that the chances of epidemic eruption greatly increased due to overcrowding.

Poor Pedagogical Skills

Teaching quality in schools located in refugee camps has been found to be low. New, unqualified teachers are usually hired on contract because the concerned hiring organizations cannot afford to hire teachers permanently. Poor pedagogical approaches employed by the unqualified teachers are considered the biggest reason for the poor education standards. Dooley suggests employing a different approach to teaching refugee children in high schools. The author recommends that all teachers should extend their teaching skills to include teaching literacy and language to complement subject area content. This approach requires that ESL teachers and content area teachers find ways of using refugee children's conceptual knowledge and the knowledge to address their unique literacy. The approach builds on the refugee students' life experiences prior to their resettlement experiences. The British Columbia Ministry of Education draws the line between the needs of many refugee students and immigrant students. Many refugee students often need to learn new academic language forms and concepts alongside a new language. In contrast, many immigrant students only need support in learning a foreign language to succeed in their new academic environment. Pedagogies effective for other foreign language students may not necessarily be adequate for refugee students. Sutherland suggests that gaining literacy in a second language is influenced by the teaching quality, instruction intensity, methods for supporting the special language needs of refugees, learning evaluation and monitoring, and teacher preparation. Woods asserts that subject-area teachers should present information in a comprehensible way for refugees who are learning a second language.

Adaptation Problems for Children in Schools in Refugee Camps

Such children may also have difficulties adapting to their new environment. Teachers ought to know the factors that hinder or facilitate adaptation. The school environment may be more difficult to adapt to if the teacher speaks or acts inappropriately. The ability of refugee children to adapt depends on the amount of chronic and acute stressors experienced as well as the protective factors that may accelerate the coping mechanism. Another influential factor was found to be the child's personality disposition, which accounted for the disparities in how different children adapted to their situation. Compared to other children, refugee children were found to experience more adaptation and socialization difficulties. The problems arise especially because refugee flight disrupts the continuity of the socialization process and prevents normal acquisition of information and skills. Therefore, the refugee child has to incorporate meaningful and functional issues in different cultures. Schools in refugee camps may lack the capacity to create a safe environment in which the children could feel supported.

Dawn et al. revealed that trauma-related learning difficulties created complications in assessing refugee children during the first few weeks of arrival into the refugee camp. These issues were only considered problematic when they persisted and the child concerned failed to improve on the same level as other refugee children. Teachers needed to be trained to document pre-migration stressors, critical events and post-migration factors. During the assessment, teachers should also be equipped with the skills to discern the coping strategies the children used to deal with traumatic experiences. In this way, teachers were able to help the children to contain their emotions within manageable levels.

Researchers found that attempts to accelerate the children's healing process using therapeutic methods were successful when the social and cultural context was taken into account. The study therefore urged teachers to acquire cultural knowledge relevant to the conflicts experienced by the children. Teachers also needed to identify constructive elements to cultural bereavement for each child in the school. Tutors were advised to avoid defining children solely by their loss. Some researchers also recommended incorporating individual therapeutic techniques that were interlinked create a new sense of social belonging. Refugee children need to feel that they are a part of the school, without having to lose their cultural identities. Therefore, schools have to adapt and create a safe haven for enabling the transition of the refugee child.

Many studies recommended ways of building the capacity of teachers to be able to deal with refugee children in their schools. They recommended appropriate training of teachers and their participation in activities related to refugee education. Some researchers recommended the incorporation of specialized service providers to provide counseling to children who exhibit symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorders within the school setting. Additional resources and mechanisms may offer support to teachers in their efforts to help refugee children. School principles should also provide teachers with a platform in which they could air their views regarding the problems they have encountered and possible solutions. Such platforms could be instrumental in facilitating the teachers' own adaptation and healing process. Schools in refugee camps should adopt and implement cross-cultural curricular and projects to enhance levels of understanding and mutual respect. They should also integrate topics that focus on refugees and human rights to inform children from the host country students about the experiences and needs of the refugee children. In addition, extracurricular activities should be developed to help refugee children and others interact. Such activities could also help the refugee children forget traumatic experiences that they had undergone. Teachers could put the children in groups where they could share stories, songs and music. Children from the host countries may also get the opportunity to assist refugee students with any difficulties in class work.

Learning Difficulties Due to Posttraumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD)

Most refugees have experienced grief from the loss of one or more loved ones due to issues such as war, famine or drought. Majority of them have also lost their homes and the way of life that they have always known. Teachers may not be properly trained to handle the posttraumatic stress disorders, and their ineptitude may exacerbate the situation. Studies suggest that teachers need to be equipped with the capacity to help children suffering PTSD to be able to cope. They should learn to encourage such children to come out from reclusion and be able to express themselves. Research found that many teachers have no training to identify when a child has PTSD. This ability is important as it prevents generalization of children by teachers; some children are able to cope well despite having suffered traumatic experiences. If the teacher is not properly trained to make a diagnosis, he or she might act in a way that might trigger suppressed stressed.

Scholars identified death of a loved one, displacement, threat of violence, forceful migration and acculturation as the most common stressors among child refugees. This situation is often mitigated when teachers are drawn from within the refugee population. Such teachers may have experienced similar stressors and therefore be better positioned to help others.

Some researchers proposed the applicability of the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder construct for child refugees in general. They describe the associated symptoms predominant in children in refugee camps. These scholars provide the clinical contexts that focus on therapeutic interventions after identification and diagnosis. The scholars describe pre-migration stressors, the environmental adaptation trauma, and the issues of grief. The literature provides techniques that teachers can utilize to identify and treat children who require intensive individual therapy to cope with excessive stress. Studies identified symptoms such as fear, prolonged crying and anxiety as some of the behavioral changes that teachers were advised to look out for when dealing with children in refugee camps. Other symptoms include clinging, agitation, isolation, withdrawal, repetitive play, startled reactions and other regressive behavior.

In one study, some of the children who had survived atrocities of war were diagnosed with PTSD and depression. Those children who displayed fewer signs of severe trauma were those who had continued to live with family members. This study reflected the significance other systemic variables that heightened or diminished a child's vulnerability PTSD occurring in the refugee camp. The research recommended an acculturation stress diagnosis technique to help teachers or school managers to help refugees.

Having realized the critical role schools played in the mental health of refugee children, scholars tried to put trauma in the context of education settings. The literature documented that children are able to cope when given the right environment. However, concern was raised concerning the decline in discipline and academic performance of refugee children.

These issues posed pose significant challenges to teachers primarily because some teachers tended to internalize the trauma of their refugee pupils. Some of the teachers expressed loss of confidence in their pedagogical abilities when dealing with refugee children. Others were reported to have become withdrawn or rigid against their pupils. Studies found that teaching under such conditions was complicated; refugee children were the main losers, as they failed to understand these teachers or developed negative perceptions about school.

Kanu suggests that students with traumatic experiences have problems catching up with average academic and cognitive levels. In contrast, other immigrant students studying a foreign language take a shorter time and less support to catch up with their native English-speaking peers. The reason for this disparity could be attributed to the effects of psychological trauma. Some refugee children may have developed fear and distrust of teachers and other authority figures.

They may also have fear of expressing themselves audibly in class. In the study by MacKay & Travares, refugee children from war-affected countries were more likely to have socio-emotional issues in comparison to children who left their countries due to other issues, such as drought. Evidence suggests that the effects of war could severely influence the capacity of refugee children to learn. Many children from war-torn countries were reported to have difficulties forming friendships in school. Their reclusive nature made it difficult for teachers to help them gain knowledge. Some students exhibited hostile tendencies toward teachers and their fellow students. Teachers and schools ought to demonstrate compassion for such children. The author suggested that teachers should channel their focus on these learners. Mann recommended employing therapeutic interventions that are culturally sensitive, such as art, dance poetry, music and storytelling. These activities relate to the cultural heritage of the refugee children, and it can help social and psychological integration.

