Psychological Trait of Unintentional Procrastination Relating to Experience of Academic Motivation in Undergraduate Psychology Students

Abstract

The correlation between Unintentional Procrastination and Experience related to Academic Resilience was studied using a questionnaire on Self-efficacy for Academic Achievement, Academic Resilience, Unintentional Procrastination and Academic Motivation. Using the two variables of Unintentional Procrastination and Academic Resilience, the correlation between the two variables were studied in 100 Undergraduate Psychology students. The results indicated that there is a weak, negative correlation between unintentional procrastination and academic resilience among undergraduate students. The students scored highly in academic resilience and poorly in unintentional procrastination.

Introduction

The study uses the variable Academic Resilience and Unintentional Procrastination and seeks to understand the relationship between these two variables.

Martin and Marsh (2006) examined the educational and psychological correlates of academic resilience, using a sample of 402 high school students in Australia. The study used network validity correlation, path analysis and cluster analysis to highlight the factors that predict academic resilience - this includes self-efficacy, control, planning, low anxiety and persistence. A 5C model has been proposed for academic resilience - confidence, coordination, control, composure and commitment.

Academic resilience comes with commitment or persistence, with coordination of one's plans, composure and confidence in one's academic abilities. Academic resilience also leads to three psychological outcomes - enjoyment of school, class participation and general self-esteem. Zimmerman, Martinez-Pons and Bandura (1992) discussed the causal role of self-efficacy beliefs among students that could help with personal goal setting and academic achievements. A path model of self-motivation variables predicted students' final grades and influenced the academic goals that students set for themselves, as well as their academic achievements. Prior grades are often predictive of goal setting and could provide the essential pretext for self-motivation. Fernie et al. (2017) argued that procrastination is the postponement or delay of a task that is often a direct result from a failure of self-regulation.

Procrastination can be intentional or unintentional (Seo, 2013) and the authors (Fernie et al, 2017) tried to develop a scale to measure unintentional procrastination, to test whether unintentional procrastination is a stronger marker for psychopathology than intentional and general procrastination. They used a sample of 139 participants who completed a questionnaire on unintentional procrastination and responses were subject to components analysis and assessment of internal consistency. A further sample of 155 community participants completed the measures of general and intentional procrastination, metacognitiond about procrastination and negative affect. The unintentional procrastination was validated using correlation and regression analysis. A six item unintentional procrastination questionnaire was shown to possess construct and divergent validity and internal consistency. The authors concluded that unintentional procrastination is a stronger marker of psychopathology than preexisting measures of procrastination (Fernie et al, 2017). Results from the regression analysis show that there is a significant difference between general, intentional and unintentional procrastination. Unintentional procrastination has strong association with negative affect suggesting it is a valuable psychological measure and research tool.

Method

This is a correlational study using the two measured variables of unintentional procrastination and academic resilience among undergraduate students. The data provided insights on the correlation between the two variables studied in this analysis - unintentional procrastination and academic resilience. The survey or questionnaire method was used in this case and the data was scored using SPSS to determine the correlation between the two variables - unintentional procrastination and academic resilience among 100 undergraduate students.

Design

The study is a survey design and the questionnaire was sent to over 120 undergraduate psychology students. The students were between 18-45 years of age and identified themselves as male, female, non-binary and pangender. They completed the survey online and the responses from 100 questionnaires were scored on a table for each of the four variables. There were several questions for each variable and the answers for each question were scored on a scale 1-7, with 1 representing strongly disagree and 7 representing strongly agree. The two variables considered here are Unintentional Procrastination and Academic Resilience.

There are six statements to which the participants agreed or disagreed for Unintentional Procrastination using a scale of 1-4, in which 1 is "do not agree" and 4 is "agree very much".
The second variable is Academic Resilience and the statements for measuring this variable are on mental toughness, study stress, schoolwork pressures, confidence levels and setbacks at school. For all the above six statements, a score of 1 is strongly disagree and a score of 7 is strongly agree.

Participants

The participants directly involved in this study are undergraduate students of psychology, mostly 18-21 years of age , although a few students are above 40 years. Both male and female students participated in the study, although a few claimed to be nonbinary or pangender. Although the participants completed the entire questionnaire with four variables, only two of these variables were considered for analysis. The participants completed the questionnaire online and submitted them online. In some cases, questionnaires were sent by email and returned to the sender after completion.

Materials

The materials used for this study are the survey or online questionnaire which was constructed before conducting the study. Materials also included computers, mobile phone or such similar devices, email messaging system, internet for students' access to the survey and computational tools and software such as MS excel, SPSS and Microsoft Word Document software.

Procedure

Data was collected from a sample of 100 undergraduate students who answered questions on unintentional procrastination and issues with academic motivation. The questionnaires presented to the students are on unintentional procrastination scale, self-efficacy for academic achievement, academic resilience and academic motivation scale (Cavusoglu. & Karatas, 2015). The unintentional procrastination scale has six questions, the self efficacy for academic achievement scale had nine questions, Academic resilience scale had 6 questions and academic motivation scale had 14 questions. The questionnaire was sent to over 120 participants by emails and finally 100 completed questionnaires were scored and tabulated.

Ethics

The participants were advised to sign the legal document of informed consent and were aware that they were being studied for procrastination, motivation and other psychological factors. The participants' explicit consent or agreement was obtained before beginning the study.

Results

The results showed that considering the two variables of unintentional procrastination and academic resilience, there was a negative correlation between these two factors. This means when there is an increased level of unintentional procrastination or delay of academic work, there is an expected decrease in academic resilience and when there is increased academic resilience, the expected level of unintentional procrastination is low among students.

Discussion

Academic resilience or the ability to perform well and the ability to deal with stress tend to decrease when there is an increased level of unintentional procrastination and increases when procrastination is low. In this study, when the values of the X and Y variables are considered (Creswell, 2003)- unintentional procrastination or X variable has a mean value of 2 with â^'(X - Mx)2 = SSx = 20. This means most students disagreed that they procrastinated and did not get tasks completed on time. Y Values have a Mean = 5.05, which means most students agreed that they have high academic resilience.

â^'(Y - My)2 = SSy = 30.95. X and Y

Combined value is â^'(X - Mx)(Y - My) = -5.

Correlation or R Calculation is as follows:

r = â^'((X - My)(Y - Mx)) / â^š((SSx)(SSy))

r = -5 / â^š((20)(30.95)) = -0.201.

Meta Numerics (cross-check) r = -0.201. The R or correlation coefficient is -0.201. Although technically a negative correlation, the relationship between the variables is weak.

It is possible to conclude that academic resilience when high in students would also predict blow unintentional procrastination as these two variables are negatively correlated, despite the fact that this correlation is weak. The P-Value is .044937. This means that the result is significant at p < .05, and the correlation between the variables unintentional procrastination and academic resilience is negative.

References

Cavusoglu, C. & Karatas, H. (2015) Academic Procrastination of Undergraduates: Self-determination Theory and Academic Motivation, The Anthropologist, 20:3, 735-743,

Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Fernie, B. A. Bharucha, Z., Nikcˇevic, A.V. and Spada, M. M. The Unintentional Procrastination Scale. Journal of Rat-Emotional Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (2017) 35:136-149.

Martin, A.J. and Marsh, H.V. (2006). Academic Resilience and it's Psychological and Educational Correlates: A Construct Validity Approach. Psychology in the Schools. 43(3), 267-281. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Seo, E.H. (2013). A Comparison of Active and Passive Procrastination in Relation to Academic Motivation. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 41, 5, pp. 777-786(10).

Weathington BL, Cunningham CJ, Pittenger DP (2010). Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Zimmerman, B.J. Bandura, A. and Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Self-Motivation for Academic Attainment: The Role of Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Personal Goal Setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29, 3, pp. 663-676.

APPENDICES

Appendix A:

X - Mx
Y - My
(X - Mx)2
(Y - My)2
(X - Mx)(Y - My)

Result Details & Calculation

X Values
Mean = 2
â^'(X - Mx)2 = SSx = 20

Y Values
Mean = 5.05
â^'(Y - My)2 = SSy = 30.95

X and Y Combined
â^'(X - Mx)(Y - My) = -5

R Calculation
r = â^'((X - My)(Y - Mx)) / â^š((SSx)(SSy))

r = -5 / â^š((20)(30.95)) = -0.201

Meta Numerics (cross-check)
r = -0.201

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When an individual decides on their career path, they feel that the road originally taken is best. Life experiences will turn you around to the direction it feels will suit you best. I have conquered goals in my professional career without realizing that my dreams were not completely a part of it. As a result, I dug deeper and found myself in a place that has led me back to school, in pursuit of a career where I belong.

The Master of Science in Teaching program with a concentration in elementary education at Montclair State University will lead me on my path to a career where I can utilize my full potential to where children's' dreams will manifest themselves with my guidance. After completing and excelling in the prerequisite coursework along with both PRAXIS exams needed for admittance into this program, I have realized what being a teacher entails and more then willing to face what challenges lie ahead.

As an undergrad, I attended the College of New Jersey where I graduated with a bachelor's degree in Communications/ Public Relations. I found it difficult to find my niche within my major outside of a school setting. After searching, I found my home within the hospitality industry working as a supervisor in a casino in Atlantic City. There, I had the opportunity to use my training and development skills on an every day basis. I taught my staff how to implement new tasks and objectives to make our deparment successful. It came down to number, and layoffs in the casino took place. It was time to focus where my dreams and aspirations lie. That was teaching individuals how to succeed and what it takes to get them to their goal. With my success with adults, I can use some of those same aspects to bring to teach children.

Being a student in this graduate program will help me reach my goals in the following ways. First this program will allow me the ability to student teach while achieving my Masters Degree, it will allow me learn techniques that will enhance my background, and give me the ability to be a role model for children.

I believe that to be a good teacher it is necessary for an individual to learn new things for themselves while still having the ability to teach others. The MST program will allow me to learn as a student in a classroom as well as how to teach appropriately to my own students. The building blocks are already in place because of my experience while working with adults, it is my job to take each opportunity and use it to benefit my future as a teacher to children.

Second, the MST program with a concentration in elementary education will give me the opportunity to learn new techniques and content that because of my background. I believe that even though my background up until this point has not been in a degree of education. I have used training and teaching abilities in my previous professional atmospheres. Unlike any of the other applicants to this program, my professional and educational background will give me a different set of ideals and views that would fit into what characteristics an excellent teacher must possess.

Thirdly, according to the United States Department of Labor, in 2008 there were approximately 1.5 million elementary school teachers nationwide. I believe that in order to stand out in a crowd that large an individual needs to be exceptional at their career. When discussing a exceptional teacher, there are things that go way beyond just a career and into a lifestyle choice. That is what being a teacher means to me. It is knowing that you were a role model for children who may or may not have one. I have realized that through some classroom discussions with other teachers that many parents are requiring the teacher to be more predominant in that child's life then their own parents are. I could be that light in a child's eyes to let them know that they are the ones that truly matter and to help them succeed. A child is an open book, it is up to teachers and parents to act off one another to write the pages in each individuals child's book.

Everyone has progressed to where they are because of a teacher, that one person who has shown us which path in life we fit into most. I am that teacher who will inspire the next generation to become leaders, inventors, artists, and many other professions who will change the world.

Programs in mathematics for children and young students vary in their usefulness and in their comprehensiveness. Some programs are very simple and require no extra time, while some are exceptionally comprehensive and include everything in the curriculum, along with the assessments to determine level placements. Each has its place, and each can be effective if it is evidence-based and supported by theory and relevant rigorous research that support its methods and strategies. This paper examines two such models and programs, placing emphasis on the program's effectiveness for special needs students, especially those in the mild or moderate categories, such as learning disabilities.

Response to Intervention (RTI) is an exceptionally comprehensive curricular program that utilized three levels, or tiers, to meet student needs. Tier 1 is what every student in the school experiences, and is the basic core instruction at all grade levels. For those students who, after being assessed, are not successful at the basic level, there is a second level which entails smaller working groups and a more intense kind of instruction for the concepts being taught. Again, after assessment, students who are still at risk of failing are moved to a third tier, again with small groupings or one-to-one instruction. At this level, the students are in an intense remediative effort designed to prevent their failure. The entire program is school-wide, with time and resources allocated for maximum success.

Everyday Mathematics is a supplemental program aimed at reinforcement of skills. It does not take the place of the regular mathematics program, nor is it as comprehensive as RTI. For special needs students, it provides a strong reinforcement of skills that may not have been learned well, and provides practice with concepts that are some times difficult. The program does not, however, provide the kinds of support that RTI is designed to provide.

Math Interventions

Students with special needs, especially those with mild to moderate intellectual functioning, often have great difficulty with mathematical concepts, and do not typically do well with traditional instruction. Tutoring is always an option, of course, but by itself, is not a viable alternative to other kinds of instruction designed for these kinds of students. Several models of instruction have been developed suitable for special needs students, meeting their instructional needs in ways that regular program instruction cannot. Two of these models will be discussed here, along with the theoretical assumptions supporting the models, specific teaching strategies making the models efficacious, and the characteristics of the students for whom these strategies would be most effective. The first of these is Response to intervention, or RTI, a product of the National Center for Learning Disabilities, and Everyday Mathematics, a product of the Each has advantages and disadvantages for different populations of students, but both are efficacious in changing the curriculum so that positive learning takes place with the students for whom they were designed.

RTI - Response to Intervention

Response to instruction is a product of the national Center for Learning Disabilities. As the name suggests, this program is particularly effective with learning disabled students (although the program is available for everyone in the regular classroom at Tier 1), whose primary disability may be either reading or mathematics related, or both. RTI relies on what is called tiered instruction meaning that there are levels of intervention that become more intensive as students move through the curriculum. RTI maintains three tiers-the first is core instruction, which is an evidence-based, scientifically-researched core curriculum. It is typically aligned with state standards, and delivers a high-quality instructional program that for which there are known outcomes.

The curriculum is assessment-based. The assessment components of RTI are the essential elements of implementation, and the instruction that occurs are assessment-driven. The instruction is tiered because the instruction delivered to students must meet their needs and the severity of their severity of their difficulties. (ibid).

When the Tier 1 core instructional program is delivered as it should be, the expectation is that most of the students will show outcomes that are at a level of proficiency that meets minimal standards. Theoretically, 75%-85% of students should reach successful levels of competency through Tier 1. Typically, however, in the early years the percentage of successful levels of competency are about 50%-70%. At that point, those students needing more intensive instruction would move to Tier 2. (ibid).

For some students the level of instruction at Tier 1 is not sufficient, and does not help them to reach levels of minimal competence. Tier 2 represents a level of supplemental intervention for these students who are at some risk for failure but are not at the level of high risk. The ongoing assessment process identifies these students, and instruction in smaller groups that focuses on their specific needs is delivered.

Tier 3 students are at the highest risk of failure, and have been identified as having severe needs that are not satisfied by Tier 1 or Tier 2 instruction. These children receive instruction in even smaller groups, sometime one-to-one. At this point, these children may be identified as special education children, although not everyone in these groups is so identified, though their needs call for this level of intervention. (ibid).

RTI is based on the concept that evidence-based learning is appropriate and necessary to intervene in the academic performance of those at risk of failure. RTI is a school and classroom commitment to use best findings to plan, design, implement, and guide instruction. The intention of RTI is to prevent and intervene before students fail. With RTI, all students in the school get a high-quality research-based differentiated instruction in the general ed core curriculum, and all staff assume a role in student assessment and in instruction in the core program (Tier 1). All students, according to academic need, receive increasingly intense levels of targeted research-based intervention, and all of it is assessment based. Progress though the tiers is bilateral and is always based on student response to the interventions. Throughout the process, support is always given.

RTI is based in part on Carroll's Theory of School Learning. Carroll believed that time needed to learn was a function of individual difference and teacher or school mediated variables. Carroll also believed that there was a difference between aptitude and ability; aptitude can be quantified, but ability is something not quantifiable, although all students possess it. In speaking of time to learn, Carroll posited that the interaction of individual differences and the actual conditions of teaching and learning was of crucial importance. Time to learn is influenced, he believed, by the opportunity to learn and quality of instruction.

Opportunity to learn represents an allocation of time and resources that are sufficient for each student. Quality of instruction is more than just effective instruction-it is also efficient instruction. High quality instruction, therefore, is a combination of the opportunity to learn for each student and the effective and efficient delivery of instruction. These are the hallmarks of RTI-a comprehensive program of instruction that accounts for instructional quality by managing the effectiveness of instruction and the efficiency of instruction by utilizing several tiers of instruction that increase in intensity as student need indicates, freeing other to devote more effective time and more efficient time to further tasks. (Carroll, 1963).

Everyday Mathematics

Everyday Mathematics is a program developed by the University of Chicago School Mathematics Project (UCSMP). It is, according to McGraw-Hill (n.d). a structured, research-based program that helps to develop mathematical reasoning and strong math skills. The authors of the program examined how other nations teach math and effective classroom practice. It was field tested and reviewed by mathematicians, educational specialists, and classroom teachers, and revised per their comments and concerns before being released for publication. It has been used now in classrooms for more than twenty years, and is based on research that shows that children learn best hen they are presented with topics quickly, and revisit them frequently for review and practice. The sequence of instruction is carefully orchestrated to maximize the conditions for learning and retaining what is learned. New concepts and skills are introduced informally, and examined again in different contexts over several grade levels. The program encourages the use of manipulatives and skill-based mathematical games, along with pencil-and-paper activities.

Students exposed to Everyday Mathematics have shown themselves to be mathematically literate on several standardized assessments, including state-mandated tests and commercially-available tests. The National Academy of Sciences (National Research Council, 2004) asserts that Everyday mathematics has been scrutinized and researched more than any other mathematics curriculum. (McGraw Hill, n.d).

The US Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences (2007) reviewed sixty one studies of the program. Four of the studies met the standards of the IES, and those are reviewed below.

Carroll (1998) examined 76 fifth graders in four classrooms from four school districts and compared the progress of these students using Everyday Mathematics with 91 students in four districts matched for demographics and geographic location. The Everyday Mathematics group met Extent of Evidence criteria for successful progress. Riordan and Noyce (2001) examined 3,781 fourth graders at 67 schools and compared them with 5, 102 fifth graders at 78 similar schools. The results were the same as the Carroll study. Waite (2000) looked at 732 third-, fourth-, and fifth-graders in six schools using Everyday Mathematics, and compared them with 2, \704 third-, fourth-, and fifth-graders in twelve similar schools, matched on baseline math achievement scores, and the results here were the same as in the previously mentioned studies. Woodward and Baxter (1997) looked at 104 third grade students in five classrooms and compared them with 101 third graders in four classrooms in the same school. Again, the results of the study met the criteria for Extent of Evidence. WWC (What Works Clearinghouse) applies Extent of Evidence each study in terms of its effectiveness and its rigor. The Extent of Evidence for Everyday Mathematics is medium to large for math achievement.

Many teachers use these activities as a warming up activity when students arrive to school each morning. The exercises are short, mostly reviews of previous material. Students are encouraged to collaborate on these activities, and they are generally short enough and accessible enough (they do not usually require any kind of research) for special needs students to use them and complete them in a reasonable amount of time. A typical activity will use manipulatives for counting or for graph-building, and some require calculator use. Others are puzzles that involve mathematical reasoning. When special needs children are collaborating with their peers, the work generally goes smoothly and the special needs children seem to understand most of the work, and with some prodding, can do the same concepts again, and with repeated practice over time, become independently able to do the activities. The theoretical foundation is clearly correct here-short introductions to concepts, repeated practice and multiple exposures work best for special needs children, who usually do not have the attention span or intellectual capability to immerse themselves in mathematical concepts for long periods of time. Though the activities do require subskills such as measuring with a ruler, how to make simple graphs, and other basics of mathematical inquiry, special needs children seem able to learn some of this "on the fly" and complete their activities successfully.