Conclusion

From this literature review, I have gained much about the challenges faced by children in refugee camps. Fortunately, the literature offers numerous interventions to help deal with these problems. Overcrowding, lack of qualified teachers and effects of trauma are the greatest impediment toward achieving quality education for children in refugee camps. The literature shows that refugee children are extremely disadvantaged compared to other immigrant children who moved for other reasons. Studies have exposed the need for building more schools despite limited space available in many refugee camps. If possible, humanitarian organizations should liaise with the host countries to acquire more space. Teachers should also be trained to deal specifically with refugee children. Issues to do with teaching a foreign language, particularly, need a special approach from teachers. In addition, teachers should be able to identify and help children with psychological trauma. Although the literature reviewed was exhaustive in these issues, there are certain gaps that need to be addressed in future studies. For example, the authors neglected to address gender-sensitive issues. The specific literature reviewed in this study provided a generalization of the children. The authors should have done some studies on the problems faced by girls compared to boys. This issue is critical in view of the fact that girls experienced unique problems that lead to a high dropout rate among refugee girls. Currently, studies have been done on the effect of female genital mutilation (FGM) on schooling of girls among refugee children from communities that practice the vice. Other studies have been done on how refugee girls are most at risk of early marriages, which force them to drop out of school. Though these issues have been discussed comprehensively, there is inadequate information regarding how studies of the various problems discussed can be incorporated into the school curriculum. This research will address the need to include the issue of being refugees, and how to handle various problems that children-especially girls-face. It is hoped that from this study, new research will be carried out to investigate more gender-specific problems that both boys and girls undergo in the refugee camps.

References

American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise (2014). UN Relief & Works Agency (UNRWA): Palestinian Refugees in the West Bank.

British Columbia Ministry of Education (2009). Students from Refugee Backgrounds: a Guide for Teachers and Schools.

Dawn, C., ‎Joshua, A., Fogel & ‎Gillian Lewando Hundt (Eds.) (2005). Children of Palestine: Experiencing Forced Migration in the Middle East. Berghahn Books

Dooley, Karen T. (2009) Re-thinking pedagogy for middle school students with little, no or severely interrupted schooling. English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 8(1). pp. 5-22.

Woods, Annette (2009). Learning to be literate: issues of pedagogy for recently arrived refugee youth in Australia. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies: An International Journal, 6(1-2). pp. 81-101.

Kanu, Yatta (2008). Educational Needs and Barriers for African Refugee Students in Manitoba. Canadian Journal of Education 31, 4: 915-940

MacKay, T. & Travares, T. (2005). Building Hope: Appropriate Programming for Adolescent and Young Adult Newcomers of War-affected Backgrounds and Manitoba Schools: A Preliminary report for Consultation and Discussion (2005). Manitoba Education, Citizenship and Youth.

Mann, G. (2010). Finding a Life Among Undocumented Congolese Refugee Children in Tanzania. Children & Society. 24.4. 261-270.

Mareng, C. (2010). Analysis of the refugee children's education in the Kakuma refugee camp. Educational Research and Reviews. 5.6: 292-287.

Sutherland, E. (2008). Refugee Children and Families: A Model for Successful Integration. Calgary, AB: Edna Sutherland and Associates.

It started, as many things do - the curiosity of a child fed and nurtured by his indulgent father. As a biological scientist, my father's lab had much to offer his wide-eyed son. Beakers and tubes tinkled when touched, amidst the warnings to keep little hands to themselves. Safety goggles were eagerly put on, as were the smallest sized lab coats that would swim on me. Why does water change at different temperatures? How does the brain work? What do all these complicated formulas do? Looking back, those early days were integral to shaping my interest for the sciences. Without even realizing, the basics of chemistry and biology were learnt happily, while the safety and operating procedures in the lab were second nature by the time I started elementary school.

Interest gave way to passion in elementary, and I found myself begging to be allowed to attend chemistry camps and young scientist workshops. Math now fascinated me as I spent many a disbelieving hour wondering how anything and everything could be equated with a calculation and dispersed into numbers. Weekends were spent preparing for math competitions such as the ASCI (Association of Christian Schools) Math Competition I participated in during 8th grade, and research documentaries became my entertainment of choice. I am proud today to say that on my wall, was a blown up poster of the periodic table, despite the new teenager in me lamenting social suicide. By high school, this self study paid off when I was allowed as a freshman, to enter the honors algebra 2 with trigonometry class, with the junior high class.

The day all this learning became real to me; when I made the conscious decision to channel my efforts into wanting to study the brain, was the day when my grandma had a stroke. After that incident, it occurred to me that nothing was going to help her get better. This was an alien concept, of sorts. I knew about strokes from my readings, of course, but surely people heal eventually? Sadly, my final memories of her are tinged with a feeling of helpless desperation. Being unable to do anything but watch as simple everyday actions such as feeding herself, eating, getting changed, and even walking, became painful chores. When she died, I remember wishing I was older, smarter, and full of answers. She would have told me to stop wishing, and start doing. So I did.

Today, my own research is concentrated in studying how the brain functions in stroke patients. To gain experience in this field, I spent a year as a volunteer in a nursing home where I could help, interact with, and observe the elderly - some of whom had suffered from stroke. I found that constant, and regular routines helped bring back some movement and semblance of muscle memory. Full of questions, I sought out and watched a documentary on how living brain cells might be rewired to work for dead brain cells through non-surgical means such as routines like physical therapy. Gene therapy in animal trials also showed promise in replacing dead brain cells. From my time in the home, I noticed how some of the elderly were abandoned by their families, and when incapacitated with stroke, would lack any quality of life on their own like this. My mission to advance the human condition was clear. I want to eventually study neuroscience and understand how the brain can be altered in stroke patients to give them back independence, empowerment, and quality of life.

Today, in applying to the Boston Math and Science Academy high school. I truly believe this is a first step in a lifelong dream. With the correct tools and nurturing faculty, I hope one day I will be able to open up new areas to develop and progress in as regards the neurology of stroke patients.

Thank You,

Student

A Dish Served Cold

Edgar Allen Poe's short story "The Cask of Amontillado" is perhaps literature's best example of the old saying "Revenge is a dish best eaten cold." The story's narrator, a man named Montresor, states his intention from the first: he plans to murder Fortunato, who was once his friend. The conflict between the two, which may or may not be entirely in Montresor's mind, is the focus of the story. Montresor believes that he has suffered a "thousand injuries" from Fortunato, ending with an unforgiveable, and unexplained, insult. To get his revenge, he plans to kill his unsuspecting friend, and to do it in a way that will let him get away with murder. The reader knows that by the end of the story, Fortunato, ironically, will be anything but fortunate.

The story takes place in Italy during the "carnival season," which Poe describes as a time of "supreme madness"-a term which also fits Montresor's plan, and possibly his mental state. On the outside, Montresor smiles and pretends to offer the tipsy Fortunato something he knows he will find irresistible-a chance to sample a rare type of wine called amontillado. Poe builds tension by having Montresor pretend that he doesn't want to inconvenience Fortunato by interrupting his carnival celebration just to take him to a dank, cold wine cellar. As Montresor intended, Fortunato laughs off any obstacles, while the reader wants to shout, "Don't go with him!"

As they make their way to Montresor's home, Poe adds several touches of symbolism and imagery. Fortunato wears the carnival costume of a jester, or fool, as he unwisely follows Montresor. Montresor, meanwhile, covers his face with a black silk mask and wraps himself in his cloak, the better to disguise his identity from anyone they pass, and to symbolically hide his true self from Fortunato. Nor does Fortunato think it odd that, when they reach Montresor's palazzo, none of his servants are there.

The suspenseful atmosphere builds as the two men begin to descend "a long and winding staircase" to the vault, which appears to be more family crypt than wine cellar. Fortunato's death is explicitly foreshadowed when he coughs in reaction to mineral deposits on the walls of the vault. Montresor slyly says that they should go back upstairs because his friend's "health is precious," correctly predicting that Fortunato will wish to stay. "The cough is a mere nothing," says Fortunato, "it will not kill me. I shall not die of a cough." Montresor chillingly replies, "True-true." He knows exactly how Fortunato's life will end, and when. Poe offers an additional metaphor when Montresor explains his family's coat of arms to Fortunato as "a huge human foot" that "crushes a serpent rampant whose fans are embedded in the heel." The foot represents Montresor and the serpent is Fortunato, who has supposedly caused a treacherous injury. The family motto is an explicit warning: "Nobody attacks me without punishment."

When Montresor succeeds in luring Fortunato through a small opening in a stone wall, saying the amontillado is inside, he chains his friend to a rock, and Fortunato's fate is, quite literally, sealed. Montresor has stones, mortar, and a trowel ready, and proceeds to build the eternal prison. He adds tier after tier of stone, reminiscent of Dante's progressing circles of hell. Fortunato's last words are, "For the love of God, Montresor!" to which Montresor replies, "Yes, . . . for the love of God!" Fortunato's supposed sins are never revealed by Montresor, but his own sin is evident. The final irony may be that, while he tells Fortunato to rest in peace, he himself has apparently been unable to do so. Fifty years after his crime, he still thinks about it in vivid detail, and is compelled to write it down. He may never have completely left the catacombs-the place where, sooner or later, he will join Fortunato.

Work Cited

Poe, Edgar Allan. "The Cask of Amontillado." Google Books. Web.

Section 1: Theoretical background:

A. (Question 1-9) Unit 1: Teaching Methodology (CLT, Syllabus design, Guidelines for classroom instruction)

1. Give an overview of pre-20th-century language teaching approaches. Mention the role the phonetician Henry Sweet played in the development of the Direct Method. What is the Reading Approach? Which term should be used in language teaching: approach, method or technique?

2. Which are the nine 20th-century approaches to language teaching?

Choose 3 methods or approaches to language teaching that you want to discuss.

3. Discuss how the different language teaching approaches influence syllabus design. What is a structural syllabus?

4. How and why did Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) develop?

Explain the terms: communicative competence, productive, receptive, active skills, passive skills.

5. Give some suggestions for shaping a CLT curriculum. What does My language is me imply?

6. Grammar is important, and learners seem to focus best on grammar when it relates to their communicative needs and experiences. Do you agree?

7. Summarize some of the guidelines for the classroom instruction. You are going to teach irregular verb forms in English: Language presentation, lesson planning, rule presentations and explanations, tasks, class organization, correction and feedback. Write down the goals or objectives for this particular lesson.

8. Why should ESL teachers be concerned about keeping up with the results of classroom research and second-language acquisition research?

9. How much place do you presentation, explanation and discussion of rules or language use have in the SL classroom? What underlying view of language and language learning supports your view?

B. One topic from Unit III: Integrated approaches - choose 1 and summarize it. The 4 topics include:

- Literature as content for ESL/EFL (Marguerite Ann Snow): - Below are some suggested ideas when summarizing and discussing the main points:

+ Give suggestions for using literary texts to develop language. How can you integrate speaking, writing and grammar when you use a literary text? Explain the psychological, the spatio-temporal and the ideological points of view.

+ Observe an ESL or EFL class that uses literary texts. Describe the activities in the class that contribute to students awareness of the language in the text and the activities that develop students awareness of the cultural schemas in the text.

- Content-Based and Immersion Models for Second and Foreign Language Teaching(Sandra Lee McKay)

- Experiential and Negotiated Language Learning (Janet L. Eyring)

- Bilingual Approaches to Language learning (Mary McGroaty)

C. One topic from Unit IV: Focus on the learner (P359, Rebecca L. Oxford): choose 2 learning strategies & 2 learning styles, summarize the main points and discuss.

Section 2: Practical Work

- How to teach grammar:

+ Summarize from P.249 P.275 (Unit II E, How to teach Grammar and Vocabulary)

+ Mention your own point of view on how you teach grammar and which pedagogical method you prefer yourself. Explain why.

- Teaching lexical chunks: Summarize main points in chapter 7 and then focus on your discussion on how to teach lexical chunks.

Section 3: Classroom research

Unit V: Skills for teachers: Action research, teacher research and classroom research in language teaching:

- Define classroom research. What topics have been investigated and what is the teacher's role?
- What does classroom research mean to you?
- Why should teachers get involved?

Summary on Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Research + Discuss Ellis work (choose 1 of these):

- The Study on Second Language Acquisition
- Understanding Second Language Acquisition
- SLA Research and Language Teaching
- Analysing Learner Language

Then, write half a page regarding your research on one applied linguist, while mostly focus on his/her contribution to TESOL field.

RESEARCH PAPER - RUNNING HEAD: SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

The first language teaching approaches included aural-oral techniques to foster the learning of second languages for certain "higher" callings (religion, politics, etc.). This was in the Greek and Roman period. In the Renaissance, the formal study of Greek and Latin in particular was stressed for those receiving a formal education, via the use of (newly invented) textbooks concerning grammar. The Comenius approach, in the early- to mid-17th century, opposed this "grammatical" emphasis, relying instead upon practice, imitation, the use of images to impart the meaning of "foreign" words, and other more progressive teaching techniques. By the early 19th century, the pendulum swung back to a strict grammar-translation method giving way to the direct method by the end of that century. The direct method was a descendant of the many natural approaches, and employed the use of the second language only in the classroom, the use of "everyday" language (as opposed to a previous emphasis on the classics), the inductive learning of grammar, and the association of abstract ideas with images and other "tangibles" to make them real.

Henry Sweet, an applied linguist in Britain, argued, however, that while the direct method was innovative, the absence of a strong methodology in the direct method rendered it less effective than it could otherwise be, although in other respects Sweet was aligned with the "natural method" advocates. The reading approach arose in the early 20th century, and focused upon the silent reading (and, ideally, comprehension) of written texts. The terms method, approach, and technique are not interchangeable, but rather are used in a hierarchical fashion to denote specific things. An approach is a set of assumptions about the nature of language - how it is taught and learned. A method is a way of doing something - a plan for teaching language according to a set approach. A technique is a tool, a skill - a way to implement the method.

The 20th-century saw quite a few changes to these approaches. The nine commonly understood approaches to language teaching of the 20th century are grammar translation, the direct method, the reading method, audiolingualism, oral-situational, cognitive, affective-humanistic, comprehension-based, and communicative. The direct method might be thought of as a type of immersion method. No use of the student's native language is allowed, for one thing as this is thought to simulate the way in which a child learns his or her first language. While this approach makes intuitive sense (in that when one is forced to learn something, one will do so), the reality is that the classroom is an extremely limited venue in which to implement this particular method. The grammar translation method, on the other hand, uses the students' native language almost exclusively, and teaches the second language via vocabulary lists, endless drills to translate sentences, teaching the rules of grammar, and so forth. This approach, as it is devoid of a natural context in which to practice the second language, is quite limited. Finally, the communicative approach is rather the mirror image of the grammar translation method. It sees language as a tool allowing people to communicate, and that this should be the goal of second language instruction. Thus, teachers simulate "real world" situations (e.g. ordering a meal) in their classrooms, and high levels of practice are encouraged so that students can gain proficiency.

The syllabus is one primary tool instructors use to facilitate student learning by guiding their own actions. Because the syllabus is a plan mapping out the content which will be taught, in the order (and sometimes fashion) in which it will be taught, the chosen language teaching approach has a great impact upon the type of syllabus design chosen for a particular class. For example, when a teacher chooses the grammar translation method, a structural syllabus will be used to chart the course, as this type of syllabus stresses the form of language (as opposed to the content), as well as the teaching of grammatical structures as the basis of language instruction. Such structural syllabi have been criticized as they tend to present the learning of language as a linear, rule-oriented process, although more recent versions of same (e.g. the task-supported structural syllabus) allow for a structured approach that accommodates a more CLT-oriented instruction. A "multistrand" syllabus, on the other hand, will make use of a variety of approaches in one "master plan" (Crookes), whereas a CLT syllabus may be vaguer on the specific content for the lesson plan for any given day, but will clearly chart a course through the semester that integrates both content and form (meaning and structure) into every lesson.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) really took off in the 1970s, among instructors who were dissatisfied with the more traditional approaches such as grammar translation - specifically, they felt those approaches did not teach students how to communicate in their second language. The idea was to give students a more authentic experience of language, so that they could actually communicate effectively in same (as opposed to, for example, simply being able to recite the grammatical rules). CLT defines communicative competence according to four categories: linguistic competence (understanding the grammar, syntax, and other rules of the language), sociolinguistic competence (knowing when and how to use particular utterances of the language), discourse competence (understanding the larger context in which particular utterances are made), and strategic competence (knowing how to correct mistakes in communication when they occur). Productive skills refer to those skills which enable a language user to create an utterance in an effort to communicate something; receptive skills, on the other hand, are those skills that enable the language user to understand the utterance of another. Passive listening refers to the learner simply listening to another person read in the second language; active listening skills refer to those activities in which the learner is required to take part in the communication.