Conclusion

Both systems work very well for all students, including mildly or moderately disabled children. RTI is much more comprehensive and intense than is Everyday Mathematics. RTI is a total curricular effort, while EM is a supplemental activity regimen that reinforces skills. RTI requires a commitment from all teachers in the school, while EM is normally a simple part of each elementary teacher's morning list of tasks to complete, with no particular commitment required, and no allocation of resources beyond the ordinary. RTI is designed to identify and intervene with at-risk students so that they do not fail. EM is designed to supplement practice and does not distinguish students who are at risk of failure, nor does it provide progressively more intense instruction to those who are at risk. RTI is a structured tier approach that progressively supports those students who are not minimally competent at basic instructional levels. EM offers no such support.

For special needs students, RTI is an extensively supporting system taking into account quality of instruction with effectiveness and efficiency. Though EM is used daily, and has shown to be effective at reinforcing mathematical skills, it is not an extensive use of time and though effective, is not necessarily efficient, unless sit is used by the classroom teacher to identify specific skill needs that need remediation. It is likely that students who would qualify for Tier 3 of RTI would find little success with EM when working independently.

REFERENCES

US Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. (2007). Intervention: Everyday Mathematics.

Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64, 723-733. National Center for Learning Disabilities. (2010). Tiered instruction and intervention in a Response-to-Intervention Model.

Carroll, W. M. (1998). Geometric knowledge of middle school students in a reform-based mathematics curriculum. School Science and Mathematics, 98(4), 188-197. Everyday Mathematics. (n.d). McGraw Hill.

Haley, C. (2007). Response to Intervention: Overview. PDE/BSE.

Riordan, J. E., & Noyce, P. E. (2001). The impact of two standards-based mathematics curricula on student achievement in Massachusetts. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 32(4), 368-398.

US Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. (2007). Intervention: Everyday Mathematics.

Waite, R. D. (2000). A study of the effects of Everyday Mathematics on student achievement of third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade students in a large north Texas urban school district. Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(10), 3933A. (UMI No. 9992659).

Woodward, J., & Baxter, J. (1997). The effects of an innovative approach to mathematics on academically low-achieving students in inclusive settings. Exceptional Children, 63(3), 373-388.

Today's educational system does many things right, following in the footsteps of generations in which the American education system was considered the best in the world. In recent years, however, American students do not stack up as well against their foreign counterparts, and it is clear that there are several problems with today's educational system. These problems include too much focus on standardized testing, a lack of qualified teachers to help students most in need, and the increasingly prohibitive cost of higher education, especially when added to the need for a college degree to succeed.

The No Child Left Behind Act, first put into place in 2001, put forth the lofty but admirable ambition of making sure all children were educated equitably, no matter if they went to a school in a wealthy neighborhood or an underfunded, overcrowded school. For the first time, strict and consistent measures of progress and improvement for schools were put in on both state and national levels. In order to assess student progress, however, students must be assessed. As a result, No Child Left Behind also ushered in an era of extremely high-stakes standardized testing. Because these tests are so important not just to show the learning of individual students, but to show the progress of whole schools or districts, the focus on these tests in the classroom is nearly all-consuming.

Children are drilled over and over again on test skills, and as a result there is less time for creative projects or learning things that are not directly tested. This may help children succeed on the tests, but is not teaching them how to think, and they then do not succeed as well in college or life. Professors are noting the increased use of Wikipedia as a source in research papers (Jashick 271) and it is clearer and clearer that students are not learning what used to be basic skills, such as how to tell if a source is trustworthy and how to avoid plagiarism, early on. Much of the time that used to be devoted to these and many other important matters is now spent drilling for standardized tests.

Lack of Qualified Teachers

A. Culture clash

1. "In today's increasingly diverse student population, many needs are represented. However, teachers are not always ready to meet these needs, sometimes due to a lack of understanding of the students' home culture and norms." (Delpit 261)

2. A lack of teachers who speak other languages is also an issue because more and more immigrants come to this country.

B. Salaries/Prestige

1. Teaching is traditionally not especially prestigious work.

2. Teaching does not pay well compared to other jobs, so educated grads from the best schools pursue other paths.

Cost of Higher Education

A. State college tuition increasing

1. In many states, budget crises are forcing cutting professors and increasing tuition so that what has traditionally been an affordable option no longer is.

2. More students are opting for non-traditional, for-profit universities instead, often sending them into debt. Many of these students never graduate (Clark 64)

B. College degrees are now needed to succeed

1. Jobs for which a high school diploma used to sufficient now require college credits and even full degrees.

2. Examples: public service such as police, secretaries, etc.

Conclusion

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Clark, Jane Bennett. "The Real Deal on For-Profit Colleges." Kipinger's Personal Finance.

Delpit, Lisa D. "Education in a Multicultural Society: Our Future's Greatest Challenge." Macdonald, James C. The Reader. New York: Longman, 2009. 261-268.

Jaschick, Scott. "A Stand Against Wikipedia." Macdonald, James C. The Reader. New York: Longman, 2009. 270-272.

Homeschooling (also known as "Home Education") has been a controversial topic in the United States in recent years. Homeschooling is essentially the concept that children and adolescents are taught at home by parents and tutors rather than attending private or public education institutions. Some argue that homeschooling is more effective in educating children with Special Needs or those who are Gifted and Talented for the simple reason that these children are either to challenged or not challenged enough by the education offered in either public or private institutions. Others argue that homeschooling is problematic because there are few regulations at either the state or national level to ensure that children are meeting state and national education standards. What regulation there is unreliable and enforcement and compliance with these regulations varies from state to state and when children fail in a homeschooling situation, public schools are often left to repair the damage. (Cox, CQ Researcher) Homeschooling can be beneficial to children who do not fit into the standard educational system however; regulations must be standardized at the national level and teaching and curriculum standards must be enforced in order to ensure that homeschooled children are being educated at the same level as children attending public schools.

Cox argues that homeschooling can be effective for some students. This is specifically true of students who may have either special needs or who may be highly intelligent. Homeschooling is a solution in this case because special needs children may experience social problems due to developmental delays or difficulty with schoolwork that is to challenging. Gifted and talented children may suffer similar problems as special needs children socially and may not be challenged academically. Cox discusses the example of Janet Liddle, a mother who home schools her children as a means of keeping her children intellectually challenged as well as a way to avoid dealing with long commutes back and forth to the local schools as Liddles' family lives in a rural area. Cox states that many parents also choose to homeschool their children as the result of poorly funded and understaffed local schools or because of their religious beliefs. (CQ Researchers).

Cox claims that more than 300,000 schoolchildren are currently homeschooled. However; this does not count parents who home school their children in states that do not officially recognize homeschooling as a viable option or students never registered in a public school. This is however; three times the number of students that were being homeschooled in 1999. Some states have implemented strong standards for homeschoolers and in some areas there are organized homeschooling groups that offer social experiences for homeschooled children. Those who support homeschooling claim that homeschooling is a positive experience for their children and that they have many educational opportunities that they would not have in a public school setting.

In contrast those that argue against homeschooling claim that homeschooling is not of any more benefit to children than public education. They state that while homeschooling may be successful in some cases for many children it leaves them isolated and unable to compete academically due to parents who are not qualified to education their children. This leaves schools to clean up the mess when poorly educated and socialized children return to the school system.

A second complaint against homeschooling is that it may be perceived as undemocratic. Cox argues that every child deserves a free public education. Another argument is that homeschoolers are not as well educated or as socially developed as children who attend public school. Socialization arguments are based on the idea that part of being educated as an elementary school or high school student is learning how to interact with others and homeschooled children in more rural areas do not have this type of exposure.

There are also other arguments against homeschooling. According to Cox one of the main arguments is that many states do not have specific curriculum standards for homeschoolers. Another major issue is that standards vary from state to state. There is very little reliability or continuity. This means that children who are homeschooler may vary in even the most basic academic skills depending on where they live.

While many have voiced their concerns about homeschooling the numbers of children being homeschooled the number of these children is increasing each year. Homeschooling groups are becoming more organized and more mainstream which in some ways has effectively dealt with issues surrounding reliable standards and regulations as well as socialization issues with homeschooled children. While there is a necessity for further work on standards, curriculum for homeschoolers, and ensuring children are well-socialized homeschooling is a viable alternative for special needs or gifted and talented children who may be bullied socially and either to academically challenged or not challenged enough in a public school setting.

It can be concluded, that there are no easy answers for the issue of homeschooling. Some claim that homeschooling is a positive thing designed to handle students who for one reason or another do not fit within the standard educational system. Others claim that homeschooling allows parents to have more control over what their children learn. Opponents of homeschooling argue that homeschooling is undemocratic and that homeschoolers lack the same standard quality of education as children who attend public schools. However; public schooling does work for children who for one reason do not fit into the public education system whether it be because they are special needs or gifted and talented, or because they are being bullied in the school. While stronger standards and regulations are needed for homeschooling more and more parents are seeing as an alternative to failing public schools.

Works Cited

Cox, Rachel S. Home Schooling Debate: Is the Movement Undermining Public Education?

Having implications far beyond speech and writing, language refers to both entire systems of communication as well as the human ability for using those systems. Languages can be rooted in visual stimuli, such as sign language or written language, as well as auditory stimuli, such as spoken language. Within the classroom context, language is inextricably bound to learning, and, by extension, teachers should have a comprehensive understanding of how meaning is constructed through language. The following inquiry explores the language experiences of this writer and relates language to learning, affording particular respect to the implications of language for the modern learner.

Overview of Language

Language, as a system, is a mechanism for encoding and decoding information in order to communicate. Alternatively, language is a cognitive capacity enabling human beings to engage in communication. Language is complex, processed in several brain locations, and is an integral aspect of human society.

Culture and Semiotics

The process of semiotics, or the relationship between a given sign and a particular meaning, is critical in supporting language. Spoken sounds, for example, are signs that form sequences and construct meaning. Similarly, bodily movements, such as a wave or nod of acknowledgment, are signs that create meaning.

Language is essentially a cultural system, with meanings of an object of communication, such as a word or movement, wholly dependent upon cultural context. For example, a handshake is an accepted acknowledgment in Western cultures but is less common in Eastern cultures; hence, the gesture would be perceived differently depending on the culture context in which it exists. While human beings are not born with the capacity to learn one language easier than another, all human beings are generally born with a language capacity.

Synthesis: The Experience of Language in a Tale of Two Teachers

Regardless of how language manifests, be it as written, spoken, gestured, or otherwise, it does not exist independent of context. Similarly, the efficacy of teaching is tightly linked to the learning context. In their text entitled Language and Learning, Emmitt et al. contend that "the purpose, content, and context for each genre must be authentic; otherwise understanding the use of the genre will be very limited." In this writer's experience, the link between language and the context in which it exists is particularly critical when language manifests in channels other than speech or writing.

When this writer was in elementary school, she had an especially creative and routinely engaged teacher. Outside of verbal and written communication, the students could sense that the teacher was invested in the class by the way she moved around the room, emphasising pertinent information with gestures and facial expressions, and keeping the eye contact of students. Teacher-student communication and language in this classroom meant far more than speech and writing, and, consequently, the teacher was very much in touch with how students were receiving and interpreting the information.

Slightly later in this writer's academic career, she had a teacher that exhibited a comparatively more narrow view of language. Ironically, the teacher was a foreign language teacher with a lengthy teaching career; and yet, he routinely stood at the front of the room and rarely varied from his lecture-and-drill methods of teaching. Language in this classroom did not exist very far beyond speech and writing, and, for this reason, students were not engaged with the course material.

Learning is boosted when language manifests through a wide range of channels. Teachers with narrow perceptions of language, as naught more than speech and writing, consequently do not reach students as meaningfully as they could. In the article entitled "Language as We Know It," Smith writes that "the academic and symbolic demands of constructing meaning from material creates issues of language as we know it, literacy as we know it, and access for teachers to infuse the core curriculum, particularly for teaching and learning." Teachers that embrace language for the multidimensional mechanism that it is during instruction also charge their students to do the same, cultivating a general reverence toward language in the learning community and fostering learners who are skilled in the broad realm of communication.

Culture and the Learning Community

In perceiving language as having implications far beyond speech and writing, the relevance of culture to communication becomes more extreme. Multicultural, culturally sensitive, and culturally competent teaching strategies have become fortunately popular during recent years. Within the context of globalisation, increasingly complex migration patterns, and the hyper-speed of communications, the relationship between culture, language, and learning has become at once compromised and emphasised. By highlighting a child's home-culture, for example, as a significant informant of his or her communication style, a teacher can cater to the student community as extremely diverse and having a broad range of needs.

The age of globalisation has redefined the link between culture and learning, as evidenced by the widespread opening of global universities and online learning. In short, technology has begun to reframe language in society in several ways. Most detrimentally, digital communications such as e-mail, chat rooms, and social networking sites have made language more narrow, existing largely in writing. More positively, technology has boosted the frequency of communications, connecting people who would not otherwise be engaged in communication due to geographical or sociocultural barriers.

For the learning community, the influence of culture and technology is considerable, with students increasingly being asked to experience the world as accessible. By extension, the implications of language beyond writing and speaking are markedly significant, as students become sensitised to the global community's linguistic norms. For example, this writer recently had an experience in a foreign country, in which verbal and written manifestations of language were rendered completely useless.

As a native English speaker who was not very familiar with the Norwegian language, this writer went on holiday in Oslo hoping to get by with the little Swedish she had learned as a teenager. In a busy shop, however, she dropped a jar of tomato sauce and, in wanting to express gratitude toward everyone rushing to help her, realized she had no word for 'thank you.' Without thinking too intensely about it, this writer's brows were raised and her hand was on her heart, head bowing again and again to the helpful bystanders. In retrospect, the bodily gestures were easily interpreted as expressions of gratitude.

More specific to the learning community, students are more and more in touch with international students having the same interests and hobbies, linked via the World Wide Web. Though this link exists largely in writing, it is a critical channel for promoting cross-cultural sensitivity. Teachers in the twenty-first century are able to cultivate a student population that is truly comprised of global citizens. By extension, language in its written and spoken form is not as valuable as language that manifests through alternative, more culturally universal channels.

Learning, Language, and Teaching in the Twenty-First Century

Alfred North Whitehead, in 1929, distinguished between the mere acquisition of knowledge as conceptual blocks and the development of useful knowledge by making connections between those blocks. While inert language can be recalled when asked for in precisely the same way as that in which it was learned, meaningful knowledge can be used during problem-solving and critical thinking scenarios. In short, meaningful knowledge is the most useful and, therefore, the most valuable to students.

The link between language and meaningful knowledge is fortified through the use of relevant teaching contexts. When teachers situate instruction within meaningful contexts, emphasizing language as far broader than speech and writing, they are charging students to relate their learning to past experiences. Practically, teachers can enhance both meaningful knowledge acquisition and a broader interpretation of language through the employment of two strategies; those being anchored instruction and cognitive apprenticeship.

Cognitive apprenticeship emphasises instruction within the social context, highlighting how learning takes place through activity and social communication. Proponents of cognitive apprenticeship contend that knowledge is merely a product of the context, culture, and activity in which it is learned. In this sense, language becomes a medium through learning takes place, as it facilitates social interaction. Language is then both a tool for learning as well as a way in which meaning is constructed and contextualised.

In the classroom, anchored instruction complements cognitive apprenticeship by enabling students to understand the specific conditions under which knowledge is used. In structuring learning experiences for students, anchored instruction emphasises experiences of the students in conjunction with the collaboration between student and teacher. Empirical evidence suggests that anchored instruction aids students in becoming independent thinkers by highlighting the importance of learner feedback and problem-solving. Language facilitates the common experiences of students and teachers that form the basis for anchored instruction, allowing students to share perspectives and frame new knowledge as related to existing knowledge.

Conclusion

Language refers to the myriad of ways in which communication manifests in human society. With the advent of digital communication, language is being reframed but remains inordinately critical in fostering global relationships. Teachers who perceive language broadly, as existing well beyond the realm of speaking and writing, encourage their students to embrace and manifest a similarly broad view of language. In short, language contextualises experiences and provides an avenue for knowledge to be acquired and related to existing knowledge. In this way, language is the very channel through which all learning takes place.

Bibliography

Cumming-Potvin, Wendy, Peter Renshaw, and Christina E. Van Kraayenoord. "Scaffolding and Bilingual Shared Reading Experiences: Promoting Primary School Students' Learning and Development." Australian Journal of Language and Literacy 26, no. 2 (2003): 54-76.

Emmitt, Maria, Matthew Zbaracki, Linda Komesaroff, John Pollock. Language and Learning. Oxford University Press (2010).

"Language." In The Columbia Encyclopedia 6th ed., edited by Lagass, Paul. New York: Columbia University Press.

Love, Mary Susan. "Multimodality of Learning through Anchored Instruction: The Project Described Incorporates the Concept of Design in How Students Construct Meaning. Meaning Making Is Becoming More Multimodal Because Language Is Continually Being Reshaped by New Forms of Communication Media." Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 48, no. 4 (2004): 300-321.

Nikolova, Ofelia, and Gregory Taylor. "The Impact of a Language Learning Task on Instructional Outcomes in Two Student Populations: High-Ability and Average-Ability Students." Journal of Secondary Gifted Education 14, no. 4 (2003): 205-213.

Smith, Kweku M. "Language as We Know It, Literacy as We Know It, and Content Area Instructions: Conscious Strategies for Teachers." Multicultural Education, Summer 2004, 46-66.

Spencer, Robin, and Ian Hay. "Initial Reading Schemes and Their High Frequency Words." Australian Journal of Language and Literacy (1998): 222.

Stepp-Greany, Jonita. "Student Perceptions on Language Learning in a Technological Environment: Implications for the New Millennium." Language, Learning & Technology 6, no. 1 (2002): 165.

Introduction

Most of us like to believe that our accomplishments are entirely our own. "I worked for everything I have!" might be true, but we often ignore the platform that was built under us and from which our climb began. That work is done by our parents, families, and culture, and it determines a great deal about how far the work we do will get us. Others are working, too, but we do not all end up at the same place, just like marathoners do not all finish the race at the same time nor in the order of who worked hardest to least hard. This research will attempt to look at how detailed one aspect of parental influence can be in children's lives. In order to do that, this research will look at academic achievement differences between the children of people with degrees in technical and hard science disciplines, and the children of people with education degrees.

A number of factors are well-established correlates to academic performance. The wealth and the education level of a child's parents are high on this list of presumably determinative characteristics. Few reasonable researchers would deny this, though there may be reasonable conflicts in precisely what is predictive and what is correlated. Much of the research regarding children's academic is based on finding out what went "wrong" with "worst" performers and what went "right" with the "best" performers. These researchers are no less subject to the whims and trends of the times than anyone else in the culture is. A conflation of morality and performance, specifically parent morality and child performance, is all too common. However, telling people that if they want their children to do well they should consider being wealthy and living in a nice neighborhood with good schools is not particularly useful. This study will make an attempt to investigate differences in childhood performance between the children of parents with degrees in education and the children of parents with degree in technical and hard sciences in attempt to see if proximity to pedagogical skill yields different literacy result than proximity to technical skills.