Perhaps the sentence "My language is me" sums up CLT best. "My language is me" refers to the final stage of the CLT approach to second language acquisition, and means that the learner is shaping a new identity in this second language. This is when the learner is able to fully engage in his or her new language, and able to effectively communicate in said language whether or not such communications are strictly "correct." This represents a shift from more traditional approaches to language in which correct grammar, native pronunciation, and so forth were key components of assuming a second language had been effectively learned. To shape a CLT curriculum, an instructor should first take into account the previous experiences of the learners so as to make the second language relevant to them (e.g. one would approach instruction differently based upon whether the students were in high school or adult immigrants to a new country). The instructor then needs to create a series of meaningful "real-world" simulations and actual staged situations in which the learner becomes engaged in the need to use the new language, incorporating instruction in the rules of the new language in a context-driven fashion (meaning, for example, once a student had asked if her male friend wanted an apple, the instructor might make mention of the use of the male pronoun in the utterance, to call attention to the use of gendered pronouns in the new language).

CLT also resonates with this statement: "Grammar is important, and learners seem to focus best on grammar when it relates to their communicative needs and experiences," with which I completely agree. Except in rare cases involving the desire, on the part of a learner, to know the grammar of a new language purely for the sake of appreciating the structure (e.g. students of Latin who find meaning in understanding its classical rules), learners want to be able to use their new language in order to effectively communicate based upon their needs. If I am a migrant worker in a new nation with a new language, I need to understand (at bare minimum) enough of the new language in order to be able to find and retain work positions. If I am planning to spend six months traveling through a new country in order to understand particular cultural dynamics, I will need both a broader, and more in-depth, understanding of the new language in order to communicate effectively enough to serve my purposes. One of the main advantages to the CLT approach is that it incorporates both form-based and meaning-based instruction geared so that communication in the new language - effective communication that serves the purpose of the learner - is the primary goal (Savignon, 2002). Thus, an understanding of grammar is organically woven into the knowledge of the new language, and is made both more relevant, and more understandable, as a result.

One of the most important guidelines for classroom instruction in a second language is the use of the new language in the classroom (by both the teacher and the students). According to CLT, effective communication in the new language is key to a true embrace of the language. Another important guideline is not just using the new language, but using it in meaningful ways so as to simulate "real world" situations. A third critical guideline is for the instructor to incorporate instruction in grammar, syntax, and other rules as communication evolves, so that form and meaning have a chance to develop congruently. Teaching irregular verb forms in English is in many senses about memorization, as there are no rules to follow, nor are there ways to intuit which word to use (e.g. began as the past tense of begin, cost as the past tense of cost, etc.). Thus, the teaching of irregular verb forms in English, specifically regarding the past tense of such verbs, would be an on-going "lesson" woven throughout the course. Every day, a goal could be to learn and practice five new verb forms, with the objectives being able to both verbalize and write the forms correctly. Every week, the goal could be to, in a group, write and perform a skit that correctly incorporates at least 10 of these verb forms.

As one can see, based upon a review of even just the 20th century approaches to language learning, our understanding of the related pedagogy continues to evolve. It was not that long ago, after all, that CLT was developed - just about 40 years ago. While CLT seems to be the most effective approach currently in use in language-acquisition classrooms, the reality is that this is what we know now. Our understanding of language and linguistics continues to grow and develop, in part aided by an increasingly sophisticated understanding of the brain and how we learn. If one does not keep up on the research in this field, one risks sticking with an approach, method, and techniques that is not supported any longer by the newest developments. After all, it is certainly the case that many instructors still do not use the target language nearly enough in the classroom, and this is most likely because they are still rooted in outmoded pedagogical information. It is never wise to "rest on one's laurels" and assume one knows everything in one's field, again, particularly in fields that are continually evolving as our knowledge base broadens and deepens.

At this point, current research suggests that the presentation of rules pertaining to language use does indeed have a place in the second-language classroom, but the extent of this place (so to speak) varies according to the context of the particular lesson. For example, when students are learning prepositions (a scary word to many students even when it refers to their native language), the lesson might involve the instructor playing a game of charades in front of the class, being as comical and engaging as possible, and all scenarios acted out would involve the use of at least one preposition, such as "under the apple tree." After the students had gotten the hang of a few prepositions, the instructor could ask them to identify the part of speech that had been focused upon, and could then discuss the use of prepositions in the new language. Thus, a discussion would follow an explanation, but the presentation would be interactive as opposed to didactic.

In other words, except in rare cases, the explanation about, and discussion of, rules should not occupy center stage, especially for new learners, as such a presentation can be off-putting and stressful to second-language learners. Rather, instructors can introduce specific rules pertaining to grammar, syntax, and so forth through the use of engaging, lively lessons that require the students to communicate about a particular thing, and then introduce them to the foundational rule underneath the lesson. The CLT view of language learning supports my views in this matter.

Eyring is one of the leading proponents of experiential and negotiated language learning (along with Stoller) (Celce-Murcia). This approach to language acquisition stresses the importance of completing projects in the context of learning the language. The idea is that by actually doing something - something real - that requires communication in the new language, learners will more effectively learn the new language, as well as place it in a meaningful context. Eyring lists several types of projects that are conducive to such learning situations. First, collection projects are good at teaching such things as names of fruit, or types of rocks. Second, informational projects are effective at helping learners collect verbal information, often in person from native speakers (ideally), such as through interviews, or else written information, such as via texts written by native speakers. Third, orientation projects help learners see the new language truly in the context in which it is used (for example, they learn how to travel in a new city). Fourth, social welfare projects help learners focus upon helping someone else while using the new language; for example, they might work in a team of native speakers to help make repairs to the home of an elderly person, also a native speaker, and in so doing not only gain a better grasp of the language, but also situate the language in a meaningful, altruistic context.

As the project progresses, students can be evaluated in several ways. They can discuss the progress in class (in the new language, of course); they can write daily (or weekly, depending upon the particular project) updates about their progress; they can create formal presentations to give to the class upon completion of the project; and they can even create new projects to follow up on previous ones, thus indicating a more sophisticated understanding of not only the new language, but of possible meaningful uses of the new language.

Learning strategies in the context of second language acquisition are the tools and techniques that students use to learn a new language, as opposed to the strategies that instructors use to teach a new language. One example of a learning strategy is the use of paraphrasing, which can come into play either in speaking or in writing. When a student uses this strategy, s/he might listen to a native speaker say something in the new language, but instead of parroting it back to the speaker, s/he will word it differently to effectively say the same thing. This sort of "self-push" to communicate by paraphrasing enables the student to more deeply understand what has been heard, as well as to bolster the use of synonyms in the new language. This is a cognitive strategy. Another learning strategy comes into effect more in writing, and involves the planning of a given text. This is a metacognitive strategy. For example, if given the assignment to write an essay in the new language, planning the essay - using an outline, notes, and so forth - and completing the plan in the new language can be an excellent way for a student to organize thoughts (and words), thus making the task more manageable.

A student's learning style, on the other hand, refers to the general approach s/he has to learning a second language. Such approaches have to do with personality, sensory preferences, and other aspects of the students. For example, more outgoing students (extroverted) might prefer instructional strategies (both their own, and those of the instructor) that ask them to learn the rules of the language (grammar, syntax, and so forth) in a more sociable, group-oriented fashion, while more inward-turning students (introverted) might well prefer small, one-on-one situations in which to practice the new language.

I believe that the teaching of grammar is best done in the context of a CLT approach to language instruction. I believe that language is an organic thing, and must therefore be approached accordingly, in a holistic fashion. What I mean by this is that instruction in a new language must integrate both the form and the meaning in written and oral communications in such a fashion that neither aspect is lost. However, how would this happen in practice? There are a plethora of possibilities; the key is to incorporate, in every single lesson, both meaning-based and form-based instruction. For example, the instructor of a third-year high school class can ask students to engage in a role-play regarding whether or not they can borrow the car for that coming evening. The class can be divided into groups of three, comprising the mother, the father, and the son or daughter. Each group can have some freedom as to how they wish to structure the conversation, but the ground rules would include the use of particular forms, such as "future-oriented" words (e.g. "I will be driving Jennifer to the restaurant"), or a certain number of adverbs in sentences (e.g. "You always tell me no when I want to borrow the car!"). Each group will act out its scenario, and after each presentation, the class will identify the verb forms that pertain to the future tense, the adverbs used in the presentation, and the other utterances referring to the ground rules.

I also believe in the teaching of grammar via the CLT approach because so much of grammar learning (regardless of whether it pertains to one's native language, or a second language) is stressful for students, and stress inhibits true learning. This is not to say that one should never teach grammar explicitly, but rather that grammar should not be the first thing students learn about a new language, nor should it even introduce a new concept. Rather, the teacher should set up situations in which students are motivated to use the new language, taking risks and learning as they make mistakes (and increasingly self-correct). The teacher is there to listen, to guide, to facilitate, but not to wield a proverbial red pen and inform the student of every mistake he or she makes. Once the student has gained sufficient proficiency in a given aspect (e.g. learning to introduce herself to others), then the teacher can explain one or more rules of the language as they pertain to the lesson. By that time, the student will have gained confidence in her ability to introduce herself in the new language, and so the "grammar lesson" won't have the same stress factor it might otherwise have had.