Literature review

Boxer, Dubow, and Huesmann looked at the long term effects of parents' education on their children's "educational and occupational success". They point to the established nature of the relationship between parental wealth and education in children's educational and behavioral outcomes, indicating they accept it as predictive and ignoring critiques about the well-documented cultural biases in testing procedures. They also examine the research that indicated that controlling for income; maternal education was the strongest predictor of children's outcomes. It is no surprise that their own findings jibed with established research and found that well into middle age, the correlation between parental socio-economic class was the greatest predictive of socio-economic class in adult children. Davis-Kean and Sexton explored the often supported research finding that within an economic class, maternal education was the greatest predictor of children's educational achievement finding that the result was a measurable correlation in the third grade.

Davis-Kean and Sexton also reiterate findings that parental education level may be more predictive than income. This may be indicative that socio-economic class is more predictive than wealth as a predictor. This could be a significant confounding aspect in the proposed study. It will be necessary to examine and, where possible, control for class differences that may be present between those with education degrees and those with technical or scientific degrees. Further, existing research, like that described above, also makes it important to control for which parent holds which type of degree, for children with two opposite sex parents.

Arnold, Doctoroff, Ortiz, and Zeljo researched the correlation between parental involvements in preschool and found it to be positively associated with literacy development in children. This same finding has been the result of much previous research and can be correlated with class, as well, because parents with more financial security and middle and upper class jobs have more free time and/ or scheduling flexibility that make direct involvement in preschool easier. However, one of the things that this study hopes to do is compare equally educated parents in different fields. By comparing equally educated parents with different backgrounds, it may be possible to discover something about the relationship or differences between parental pedagogical knowledge versus technical knowledge in relationship to early literacy.

In addition to the groups already described, parental education levels have been correlated with their children's achievement in studies of children with attention deficit disorder, children in rural environments, and in first year college students and in places as far away as Australia and Pakistan. What this research hopes to add to the existing information on the subject is whether the content of a parent's education has a meaningful impact on child literacy, or whether merely being a member of an upper class group is main influencing factor.

Methods

Using a correlational research design, this study will attempt to determine if the nature of a parent's education is a meaningful factor in the literacy of young children. This study will examine the parents of third grade students from local grade schools. Because child subjects are often obtain and getting responses from parents is expected to be difficult, attempts will be made simultaneously at several schools and in several classrooms. The goal will be develop a set of at least 15 children and their parents from whom to obtain data, however 25 would be preferable.

The study will collect the grades from this school year's completed term or terms, in any reading, spelling, and writing classes. Biographical data on the age, sex, and racial identity of each student volunteer will be taken. Parents will be asked to complete a survey on their level of education, associate's degree through PhD, whether the degree is an arts or sciences degree, along with the subject area for their respective degree. For example, someone may have a bachelor of science in biology, but a master of arts in education, which would be relevant to the study. The age, rage, and sex of each responding parent will also be included in their biographical information. Further, each participating parent will be asked to answer corresponding questions about any co-parent who has either at least partial physical custody of the child, or any non-legal guardian or co-parent who lives with the child. Inquiries into co-parents or adult guardians will be limited to one additional adult for the sake of simplicity. Inquiries will be made via phone to local schools with third grade classes. Follow up with third grade teachers will then proceed. Children will be sent home with letters of inquiry. Parents who agree to the study will be interviewed in a variety of ways, primarily through questionnaires sent to their homes. Questionnaires will include a number at which the researcher can be reached to answer questions or provide support in the completion of the study.

Once the data is collected, comparisons will be made regarding the children's average grade in their literacy related classes and their parents' subject area. In addition to general observations, if possible the study will look for changes in degree of correlation depending on the sex of the parent who has a particular degree. Given the consistency of outcomes in previous research, maternal education will be probably be more predictive than paternal education, in literacy outcomes.

Confounding effects are a threat to internal validity, for that reason, this research will do no more than attempt to discern a correlation of an excess of factors for which there is no control. Selection bias is also an issue, as the study relies on volunteers. The small sample size will greatly limit external validity.

Using the Pearson test is common among educational research of this type as are multivariate analyses of variance also known as MANOVA. These two statistical analyses, and/ or perhaps ANOVA, will be adequate to analyzing the collected data.

REFERENCES

Arnold, D.H., Doctoroff, G.L., Ortiz, C. and Zeljo, A. Parent involvement in preschool: Predictor and the relation of involvement to preliteracy development. School Psychology Review. 37.1.

Boxer, P, Dubow, E.F., and Huesmann, L.R. Long-term effects of parents' education on children's educational and occupation success: Mediation by family intermations, child aggression, and teenage aspirations. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly. 55.3.

Buckingham, J., Wheldall, K. and Beaman-Wheldall, R. Why poor children are more likely to become poor readers: The school years. Australian Journal of Education. 57.3.

Davis-Kean, P.E. and Sexton, H.R. Race difference in parental influences on child achievement: Multiple pathways to success. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly. 55.3

DuPaul, G., Kern, L., Volpe, R., Caskie, G.I.L., Sokol, N., and Arbolino, L. Comparison of parent education and functional assessment-based intervention across 24 months for young children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Review. 42.1.

Hindman, A.H. and Morrison, F.J. Differential contribution of three parenting dimensions to preschool literacy and social skill in a middle-income sample. Merrill-Palmer. 58.2.

Lemery-Chalfant, K., Swanson, J. and Valiente, C. Predicting academic achievement from cumulative home risk: The mediating roles of effortful control, academic relationships, and school avoidance. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly. 58.3.

Sanavi, F.S., Baghbanian, A., Shovey, M.F., and Ansari-Moghaddam, A. A study on family communication pattern and parenting styles with quality of life in adolescent. Journal of Pakistan Medical Association. 63.11.

Schmitt-Wilson, S. Social class and expectation of rural adolescents: The role of parental expectations. Career Development Quarterly. 61.3.

Wintre, M.G., Dilouya, B., Pancer, S.M., Pratt, M.W., Birnie-Lefcovitch, S., and Polivy, J. Academic achievement in first-year university: Who maintains their high school average? Higher Education. 62.4.

Where do I belong? This is, to some extent, an existential conundrum: an idea that people struggle with, no matter what their circumstances. I have particularly struggled with it because I am an immigrant, and so this question became for me both an intellectual exercise and extremely important in an actual physical sense.

Coming from Vietnam as a young student, I thought I would quickly assimilate to the United States. My major interest was in technology, and I reasoned that this was something that did not have to do with language or culture, and would transcend those issues. Although I excelled in school, I found myself trying to engage with the issue of my identity and where I belonged more and more as I continued my education further. I searched out other immigrants from a variety of cultures, talking to them about whether they felt American, members of their original culture, or something in between. Talking to family and friends in the Vietnamese community in Seattle, I found a wide range of answers-some felt American, others were fiercely proud not to be American, even if they had lived in the United States for decades. Some children of immigrants that I met in my classes and other activities expressed a feeling that they had strayed too far from their origins, and wanted to get closer to the home culture of their parents.

This kind of anecdotal information was useful as I was thinking about my own identity, but as someone with an analytical mind, I wanted more. I began to seek out academic research on this topic. While I had never studied sociology or anthropology, the topic was interesting enough to me that the dense language did not cause me to give up. Reading with a dictionary next to me, I looked for essays, scientific studies, and memoirs to get the perspectives of the many immigrants that have come to America before me, both Vietnamese and others.

Ultimately, I have not yet discovered an answer to the question of where I belong, but I am on my way there. The answer that I have begins with education. With an education, I have a wide range of choices: to return to my home country, to build a life for myself and assimilate into American culture, or to have the best of both worlds, able to influence the lives of my family and friends back in Vietnam with my success in the United States. Working on new and innovative technology and business systems will mean that all of these options are available to me.

I speak two languages, eat two kinds of food, and am comfortable in two different cultures. I am a hybrid, something new. I can combine the best of my experiences and the life I love in America with the things I love about my background and the values my family instilled in me. These values, including a strong work ethic and a determination to succeed, are what are going to make me successful in my future ventures, from higher education and beyond into the global business world. I know that having wrestled with the challenge of my identity both intellectually and emotionally has made me stronger, and I am ready to take the next steps toward success. The University of Technology is the perfect place to do it, and I can't wait to begin.

Becoming an Excellent Student

The educational institution is place where students learn so that they may have a bright future by selecting a career path they wish to pursue. Poor grades mean that the student would not be able to pursue his or her dreams and is most likely to drop out of school. The goal of this paper is to discuss the process of becoming a good student and excelling in academics in the lights of broad and diverse academic resources.

Overview

Survey conducted by Jansen & Bruinsma, indicates that good students are most likely to get better jobs and have interest in things they want to learn and therefore, they are most likely to have successful careers and may prosper financially. The goal of school and college education is to ensure that youngsters can have better jobs and have access to basic necessities of life. According to Grites & Gordon, students with strong academic background and grades are most likely to be preferred for jobs as compared to those who have low grades. Furthermore, with the new trends and development in technology, higher education along with strong academic background and grades can assist the individual to standout and may increase his or her chances to get a job. Therefore, it is essential that students focus on their studies rather than fashion trends for a better future.

Process of becoming Good Student

The process of becoming a student is not difficult. It only requires commitment, devotion and proper time management. The first strategy is to study effectively and to become active in classroom and pay attention to what the instructor is teaching. It is essential to take part within the classroom. Daily review of what was studied must be done right after the class ends. Difficult subjects must be tackled at the last. The next strategy is to manage time and to prioritize work. Time management can help students to become organize and manage their activities and can help them to study effectively and save time. Furthermore, it also helps in defining goals and objectives and can create a balanced lifestyle. The third strategy that can help students to become better students is developing study habits gradually, until it becomes systematic and regular. Therefore, it is essential to develop interest in subjects taught at school and writing down questions if the student cannot understand a particular subject. The goal of writing down questions is to stimulate the brain. Another important strategy is to ensure that students not down what is being taught to them in their classroom. Notes taken from class can easily be reviewed

Lastly, students must ensure that they increase their reading and listening skills, which can be useful in doing assignments.

Conclusion

In recent times, students mostly concentrate on improving their social status and reputation rather than focusing on their studies. Their goal is to ensure that they are up to date with the trends set by the popular students within the educational institution in order to ensure that they are accepted by them socially. Time management, devotion and commitment can help students to become better students.

References:

Jansen, E. P. and Bruinsma, M. Explaining achievement in higher education. Educational Research and Evaluation, 11(3):235-252.
Grites, T., & Gordon, V. Developmental academic advising revisited. NACADA Journal, 20(1), 12-15.

Code of Ethics among Educators

Teachers should have a strong ethical code specifically, when it comes to how teachers interact with a child's family. The educator recognizes the family as an integral part of a student's educational process no matter their skills abilities or intellect. While stringent enforcement of personal state and national ethics codes for educators is an expectation in all areas of education, ethical requirements may be more stringent when working with students who are gifted and talented or who have special needs. Ethical behavior towards families is important because ethical behavior creates trust. When a teacher is educating a student who has special needs or who is gifted intellectually families must trust the person teaching them.

Strike and Soltis define ethics as the process of determining right from wrong. They argue that there are two types of ethics consequentialist and non-consequentialist. With consequentialist ethics, people determine what is right or wrong by the consequences of their actions, with non-consequentialist ethics right and wrong are rather arbitrary. Ethics are used to guide teachers and to help them determine how best to address ethical social and administrative decisions with parents students and co-workers. Teachers follow several ethics codes that may or may not conflict with each other. The first code of ethics that guides a teacher is their state standards for professional ethics and conduct (in this case Georgia). The second group of ethical codes that may guide educators are those of national teaching unions or associations such as, the National Education Association and the Association of American Educators. Third, they are guided by ethics and professional standards codes within their educational specialty (e.g. the National Association of Gifted Children). The final level of ethics that guide a teacher are their own individual ethics.

Ethics guide many of teacher's day-to-day interactions with students and their families. For example, ethics may guide a teacher to question an abused student about their home life and encourage them to call social services not because it is school policy but because it is the right thing to do. Ethics may also guide a teacher to encourage students to meet their full potential. Families are often included in these ethical dilemmas or behaviors because students spend the majority of their time with families and guardians. Ryan and Cooper suggest that ethics in teaching is not complicated. It should be as much a part of everyday teaching practice as creating a lesson plan or taking attendance. Finally, Higgens suggests that teacher's classrooms and schools are part of the macro-environment of a child's life along with their family. These systems must interact ethically and effectively in order to effectively educate a child.

ETHICAL CODES

State of Georgia Code of Ethics for Educators

These ethical standards guide teachers working in the state of Georgia. The code does not say anything specifically about ethical codes applying to a student's family however; there are aspects of the code that apply to a teacher's relationship with a student's family. These mainly focus on mandatory reporting of abuse, neglect, criminal behavior, or drug and alcohol possession by a student and to the confidentiality of student records. Teachers are required to report the above stated crimes involving a child to either the police or social welfare services. This is not only part of the state ethics code but a teacher may be jailed if they do not comply. The second part of this code that applies to families are the confidentiality requirements. Teachers are required to keep all knowledge of student records private with the exception of the student's family and their authorized representatives (teacher's doctor's lawyers etc).

American Association of Educators Code of Ethics for Educators

According to the American Association of Educators (AAE), teachers have several obligations to a student's family. First, teachers are obligated to communicate with parents about all aspects of their child's educator. Second, teachers should respect the culture religion race and ethnicity of the child and their family. Finally, teachers should attempt to develop a positive relationship with both the school and the community including families. This means that teachers should foster a respectful environment towards families and respect their privacy, which is the foundation of most ethical codes whether personal and individual or organization based.

National Education Association Code of Ethics

The National Education Association (NEA), divides their ethical code into two parts, commitment to children and commitment to the profession. The codes applying to children state that the teachers should respect student's privacy and confidentiality, which applies equally, to how one treats a student's family in an ethical manner since treating a student ethically often involves a student's family.

National Association of Gifted Children

Ethics is covered under standard nine of the National Association of Gifted Children's "Initial Knowledge and Skills Standards for Gifted and Talented Education". The primary areas that apply to families as well as students are confidentially and multiculturalism, which is standard for educational ethics codes. While these standards do not go into detail on the ethical perspective of the NAGC and do not specifically apply to the families of gifted and talented students in most cases teachers apply this type of standards to families and students.

Personal Ethics Code Regarding Families of Students

The first aspect of my personal code of ethics regarding my student's families is that they have rights according to state and federal law. These rights include, the right to determine certain aspects of their child's educational experience, the right to respect and the right to privacy and confidentiality. Second , families come from all different income levels, cultural backgrounds, races, and religions. Teachers should not denigrate or discriminate against parents who do not share their own personal cultural, racial, religious, or social class background. Teachers should try to understand these diverse backgrounds and work with them. Third, teachers should adhere to school policies regarding student's families no matter what these policies are.. Finally, teachers should work with parents to help a student learn.

Essentially what this personal code of ethics boils down to is respect and recognizing that a child's family play a more important part in their life than a teacher does. Therefore, it is the job of a teacher to ensure that they communicate important information about the student to the family. As part of this, a teacher must recognize that personal information about the child is restricted to the parent, the educators and administrators of the school and the people that the parent's authorize to see the information. This can be especially sensitive in the case of gifted and talented students or students with special needs since they may require specialized education plans or receive services from the school that are not public knowledge.

Respecting parents also means understanding the parents. As a teacher, it is important to understand diversity in race, diversity in culture, diversity in religion, diversity in sexual preference, and diversity in income. Students families come from all different backgrounds and teachers must accept these differences and not treat a child or their family members differently because of them. These differences should be seen as valuable and as a teaching tool for either the specific student or the class in order to foster tolerance in the classroom. Families are also valuable because they are the ones that enforce school policies like homework assignments attendance and standardized testing when a student is at home.

Ideally, it is simply an issue of treating student's families as if you want to be treated yourself. You are an adult and deserve respect tolerance and privacy and so are they. When parents express a desire for something to be done in a specific way (e.g. a child's diet or medical care) than do the best you can to implement changes. Common courtesy communication and respect are central to how a student's family should be treated. While this seems simply on paper in a real life, teaching situation a teacher may be dealing with hostile angry or combative parents who are not interested in what you have to offer. This complicates this relatively simple ethical code because it is often difficult to decide how to respond in these cases.

There really is not a lot of room for ethical gray areas on how a teacher should treat a child's family. Respect, tolerance, communication, and courtesy are relatively black and white concepts. Either you are respectful or you are not. You communicate well or you do not. You are tolerant or you are not. The only variation is when one takes into account socio-cultural differences that change what a person perceives as respect tolerance communication or courtesy. Therefore, it can be concluded that my personal ethics code is focused on respect courtesy and treating families the way that I would like them to treat me.

References

American Association of Educators (AAE). Code of Ethics for Teachers.

Education as a Commodity. itchybrainscentral.com/example-essays/education-policy

Higgens, C. The Good Life of Teaching: An Ethics of Professional Practice. London UK : Wiley and Sons.

National Assocation of Gifted Children.. CEC - NAGC Initial Knowledge & Skill Standards for Gifted and Talented Education. Washington D.C.: NAGC.

National Education Association. Code of Ethics.

Ryan Kevin and Cooper James. Those who can: Teach. New York: Cengage Learning.

State of Georgia Department of Education. 505-6-02 Code of Ethics for Educators . Atlanta, GA: State of Georgia.

Strike Kevin and Soltis Jonathan.The Ethics of Teaching . New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Student Rights in Public Schools

Having examined the Supreme Court case Lau V. Nichols, this writer finds much has changed since the justices gave their final opinions. Research reveals much remains in need of changed as the student population has significantly grown and become more diverse since the 1974 case. Since Lau, the Supreme Court held in Plyler v. Doe that "states must educate children of undocumented immigrants" supporting its ruling as interpreted by the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment that is "to apply to anyone who lives in the U.S., regardless of citizenship" (OSPI para. 5).

Immigration arguments notwithstanding, the rights of children of illegal immigrants have a legal and moral right to a quality education. What this means is that a school or its respective district cannot attempt to mitigate or enforce immigration law by refusing to educate a child of an illegal immigrant as to do so would be to punish the child for social and legal circumstance beyond their control. Plyler asserts that public schools shall not: deny admission "during initial enrollment or at any other time on the basis of undocumented status", show preferential treatment as a means of determining residency, "engage in any practices to 'chill' the right of access to school", mandate that students or parents disclose or document immigration status, inquire in a manner "that may expose their undocumented status" and "require social security numbers from all students, as this may expose undocumented status" (para. 1).

In general education terms, while Lau added to the Bilingual Education Act, legislation surrounding education has changed significantly since Lau and even since the latest amendments to Lau in 1994 (Moran). For instance, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), passed in 2002, has significantly impacted bilingual education and changed the scope of the Bilingual Education Act (i.e. renaming the act the English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act) because of the emphasis the NCLB places on high-stakes testing (Menken). While the general concept of NCLB appears to be promising in that it works to ensure all students have equal access to a quality education and that students are actually graduating with the knowledge necessary to proceed and succeed in adult life, there are gaps that must be repaired. The testing processes are so dependent on federal funding where low and consistently low scores put districts at risk of losing funding that more emphasis is being placed on pasting state tests than on daily learning and retention processes. The students who suffer the most are low-income students, students with disabilities and non-English learners.

As this paper illustrates, attempts to improve the national education system have been made but there remains much in need to reform before non-English learners and other at-risk students will have full and equal access to a quality education. Sadly, however, many parents and educators may feel at a loss regarding what can and should be done to bridge the gap between what districts must do according to state and federal law and the true outcomes of applying laws such as NCLB. As such, based on the sources examined, Lau and subsequent laws are currently being upheld as non-English speaking or bilingual students are granted admission to public schools, but the law and the system fail these students when the application of a student's rights does not equate to a positive outcome that prepares the individual student for life after high school.