Having said this, I believe that while grammar might be something best "managed" by the instructor so as to reduce stress, ideally by weaving it into lessons that are engaging, interesting, and meaningful, it is also something that instructors need to embrace as interesting, useful, and meaningful in its own right, if only because then students will follow that lead and perhaps reduce their own stress around adopting excellent grammatical skills in their new language. After all, part of effective communication is using the appropriate, grammatically-correct versions of various utterances; and if students cannot grasp basic grammatical concepts, then they are inhibited in their ability to communicate effectively. Thus, instructors need to give equal weight, both in terms of their own affect as well as their actual instruction, in an effort to encourage students to take ownership of their own learning process, not only in terms of learning how to speak in such a fashion as to be understood, but also to be as correct as possible in terms of the grammar of the new language.

One particularly effective way to teach a second language is by employing the use of lexical chunks. A lexical chunk is one or more words that tend to group together in practical use. Some lexical chunks are referred to as "collocations" (i.e. two content words which are commonly used together, such as "strangely silent"), while others are not collocations because they contain both a content word and a grammatical function word (e.g. "by the way"). There are a couple of very important principles in terms of teaching lexical chunks. The first is that proficiency in a language relies heavily upon the use of such chunks; knowing a language is not simply a matter of having grammar on one side and words on the other and combining them appropriately, but also a matter of being able to use lexical chunks much like Legos, inserting them into the proper "slots" in communication. The second principle is that some lexical chunks work in a given language, and others do not; and it is often these "misused" chunks - most of which are entirely correct, by the way - that mark non-native writers and speakers as such. For example, in English, we would not say we have a "generous interest" when we wanted to convey that we were very interested in a particular subject, even though technically, this would be correct. In fact, it is quite often the case that lexical chunks are not grammatically correct (e.g. "I am all thumbs").

Thus, the key in teaching lexical chunks is to help students know which ones are common to their new language, and which are not, and to help them through this sometimes confusing process of deliberately using what are often incorrect phrases in an effort to communicate more effectively. Ways to help students learn these things are giving them texts so they can identify the lexical chunks (and discuss what they think about them, also in the new language), categorizing types of lexical chunks (e.g. making lists of lexical chunks that use the word "way" in them), and practicing common lexical chunks in role plays so that they become more familiar.

Almost any given topic related to second language acquisition can be researched in the classroom by instructors using action research techniques. For example, interactions between teachers and students, vocabulary instruction, and the use of new technologies in teaching second languages are all topics that have been studied in the classroom, by second language instructors, for the purposes of furthering pedagogical knowledge about second language acquisition and instruction. Such "classroom research," as it is commonly called, takes place all the time among reflective teachers, and, at the most basic and informal level, refers to the use of data to improve instructional practice. This can be as simple as noticing that a given lesson on verb tense was understood by only one third of the class, and, as a result, using a different approach the next time. However, classroom research in the formal sense involves not just trying different things on a daily basis, but rather systematically researching the effects of our various approaches, techniques, strategies, and so forth upon student learning (Kochis). The key term here is "systematic;" for the results of a particular action research project to be meaningful to other instructors, they need to be verifiable and repeatable. For a project to be verifiable requires that the instructor kept records on given instructional methods, lessons, and whatever else is relevant to the specific research question(s) s/he is investigating; for the project to be repeatable, it must include the specifics in terms of how lessons were taught, what items, if any, are required to implement the lessons, and so forth.

The beauty of action research in the classroom is that the setting is natural; students are not learning in laboratories, in isolated situations which may or may not have relevance in the "real world" of the academic setting. Teachers are in the perfect position to truly observe what students are doing in reaction to their various instructional approaches, as they know their students, and can best interpret their responses (as well as have access to quantifiable data, such as test scores). However, this is also what can make classroom research challenging, in that biases can easily creep in; teachers therefore need to be aware of this possibility, and take measures to counter it (e.g. by ensuring that all measures of learning are objective as much as possible, or asking a colleague to observe a set number of lessons to seek confirmation from an outside source). Thus, the teacher's role is first to observe a particular phenomenon (e.g. "teaching prepositions using charades") and then to determine a way to research this phenomenon using verifiable, repeatable methods. Another important aspect of classroom research is the fact that results can be implemented almost immediately (as opposed to having to wait for the publication of a given study in a peer-reviewed journal, waiting for other researchers to repeat the study to see if they obtained the same results, and other delay-causing situations). If an instructor is testing a new idea regarding vocabulary learning and it completely confuses almost all of the students in her first three classes, there is no reason why she should compel the rest of her students to endure the same lesson; instead, she can incorporate what she's learned and move forward from there.

Rod Ellis is one of the strongest advocates of teachers conducting action research projects. He has made many contributions to the TESOL field, but perhaps his most influential one has been his emphasis upon research-supported instruction. Teaching is a profession that can sometimes be a "fly by the seat of your pants" endeavor; attention to research can go by the wayside quickly once an instructor is confronted by real live students, many of whom are not taking the class by choice, and many of whom have very real stress issues around learning a second language. However, given that the pedagogy around SLA is far from uniform - meaning that linguists, theorists, educators, and other scholars still differ about what comprises the best practices concerning second-language instruction and learning - it is imperative that the most current research in the field is used to drive practice.

Another critical contribution Ellis has made to the field has been the interpretation and explanation of various theories concerning second language acquisition and instruction. For example, his explication of "interlanguage" as the interplay between the learner's first language and his/her second language is brilliant in its simplicity, clarity, and resonance (Ellis). In addition, his refinement of task-based language learning has been quite informative and also represents a valuable contribution to the field of SLA research.

In any case, Ellis' book SLA Research and Language Teaching is a guide, of sorts, for instructors of second languages to use to inform their own classroom research projects. Ellis details four primary roles that SLA researchers have: the development of relevant theories pertaining to second language instruction; conducting their own action research projects, in their own classrooms; publicizing the results of said research so that other instructors can benefit from it; and helping other instructors to perform action research projects of their own. While Ellis does discuss the conducting of action research projects by other relevant professionals besides teachers (such as syllabus designers), the reality is that in this book, he focuses upon the unique contributions that instructors can make to the field by virtue of their combination of expertise and access. Ellis also discusses the ways in which teachers can apply what has been learned about second-language acquisition via action research projects, which is important as upon occasion, the results of such projects can feel outside the reach of instructors other than the one who completes the study in the first place (that is, they can feel quite individualistic, as opposed to repeatable, which should be one of the standards of conducting action research).

Every chapter introduces a different issue relevant to SLA research, including various options in teaching grammar, the structural syllabus (including an updated approach to same), ways that teachers in particular can perform as researchers in their classrooms, and the formation and use of various communication-related tasks (including grammar-related tasks). Ellis also includes a chapter on ways to implement the findings of research projects in the classroom, and some of the challenges contained therein. Thus, the book serves as not only a guide to assist teachers in their own research, but also as an introduction to the field in general as it is seen from the perspective of empirical research (as made relevant for practicing teachers).

For all of these reasons, more second-language instructors should get involved with classroom research. They are the ones on the front lines, so to speak - they have direct access to students, they are the ones who understand the pedagogy (and the theory behind it), and they are therefore ideally situated to obtain "real-time" information about the effects of various approaches to second language instruction.

References

Celce-Murcia, M. (2001). Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Heinle & Heinle, Publishers.

Crookes, G. (2003). A practicum in TESOL: professional development through teaching practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, R. (2003). Second language acquisition. New York: Oxford University Press. SLA research and language teaching. New York: Oxford University Press.

Galloway, A. (1993). Communicative language teaching: An introduction and sample activities.

Kochis, B. (n.d.) Classroom research: An introduction. In Assessment in and of collaborative learning.

Richards, J.C., & Rogers, T.S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Savignon, S.J. (Ed.). (2002). Interpreting communicative language teaching: Contexts and concerns in teacher education. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

INTRODUCTION

In this review of the literature, all of the major topics pertinent to principalship will be discussed. Both the positive and negative aspects of principalship support will be included along with the current roles of the principal and the expectations of the principalship in the 21st century. There will be a look into the principalship both prior to and during No Child Left Behind along with a discussion of principal mentoring compared and contrasted with coaching. Also included is a complete overview of the principalship support systems in North Carolina school districts.