Works Cited

OSPI. "Immigrant Students' Rights to Attend Public Schools." Migrant and Bilingual Education, Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI).

Lauen, Douglas Lee, and S. Michael Gaddis. "Shining a light or fumbling in the dark? The effects of NCLB's subgroup-specific accountability on student achievement." Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 34.2: 185-208.

Menken, Kate. "No Child Left Behind and its effects on language policy." Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 29: 103-117.

Moran, Rachel F. "Undone by Law: The Uncertain Legacy of Lau v. Nichols." Berkeley La Raza Law Journal, 16: 1. Plyler v. Doe. Supreme Court case, 457 U.S. 202.

Libraries vs the Reading Comprehension

Traditional literacy refers to the ability of a person to read, write and comprehend written and spoken material. It also involves the ability to express one's self in the same manner. In social contexts, literacy refers to a level of communicative skills that is adequate to function well in society and make meaningful contribution to it. Literacy involves the ability to understand written and spoken materials and relate them to various contexts that allows them to respond accordingly and make informed choices based on the information given them (UNESCO). Basic literacy is taught in school but it is a continuous process that evolves and grows more complex and sophisticated as a person grows. The basic skills of reading, writing, and vocabulary is taught inside the classroom, but enhanced or amplified by real life experiences. Literacy is only valuable if it allows the individual to navigate properly in society and use the knowledge made possible by literacy for self-determination and lifelong learning.

At the heart of literacy is the ability to comprehend information and use it in ways that are meaningful to the individual on a personal level. It also involves the deliberate use of information that enhances the daily lives of a people. Therefore it might be said that literacy cannot exist in a vacuum; it always entails imagination and interaction with the information that people are constantly presented with on daily basis. Reading and the literacy involved in the process follows a cycle of sustained determination and discovery of meaning (Du). It is the ability to make value judgments and critical decisions based on the information that is made available to us. Naturally, the more information people are exposed to, the more they are able to weigh things properly because they are able to see and consider multiple perspectives. As such, reading is fundamental to literacy because literacy is the ability to make information meaningful and useful. In light of modern technology and on demand access to information, this paper seeks to understand the relevance of libraries in improving reading literacy in a generation that seems to be reading less and less.

THE DECLINE OF LITERARY READING

Reading is one, if not the most important driver of literacy. It involves the translation or coding of written words into meaningful sets of information that individuals can decode and make some appropriate answers for. Most of our need for literacy is defined by the world in which we live in and the requirements it sets to live in an acceptable and productive manner. The problem is that while we expect students to be more literate in this day and age, advances in technology have distracted a generation away from reading to surfing the net. Because of the speed with which information is displayed via computers and mobile devices, young people nowadays have less attention span and focus which is key to developing reading sensibilities. The promising news is that young people remain interested in reading even as they keep collections of both digital and print media (Du).

The overload of information platforms have resulted in less people pursuing literary reading on a regular and persistent basis. The signs are everywhere, newspapers are closing their businesses if not changing their model to digital formats due to decreasing readership and circulation, and just recently, Amazon confirmed that they are selling more digital books than they are of actual print, which indicates an integral shift in how we consume reading materials. Of course technology alone is not to blame, the decline has been happening many years before. In fact a study made by the National Endowment for the Arts in 2002 show that literary reading has been in in slow steady decline for more than 20 years since the publication was released.

THE ROLE OF THE LIBRARY IN ENHANCING LITERARY READING

How then can libraries help reinvigorate the love for reading? Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist proposed learning and literacy as a function of social needs, an idea that continues to frame most modern researches on learning and behaviour. For example, in the development of reading skills, learners are constantly making sense of the inputs that they get from the material in way that is meaningful to them (Moll, L). Similarly, Bandura's social learning theory argues that learning, and by extension, behaviour is driven by the individual's need to be accepted and acknowledged within his or her immediate social environment and that includes children of very young age. Through the need to socialize and constant practice of skills, patterns are created which in turn give rise to meaning. This meaning allows lifelong learners to be more conscious of their learning strategies and use them appropriately until it becomes automatic.

Vygotsky and Bandura focused on the connections and interactions between people and the context where shared experiences are allowed to take place. Tools, mostly language, are the main venue for this interaction. Vygotsky furthers that learning takes because the child's need to communicate and interact with the people around them. Similar to Piaget's ideas, Vygotsky also promotes a learning environment that engages maximum participation from the learners. Both of them believe that learners construct knowledge through intention and action; thus the education process becomes collaborative, where both teachers and students participate in reciprocal learning.

Given these fundamental facts, libraries can create programs that make reading a more social experience. Stories from literary classics are rich materials to jumpstart such programs. Aside from book reading sessions and panel discussions, libraries can actively engage the public by leveraging popular books such as Harry Potter and making actual comparisons of characters to other literature. Giant posters that prompt discussion and interest in other books are good tactics that can be taken. In fact there are many ways to execute these kinds of programs, but the underlying idea is to understand the nature of people and how to generate their interest and motivate them to read more - that is by connecting books and stories and characters to the more popular materials and creating social activities around them. Classic stories can be made relevant to the modern generation because there is universality in their emotions that every person can relate to. Holding contests and regular book road shows or book marks for the month will also generate interest to these titles. Libraries should redefine itself as not just a repository of books but as gatekeepers to a world of people and places and experiences that lie await for people ready to take on the adventure.

PROGRAMMING

Part of being educators as librarians are, is finding alternative means of engagement programs despite the constraints like budget and time. Librarians must be able to work around the limitations of the system and the realities of a modern world. In order to do this, libraries must become responsive to the needs of a generation of learners whose attentions are constantly being pulled every which way. Libraries should first be aware of their technological proficiency. Since they are integrating technology to make reading interesting, they should be able to effectively apply technology in the presentation of stories and teach students with necessary skills and knowledge such as in multimedia or hypermedia design. They should be competent in both the technical and the instructional domains such as good understanding of specific software operations, models for implementation strategies and even trouble-shooting. Professional development is also an important aspect of effective technology integration. We should have opportunities to examine instructional goals and make sure that reading is always an integral part of every educational activity.

LITERATURE

Libraries should be book agnostic, meaning they should also have stocks of popular books along with the classics. Often, these popular titles would open doors for discovering a love for reading, a love which once felt, can no longer be undone. It only takes one book for a person to become a lifelong reader and libraries should encourage more varieties in materials, in the same way that Amazon creates suggestions based on book choices.

COLLECTION DEVELOPMENT

The collection department plays a crucial role in championing the cause of reading. Instead of merely accepting books for returns, they should take on the role of curators, asking how readers liked the book and make suggestions based on those answers.

Conclusion

Libraries should take advantage of the latest in information technology in order to best engage the community and encourage readers within an atmosphere of fun and interesting activities. Libraries must take on an everyday journey of questioning, reviewing and analyzing the kind of reading environment that they set for their public. People have a universal affinity for stories, and as long as such affinity holds, libraries will always remain relevant. That being said, such institutions should never be complacent nor create an impression of academic snobs. It should not take much of an effort to libraries interesting and relevant to the times and in the process revive the art of literary reading.

References

Celano, D & Neuman, S.. The Role of Public Libraries in Children's Literacy Development. Pennsylvania Department of Education.

Du, Y.. Librarians' responses to "reading at risk": A Delphi study. Library & Information Science Research 31, 46-53. College of Information, Library Science, and Technologies, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA: custompapers.com.

Reading at Risk: A Survey of Literary Reading in America. Research Division Report #46. National Endowment for the Arts.

Moll, L 1990, Vygotsky and Education: Instructional Implications and Applications, Cambridge University Press.

United Educational Scientific and Cultural Education. UNESCO.. Information and communication technologies in teacher education: A planning guide. Texas: Paul Resta.

A Conceptual Introduction

The way in which young people interact with one another and their environment can be demonstrative of greater themes related to culture, human development and situational expectations. In order to gain a greater understanding about this complicated thematic, the researcher examined the natural behavior of teens during two hours in the cafeteria. During this time, detailed notes of what was occurring throughout the scene were taken. After the notes were taken and the information was processed, a thematic overview of how the events and actions of the students was generated to facilitate a greater understanding of what was observed. Thematically, the actions of the young people were divided into the following components: dietary habits, gender based interactions, reliance on technology and value systems. Though none of the students observed were specifically discussing these themes, the way in which they behaved and acted toward one another made a number of critical statements about these components. Based on the research findings, it can be stated that young people are attracted to food that has higher pleasure content value than nutritional value. In addition, it can be stated that the cultural expectations of gender influenced what the young people ate and how the two sexes behaved and interacted with each other. Beyond this, the young people demonstrated an extreme reliance on technology for communication. In terms of values, the people observed seems to place a high value on what people had, their level of physical attractiveness and the company in which they kept.

General Observations

Before greater thematic of the actions can be explored and put within their proper context, it is first necessary to articulated some of the more overt behaviors that were observed in a general sense. It is important to note that these observations are recognized by the researcher as being general, which means that are not applicable to all people that were observed, just the majority of them. First, the basic composition of the lunch demographic reflected self imposed segregation. For the most part, the students were first divided according to interests and economic backgrounds. The poorer students seemed to gravitate toward each other and the students who wore nicer clothes and that appeared more popular seemed to gravitate toward one another. Beyond this, students also group themselves according to interests. Those who liked sports tended to place themselves around other people who liked sports and those who liked computers and academia tended to gravitate toward other people who were playing computer games or reading during their meal. Within these groups, males and females generally also segregated themselves. The only obvious exception to this rule was when individuals were obviously couples or going through some type of teenage courting ritual. These situations were the exception and when they occurred, they usually encompassed a boy sitting next to a girl he liked at a table or section that was primarily comprised of girls. Rarely was a young girl found in a section that was comprised of all boys.