The majority of the literature approaches support in the principalship from one of several points of view. Principal support can be viewed from the perspectives of the principal, the school district administrators, teachers, parents, students, state Departments of Education and the bigger system of the United States Department of Education. Each of these entities has their own view of what support for school principals should look like and what it should be trying to accomplish.

This review will take two perspectives, the perspective of the principal and of the school district. When necessary, legal and historical perspectives will be discussed as well.

For purposes of this paper, principal support consists of formal or informal approaches available to principals, especially those new to a district, but not new to the profession. The objective of principal support is to give principals the information and resources they need to do the best job possible, leading ultimately to increasing student academic performance. These approaches include mentoring, coaching, networking, professional development, and new principal cohorts.

HISTORY OF PRINCIPALSHIP PRIOR TO NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND

Prior to No Child Left Behind being enacted, principals still expected students to learn and had goals for high achievement. There were still assessments to ensure students were learning, these were called teacher-made tests. Some schools even used standardized assessments before they were required just to look for student growth and learning levels.

Principals could hire who they though were best for the job. There was not the requirement for teachers to be highly qualified. This meant that if a really talented person, who could teach exceptionally well, but who lacked a specific set of classes, but still had a teaching degree, the principal could hire them to teach in their school. There was not careful analysis of transcripts to determine if a great teacher meets the standards of the law. Principals could decide who to hire instead of having the law limit their choices.

Principals could also work with teachers to make sure that students truly learned what they needed to know. The term, "teach to the test" was not used in schools. Students would move onto the next learning goal when they mastered the previous one. While this is the standard for high quality education, this does not always take place under No Child Left Behind. It is important under this act that student be exposed to all the information that could possibly be covered on the test. It is a hurry up and learn method that principals have to enforce throughout their buildings.

Before NCLB, principals had a lot more control over what took place in their buildings. They were not mandated when, where, what and how students were to be tested. There was no special testing pep rallies and other events to get students motivated to do well on their state assessments. Principals could actually focus on the job of helping teachers ensure students were learning what they need to.

PRINCIPALSHIP DURING NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND

The purpose of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 is to, "ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality education and reach at a minimum, proficiency on challenging State academic achievement standards and state academic assessments" (United States Department of Education). One of the key words to come out of this Act is, "accountability." The requirements of the Act require all those working with students to be accountable for the student's achievement. This includes principals. Principals are accountable for the academic success of the students in their buildings. This is usually achieved by working with teachers and holding teachers accountable for teaching high-quality lessons based on assessment data.

One of the major outcomes of No Child Left Behind for principals is the idea of principal mobility. Effective principals have many choices of which they can work. A component of No Child Left Behind is that underperforming schools can be labeled. This leads high-performing principals to move to higher performing schools. This leaves low performing schools with less effective principals. This is not to say the principals do not want to or cannot handle the challenge of low and underperforming schools. It simply says that they do not want to be labeled and risk the school district overtaking their school for low performance. The No Child Left Behind Act did a huge disservice to schools when they created a system in which the most effective principals work at the schools where they are needed the least. It is the low performing schools that need the exceptional leaders.

Another significant issue for principals with No Child Left Behind is the expectations placed for student achievement, yet nothing has changed in terms of resources. There are schools that cannot afford to have a textbook for every student, or if they do, the textbooks are very outdated. There are buildings that are in disrepair with missing ceiling towels, malfunctioning heat and air conditioning, overflowing plumbing and other inadequate facilities. Yet, the principal is required to meet the designated academic improvement goals and make adequate yearly progress towards those goals until they are met. While principals do not argue that the standards set in No Child Left Behind are good for students, they do believe that meeting these standards are extremely difficult when their schools do not have the necessary supplies they need to get the job done. Once a school is labeled as needing improvement, then they may be eligible for some additional funding for improvements. Lance Fusarelli from North Carolina State University describes the issue this way, "The promise of NCLB to enhance equity and opportunity by reducing the achievement gap will likely remain unfulfilled due to insufficient funding and an overly simplistic definition of the achievement gap" (2004, p. 71). Unfortunately, this is another example of how No Child Left Behind sets schools up for failure. A principal can only get monetary help if their students are failing to learn.

A study of the No Child Left Behind Act revealed that, "There is growing evidence that the law's strategy for improving schools may, paradoxically, reduce access to education for the most vulnerable students" (Darling-Hammond).

Similar to the issue of principal mobility is the issue of teacher mobility. Many school districts have moved to a performance based pay structure where teachers will get either merit pay lump sum bonuses or salary increases based on the performance of their students. This causes teachers to want to move to higher achieving schools in order to ensure more money in their pocket for their own families. This leads to the most effective teachers teaching at the highest performing schools and the schools that need the top talent are left without the highest performers. Principals have the task of hiring teachers, so even if a high performing principal chose to stay at a low performing school, the principal still has to hire many teachers to fill the spots of those that left. Now there is the issue of an principal, struggling to find effective teachers who are willing to work in a low performing school. This is yet another responsibility placed on principals as a direct result of No Child Left Behind.

To overcome this, some school districts are adding incentive pay to teacher salaries for teachers who are willing to work in low performing schools. However, this incentive pay has not yet found its way into the contracts of school principals.

As mentioned earlier, it is a requirement that principals hire only highly qualified teachers. This can be a real problem for certain rural areas where teachers are difficult to come by. No Child Left Behind states, "To be highly qualified, teachers must have, 1) a bachelor's degree, 2) full state certification or licensure, and 3) prove that they know each subject they teach" (United States Department of Education). While to most these requirements seem reasonable, this can lead to difficulties in hiring. For example, a small rural town needs a wood shop teacher as one semester of wood shop is a high school graduation requirement set forth by the school district. The principal has difficulty finding someone who meets all of the requirements that wants to come to the country to live and teach. However, there is a local furniture maker, who the principal knows makes the best quality furniture and wood furnishings around. The man is willing to teach the part-time class and has experience in teaching classes at the local recreation centers to the young people of the town with great success. Yet, the principal cannot hire him as he does not have a bachelor's degree or a teaching license even though he can do a better job than almost anyone. No Child Left Behind has taken this hiring ability away from principals. If the principal cannot find a teacher for this class, he/she will be forced to use a long term substitute who has a teaching license and a bachelor's degree, but who probably knows little about wood shop.

However, No Child Left Behind has not been all bad. Principals have never before been so involved in student learning. They have moved well behind just being a disciplinarian to truly working with teachers and students to meet student achievement goals. Principals lead teacher teams to evaluate student learning data and determine how to best teach and meet the needs of each individual student. Principals learn curriculum and assessment measure right along with teachers and spent a significant portion of their day in classrooms as opposed to their office. This has been a positive change as a result of NCLB.

21ST CENTURY PRINCIPALSHIP

The principalship of the 21st century has many new challenges that previous generations of principals have not had to contend with. While is used to be teachers focused on reading, writing and arithmetic, and principals focused on misbehaving and school supplies, now the principal is integral to the academic progress of students. Gail Connelly, Executive Director of the National Association of Elementary School Principals, stated that the 21st century principal is dealing with terms such as, "Improvement, accountability, investment and impact." These concepts lead to leaders being involved with, "data systems, student interventions, and embedded professional development" (Connelly, n.d, p. 1).

The 21st century has brought the principal out of the office and into the classrooms. As Connelly states, "principals are the primary gatekeepers of both the process and the outcome" (n.d., p. 1). They work alongside teachers to develop effective practice, they create meaningful professional development based on data, the allocate resources effectively and the keep the focus on student learning (Connelly, n.d.).

Student data is also a new and primary component of the principal's job in the 21st century. It is difficult to find any current educational research without mentioning data. Principals can be considered the data leader of their schools. In a study published by Anderson, Leithwood and Strauss, it was discovered that schools that use data effectively have principals that emphasize the connection between data use and student performance. Effective principals expect the consistent use of data for teachers, provide opportunities for data discussions and professional development and ensure follow-up. The drawback to this research is that the statistical evidence was only able to correlate data use to increased achievement test results in elementary schools. It is anticipated that middle and high schools will use the approaches that elementary schools employed in order to also use data to increase the academic success of their students.

In addition, school principals have a new focus on school safety that was undoubtedly never anticipated by principals in previous centuries. With the school shootings at Columbine High School Sandy Hook Elementary and Arapahoe High School, principals must consider safety at a higher level than ever before. Principals must ensure that proper emergency procedures are in place and that they are practiced to the point of automaticity by both staff and students.

There is also the new challenge of the vast number of students who do not have English as their first language. The numbers of students who speak a language other than English and are attending schools in the United States rises every year and schools still have the responsibility of teaching them at a high level. This adds another responsibility onto the role of the 21st century principal in terms of how best to teach them when they cannot speak the language of the school. This also affects principals in that schools with a high percentage of ELL (English Language Learners) students typically have lower performance ratings. As discussed earlier, principals do not like to be at schools with low ratings as it reflects negatively on them as a school leader.

When teaching ELL students there are a number of factors that the school cannot control that directly affect student performance. According to a study of over 30,000 students conducted by the National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Teaching (CRESST), factors such as parent education levels, parent connection to the school and focus on education, and socioeconomic status all outweigh any school programs for ELL students.

PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP (THE ROLE OF THE PRINCIPAL)

The role of the principal is to lead, facilitate, teach and support teacher, families and students. There are also responsibilities to the school district that a principal must comply with, making the job of principal one of the most stressful around.

The Wallace Foundation is a group committed to improving leadership within public schools. They have participated in over 70 research studies and have participated in projects in 24 states. This being said, it can safely be assumed that they are an expert in the field of school leadership. This being said, the Wallace Foundation has found that there are five key functions that a school principal needs to do. These functions are:

- "Shaping a vision of academic success for all students.
- Creating a climate hospitable to education.
- Cultivating leadership in others.
- Improving instruction.
- Managing people, data and process to foster school improvement" (The Wallace Foundation).

In terms of shaping an academic vision, principals are responsible for ensuring that the entire school community is focused and committed to the achievement of high academic standards. This focus must be consistent and must have everyone on board heading the same direction. To do this, the principal must create buy in and belief in the academic vision. It is about leading others to have the same belief in the high standards.

The next function is for principals to create a climate where learning is the primary activity. This does not meet that students have no time away from the books, but it means that the entire school is an environment for learning. It is a community in which all staff is responsible for all students and their learning. There has to be an atmosphere of trust so that students will take risks. There has to be an orderly and safe environment so that student's basic needs are taken care of so that they are capable of learning. Through their research, The Wallace Foundation has discovered that the most effective principals create an environment in which every person within the school environment is respected. These principals create, "an upbeat, welcoming, solution-oriented, no-blame, professional environment" (The Wallace Foundation).

Cultivating leadership in others is also a prime role of the modern principal. This is a component of creating a professional community. Research from the University of Minnesota and the University of Toronto has shown that principals who were successful at creating a strong focus on instruction also were successful in terms of cultivating leadership within the school community. Cultivating leadership increases teacher motivation and creates an atmosphere in which all are valued.

As aforementioned, principals have the main role of ensuring that instruction improves so that students can meet high academic standards. Effective principals do this by focusing on continued professional learning for teachers. Principals also keep the focus on high academic expectations and the facilitate discussions about instruction and learning. This is referred to as the, "technical core" of instruction. This is also accomplished by using the leadership style known as "management by wandering around as developed by Larry Frase and Robert Hetzel. In this style of leadership, the principal is in classrooms and wandering around the school observing what is taking place. He/she looks for strengths and weaknesses, problems, solutions, and questions. The authors describes management by wandering around as the principal being, "off his seat and on his feet looking and listening for better way to do things - wandering with a purpose."

The last major role of principals is to manage people, data and processes. It is important to recognize the word, "manage." Managing is different than leading. Most of a principal's role is leading, but there does have to be some managing involved as well. Effective principals make good use of what they have in terms of resources. This includes both human resources and material resources. It means hiring well, budgeting effectively, completing required paperwork, handling issues, resolving conflict, and meeting any requirements as dictated by the school district or state board of education (The Wallace Foundation).

CURRENT SUPPORT SYSTEMS FOR PRINCIPALS

Current support systems for principals are few and far between and those that do exist are typically informal groups of principals creating their own discussion groups. There is not data as to the effectiveness of these groups, although it is assumed that they are beneficial.

PRINCIPAL MENTORING VS. COACHING

Eric Parsloe from the Oxford School of Coaching and Mentoring defines mentoring as a way to, "support and encourage people to manage their own learning in order that they may maximize their potential, develop their skills, improve their performance and become the person they want to be" (Parsloe).

In the field of mentoring, the literature has focused more on the relationships involved in mentoring rather than the determining the nature of what mentoring really is. The research has discovered that there is naturally occurring mentoring and mentoring that is purposefully created.

In terms of mentoring, a literature review by Hansford and Ehrich discovered that there were more positive than negative outcomes when it came to mentoring programs for principals. The most common outcomes listed in the literature are sharing ideas, professional development and support. These were the outcomes for those being mentored.

There were also positive outcomes for the mentors. These were networking, professional development and the opportunity to reflect on their own practice.

The negative outcomes were the same for both groups, which were a lack of time for mentor and mentee to work together and a mismatch in terms of personality or expertise.

In a literature review by Yirci and Kocabas, focusing on principal mentoring it was discovered that principals who participated in mentor programs benefited greatly and that the benefits mostly occurred during the most troublesome times of their principalship.

Similar to the above listed findings, Yirci and Kocabas found the following benefits for mentees: increased competence, appropriate goal setting, motivation, satisfaction, mental support, increased creativity and confidence, improved communication skills, better use of time and increased employability.

For mentors, the research by Yirci and Kocabas found that their benefits included: personal reflection, credit for license renewal, a learning experience and value and satisfaction.

In addition to these two areas, Yirci and Kocabas' research also led them to the creation of a third benefit of mentoring programs, that being a benefit to the organization.

Mentoring benefits the organization by becoming more organized and effective as a whole. In addition members of the organization are more motivated and more satisfied with their jobs. There is more effective recruitment and increased staff retention. As a school there is a more positive culture, a focus on time efficiency, organizational learning and evidence of strategic success planning.

In another study by Rhodes and Fletcher, it was discovered that coaching and mentoring programs for school principals' increases self-efficacy. This increase helped principals perform better at all of their essential roles. In addition, the study found that when a principal's self-efficacy was increased they were apt to stay in their principal role for a longer period of time. In addition, principals that have the potential to be very good are not lost due to lack of support. This study did not differentiate between programs that focused on mentoring and those that focused on coaching.

The partial implications for these findings are the in order to make mentorship programs effective, there has to be adequate time built into the program for the mentoring to take place. In addition, mentors have to be appropriately trained and it is essential that there is an appropriate match between mentor and mentee.

Coaching, also defined by Eric Parsloe, is, "a process that enables learning and development to occur and thus performance to improve. To be successful, a coach requires knowledge and understanding of process as well as the variety of styles, skills and techniques that are appropriate to the context in which the coaching takes place" (Parsloe).

Most research tends to focus on mentoring or will consider mentoring and coaching as one in the same. However, a study by Houchens, Hurt, Stobaugh, and Keedy, focused specifically on coaching school principals. The researchers investigated principals' self-perceived capacity for reflection and their capacity for effective instructional leadership.

Similar to the research studies discussed earlier, the study by Houchens, et. al. also discovered that this method of principal support was beneficial. Principals reported that they valued the coaching structure and appreciated the feedback from the coach. They also liked that the program required them to be reflective regarding their work. In addition, the principals that participated in the coaching study had increased levels of confidence regarding instructional leadership and problem solving. They also stated that they gained knowledge and confidence regarding supporting and assisting teachers in terms of pedagogical practice.

SUPPORT IN NORTH CAROLINA SCHOOL DISTRICTS

As with all the states North Carolina wants to ensure the academic success of all of its students. As a result, The Center for School Leadership Development at the University of North Carolina applied for and was awarded a grant from the United States Department of Education to develop a mentoring program for new principal, which includes principals new to the area, but experienced in the job from another location.

This program is 18 days long and covers almost the complete span of a school year going from September to March. Each session has a different focus of the prinicpal's job such as ethics, instruction, school culture, legal issues, change management, and use of data. The sessions are led by nationally recognized experts along with education leaders within North Carolina. This program has become one of the premier principal instructional courses in the United States with people attending from all over the U.S.

However, North Carolina school districts, even though this program is readily available to its school leaders, does not take advantage of this program by sending their school leaders through this program. Of course, school principals could choose to participate in this opportunity on their own, but at a cost of $1,000.

In addition, North Carolina has the North Carolina Center for Educational Leadership. Principals who participate in this program focus on leadership assessments, are assigned a leadership coach for on site development and they participate in an annual leadership institute during the summer where they develop individualized action plans and professional development plans. Former attendees of the program have said that this program was, "a life-changing experience" and "the best professional development I have participated in" and "an opportunity to get in the heart and mind of leadership."

The only training that North Carolina school districts provide for their principals is training to understand the principal evaluation process. For this training, principals get a manual with all of the necessary forms and explanations and they take a brief online course which explains the process. Again, this is not a mandatory program for principals. It is an option for principals if they chose to go and pay for it themselves.

There are no mentorship or coaching requirements for principals to get their administrator license nor is a support program a component of the job requirement. This is truly unfortunate as the literature has demonstrated that these support programs can greatly benefit the principal, the students and the school as a whole.

In short, principals in North Carolina are left to sink or swim. Many will meet other principals and begin to network on their own finding support that way, but there is nothing formal in place to help ensure principal success and retention.

CONCLUSION

A review of the literature has indicated that mentor and coaching programs for principals are successful for the mentee, the mentor and the school organization. There are many benefits from these programs from increased retention rates to the ultimate goal of increased academic performance for students. It has also been shown that the focus state of North Carolina does not provide their principals with any of these positive programs even though there are two very good principal programs within their state.

In North Carolina, it is up to the principal to find their own support system through networking with other principals and school district administrators. Effective principals recognize the importance of having a mentor or at the very least a support person to help them through time of difficulty or to just answer a simple question about the inner workings of an unfamiliar school district.

North Carolina school district officials should read this review of the literature to get an understanding of just how powerful and productive mentoring or coaching programs can be for the principals in their district.

Works Cited

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The Research Problem

The article reported on research, which was done to investigate and compare sustained versus immediate effects of different corrective feedback types. The feedback types were recasts and metalinguistic feedback. This was done with advanced and intermediate learners of English, who already had knowledge of the proper target form.

The feedback was delivered through synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC). The problem addressed by the study is that the precise effects of recasts, and metalinguistic feedback was not established with regard to sustained versus immediate effects delivered through written SCMC with regard to advanced or intermediate learners of English as a second language.

Research Procedures

The study involved 23 volunteers from an undergraduate English translation and grammar course designed for first-year students at Malmo University College in Sweden. The average age of the participants was 24 years old. On average, the subjects had 11 years of English education prior to the study. The majority of participants had Swedish as a native language. However, there were five subjects who had indigenous languages of Spanish, Bosnian, and Arabic. Only one of the subjects studied the majority of their English in a country other than Sweden. The subjects passed English A, which indicates that they were either intermediate or advanced with regard to their English proficiency.

There were nine interlocutors who spoke English as their native language from the University Of Pennsylvania Graduate School Of Education who provided feedback to the participants through computer-mediated communications (CMC) which were written. It should be noted that the article uses the full wording of synchronous computer-mediated communication before simply referring to it by its abbreviated form, which is SCMC. However, CMC is used in the article without explanation. This is a breach of standard protocol for scholarly works.

The target form which was used for the study was an English zero article which included abstract non-count nouns. This was found in previous studies to be a challenge for native speakers of Swedish attempting to learn English. However, the errors which occur do not generally lead to a communication breakdown.

The study involved separating groups of students into two conditions of feedback and a single control group. The materials for the experiment consisted of two writing activities, which were computer mediated and collaborative. Participants were paired with the English-speaking interlocutors. There was also a computer delivered judgment regarding acceptability for the pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest. This was done to establish a measurement of the learning which had occurred.

The study was done as a traditional experiment which involved two types of treatment and a control group. The treatment types were recasts and metalinguistic feedback. The dependent variable was the effect of the treatments on the development of L2 grammar by learners of English, who were intermediate or advanced. More specifically, the study used written CMC to deliver the feedback.

A study was done in Japan, which investigated English language proficiency among University students in Japan, which also sought to evaluate the effectiveness of CMC feedback regarding language learning. In relation to the study previously discussed, this study had a significantly larger number of participants. There were 231 students who participated in the study. This is nearly 10 times as many as the study by Sauro. Furthermore, the study by Murphy included learners who were both at higher or lower levels of English proficiency. By having more subjects and testing both the low and high proficiency level students, the study by Murphy can be understood as being exceptional to that of Sauro. However, there was no control group used by Murphy, so in this way the study by Sauro is superior.

A study was recently done exploring the effect that two types of feedback associated with correction had on students learning in a synchronous learning environment. There were 31 subjects who were learning English as a 2nd language. The types of feedback they received during computer-mediated communication tasks were either metalinguistic information, which was explicit or recasts, which were implicit. This was done after they had uttered a sentence which was in error regarding the use of past tense in English. The study used two experimental groups which each received a specific type of feedback. There was also a control group. In this sense, the experiment was of the same basic structure as that done by Sauro. This study lends support to the use of this type of research design for the investigation of the effectiveness of computer mediated corrective feedback with regard to developing L2 grammar as was done by Sauro.

Another study which investigated the effect of feedback on computer-mediated correction of second language learners also investigated metalinguistic versus recast types of feedback. There were 30 subjects who participated in the experiment. Like the study by Sauro, the subjects were split into three groups with two groups receiving feedback of one type been studied and a control group. However, this study was different from the one conducted by Sauro in that the students were between 15 and 17 years old. This is younger than the participants in the study by pasted. This study lends further support to the general question in structure of the study by Sauro.

Research Findings

The study by Sauro discovered that metalinguistic feedback was slightly superior to recasts for the gains in the pretest and immediate posttests for the familiar items which were studied. However, the difference was not statistically significant. This means that the study indicates there is no advantage of using metalinguistic feedback or recasts in relation to each other. The study also discovered that both the recasts and metalinguistic feedbacks were effective methods of increasing the target form knowledge of familiar items. Nevertheless, there was not a significant difference between the two types of feedback.

The study had a number of limitations, one of which was the small sample size. The determination of the sample size is an important factor for any experiment. Experiments generally use samples of the population in order to make inferences regarding a population. This means it is vital that the sample size used in the experiment has enough statistical power in order to determine if it is possible to reject the null hypothesis. If the null hypothesis is false, improperly failing to reject it leads to committing a type II error.

In the case of the study done by Sauro, no statistically significant difference was found between the metalinguistic feedback, and the recasts. However, it is possible that a significantly larger sample size such as the one used by Murphy 2007, using 231 subjects would have led to an important finding. At the same time, it is not a common or proper practice to go back and project what would have happened if more subjects were used through extrapolation of the smaller sample's data.

The article by Sauro would have been more compelling if they had engaged in a Post-hoc power analysis. Power analyses are often done Post-hoc when there is a failure to reject the null hypothesis. The power analysis can be done before or after a study. If it is done before a study, is usually used to determine a sufficient sample size for measuring the effect of interest. A Post-hoc power analysis will indicate the power in the study according to the expected effect size and sample size.

The article does a relatively good job of describing its limitations. For example, it notes that there may have been a significant problem with the sensitivity for the acceptability judgment test. This is because the study used the Blackboard learning system interface which is limited with regard to the types of acceptability judgment items, which can be used. This means that participants in the study were presented with several variations of a sentence and then asked to select the one they thought was most appropriate. Providing the subjects with both unacceptable and acceptable versions of a sentence may have resulted in oversimplification of the decision-making process involved. In other words, the null hypothesis was not rejected because the test was too easy and almost any type of feedback would have allowed better performance.

Another possible problem which is addressed in the limitations section of the paper is that the zero article being used may have been nearly impossible for most learners to generalize. There was an improvement of both treatment groups with regard to the control group only for familiar items. This may be because most of the students engaged in learning, which was item-based instead of rule-based. In other words, the study was too short and only provided a limited amount of feedback to the participants. This may not have been sufficient for them to recall or notice lexical items in the zero article.

A final limitation of the article which is mentioned by the author is that there is overlap between English articles and those in the Swedish system. This could result in confusion with the target form instructions or the conscious raising activities with regard to the article systems of English and Swedish. This has been noted by other studies.

References

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Miller, P. C., & Pan, W. (2012). Recasts in the L2 classroom: A meta-analytic review. International Journal of Educational Research.

Murphy, P. (2007). Reading comprehension exercises online: The effects of feedback, proficiency and interaction. Language Learning & Technology, 11(3), 107-129.

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