Beyond the demographic composition, it can also be stated that the conduct of the boys was louder and it included more horseplay than what was observed with the females. The boys were more prone to touch and hit one another and they were more prone to verbally make fun of each other and those who were different. This same outgoing nature was reflected in their eating, which was much more quantitative than the females eating. In general, the females were quieter and they seemed to use non verbal communication and giggling to transfer thoughts or emotions to one another. Their behavior was more internal and the boys demonstrated more external dynamics. As a result, when reprimands occurred, it was primarily directed at the boys and not at the females. While some reference to socioeconomic status was mentioned, race or cultural background did not seem to play a large role in where students sat or with whom they gravitated toward. Most students, however, could be seen checking their smartphones, laptops or related computer device at some point during the break. This occurred even when they were in the company of other students.

Thematic Analysis of Actions

DIETARY HABITS

While it was stated that the boys generally ate more than the girls, both demonstrated a propensity for liking junk food. Students seemed more attracted to sugary beverages and prepackaged types of food. This was consistent with both genders, however, females showed a slightly better aptitude for choosing more nourishing quality food sources. Virtually none of the males were seen not eating while as many as half of the females did not appear to be eating or were doing so discretely. This is likely due to popular cultural images of the skinny female. Beyond appearance, there is also the lack of connection between eating and being feminine. Whereas guys felt comfortable eating a lot, the females looked to be eating discretely. The nature of the gender differences and the food quality made it obvious on a cursory analysis that eating disorders and obesity could easily manifest in such a population. Even the females that were overweight, which indicates some degree of over indulgence, could not be observed eating a great deal during this time.

GENDER BASED INTERACTIONS

The culture of femininity and masculinity were both at work in the interactions of the student. As discussed previously, the boys showing interest in the girls were expected to go to them and not vice versa. It seemed liked an unspoken rule that girls did not approach guys for any purpose. In addition, the guys treated each other in a very abrasive and flippant manner. Sometimes their interactions could be interpreted as being cruel. Their verbal and physical attacks against one another, though in jest, could clearly cause psychological discomfort in other adolescents. None of the people being taunted asked the other to stop however. Had they done so, it is likely that they would have been labeled weak and the behavior would have continued even at a greater level. The masculine groups did not go out of their way to attack other groups with different interests, however, they did demonstrate behavior that was indifferent toward those groups. They interacted as if they were not there. The girls, in contrast, were displaying near completely passive habits and keeping in line with feminine expectations of society. It was clear during this time that the artifacts of patriarchal components was still present in the culture of young people.

RELIANCE ON TECHNOLOGY

Regardless of their proximity to other humans, the young people still were constantly checking their voice mails, emails and text messages and communicating with unknown individuals even while they were in their groups. It seemed at times they actually preferred this anonymous methods. On some occasions, it was estimated by the researcher that the students were texting people who were close by and carrying on conversations this way. This method seemed much more present in the female population than within the male population. All of the people, however, seemed to feel comfortable interacting with technology at the same time they were having their standard human interactions.

VALUE SYSTEMS

The behavior observed by the students demonstrated that having nice items, clothing and physical beauty was desirable. The females that looked the "prettiest" also got the most attention from males and females. In contrast, the most masculine and athletic males fostered the most attention and seemed to have the most control over people in leadership roles. In the feminine model, it was difficult to determine which girls were leading the group. In terms of the websites and media being read, the girls were more apt to be looking at fashion, reality television and celebrities than the boys. The boys were more prone to be watching sports videos or videos with comedic content. Even the non athletic boys were playing video games that had traditional masculine components of fighting, war and weapons.

Conclusions

Based on the observations of the researcher, it is clear that there are still patriarchal components present in young people's interaction that are silently influencing behavior based on masculine and feminine expectations of behavior. In addition, it is also clear that popular media is influencing the way in which young people interact. The people could be seem emulating dress, style and interactions like they saw on the videos they were watching or what they were reading during this time. This troubling paradigm demonstrates that much of the conventional wisdom regarding masculinity and femininity is decreasing the originality of self expression in young people by creating an abstract framework in which they feel they must adhere.

Academic Library and Information Science Review

I was struck by many historical details from the readings that pertained to the early development of libraries. The image of early medieval libraries, in which books were physically chained to shelves or lecterns, provided details that made me truly understand how libraries have developed from their early beginnings to their current status. The image of books chained to shelves is resonant with a sense of over-protectiveness about the books themselves - by contrast, the modern academic library is increasingly a place of open access to books. Library holdings in the present century are often not even physical books - e-books, microfiche, electronic holdings and digital-access journals have become the norm, and digital technology has served to "unlock" library-held media often without regard for the copyright controls relating to said holdings.

I strongly agreed with Rubin's view of LIS workers as educators first and foremost. I think that, because LIS professionals are not typically standing up in front of a classroom, there is a widespread perception that their work is not educational in nature. However, I personally feel that work in the LIS field is basically entirely educational in nature. Although LIS professionals may not be devising lesson plans or delivering lectures, they are often teaching library users how to use the library themselves. Further, LIS professionals commonly help individuals and groups perform specific academic research. To me, LIS professionals are teachers and helpers, not the protective gatekeepers of a library collection.

I disagreed with, or was uncertain about, Rubin's definition of "current" in terms of library and information science trends and development. Rubin (p.ix) acknowledges that, in the six years between publication of the first and third editions of the textbook, the field of LIS has developed rapidly and changed significantly. This is certainly true - digital media, state and institutional support for LIS professionals, and the physical landscape of libraries themselves have all changed drastically. In this context, Rubin's source texts were often outdated when used to buttress arguments about the current state of the LIS field (in 2010, the year the third edition of the book was published). I appreciate that contemporary data is often not aggregated and published immediately, but Rubin's reliance on statistics from 2004 through 2008 somewhat undermined his discussion of the current state of the LIS field, for me. By Rubin's own argument, the field in 2004 was different to that in 2010. Reliance on older data is largely unhelpful in discussing the current state of the field. However, of course, a discussion of clear trends and developments between 2004 and 2008 can be extrapolated to point at likely trends continuing into the current time and the future. However, I did not feel that Rubin's use of the data fit this way of examining past trends as informative for future predictions - he used the past data as direct evidence for his claims about the contemporary state of the LIS field.

Major questions arising from the readings, for me, centered on the study of the LIS field in the current time. As the text is intended as an introduction to the field - often as a required reading for new graduate students in LIS - the vagueness of many sections leads to a sense of uncertainty as to what LIS students will be, should be, or in fact are studying. Of course, this open approach to the field is exciting, as it means that the field is dynamic and open to individual interpretation and innovation. However, a student seeking clarity about careers in LIS may feel discouraged about the difficulty of defining the present field.

Reference:

Rubin, R.E. Foundations of Library and Information Science. New York: Neal Schuman Pub.

EBD Student Therapy and Education

Therapeutic education has emerged as a possible in-school intervention for children with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Children affected by EBD in traditional school setting may not be diagnosed properly, face a range of consequent barriers in the classroom, and ultimately fail to achieve their full academic or social potential due to a lack of support. Therapeutic education has become a subject of empirical research only recently, with an overall dearth of research regarding the use of therapeutic education to address EBD. A potential research question on this topic that could be addressed using human participants is as follows: To what extent does a therapeutic education intervention reduce instances of violent behavior for children with EBD?

Qualitative and quantitative approaches to the aforementioned research question could yield a wide spectrum of data, with qualitative approaches being inductive and quantitative approaches being deductive. A qualitative approach, for example, would be concerned with the experiences of the participants, asking how or why a phenomenon occurs rather than how much or how often a phenomenon occurs. In essence, quantitative approaches yield measurable, numerical data, in this instance potentially measuring the following variables related to the research question: statistical data regarding differences between pre-intervention violence and post-intervention violence; comparisons between EBD students not involved in an intervention, such as a control group of participants, and those involved in an intervention, such as the experimental group; number of emotional outbursts or instances of violent behavior among EBD children. Quantitative data might be garnered from survey, while, in contrast, qualitative data might address the experiences of the students through interviews, observations, or via a case study approach. Qualitative data might address the following variables: student perceptions of why they engage in violent behavior; student or teacher perceptions of weaknesses related to the therapeutic intervention; parental concerns regarding therapeutic education; case study of a single child participating in the intervention; best practices in therapeutic education as perceived by teachers, children, parents, and other stakeholders. In essence, qualitative research frames the researcher as the primary instrument of the study, generally thought to be more subjective in nature than quantitative research.

Three articles related to the research topic of therapeutic education were assessed with particular attention afforded to their methodologies. Gagnon and Leone used quantitative methods to examine therapeutic education delivery for children with EBD. The authors surveyed 480 teachers and principals working in elementary level day-treatment or residential schools, with the authors concluding that the interventions were successful in allowing the students to enter less restrictive settings following completion of the program. Zhang employed a qualitative, systematic review of literature to explore shortages in therapeutic recreation specialists during recent years, highlighting that while there are more students in need of therapeutic recreation, there are fewer qualified specialists because part-time or partially certified specialists are employed in public schools. Finally, Nickerson and Martens used quantitative methods for exploring therapeutic education as a method for violence prevention among principals who completed the National Center for Education Statistics' School Survey. The authors concluded that therapeutic education was one of four other types of interventions which included crisis plans and security initiatives. Therapeutic education was associated with lower incidences of violence than the other measures, however. Questions emerging from critical examination of these studies include the strength of studies in relation to participant pools; for instance, the Gagnon and Leone study did not examine the perspectives of children but those who were not directly participating in the program.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Therapeutic education represents an emerging intervention for students with EBD, though very limited research exists with respect to how effective therapeutic education is in improving outcomes for EBD students. Quantitative research can examine several variables with respect to this topic, including data comparisons between a group of EBD students participating in a therapeutic education intervention as the experimental group and those not participating in the intervention as the control group. This brief inquiry explores a potential instrument that could be used to examine some of the research variables, though no instrument could be located that would quantitatively measure school violence incidences.

The test found that was frequently applied in EBD research with respect to therapeutic interventions was the NEPSY Battery; this test does not easily relate to the variables of school violence or therapeutic education, specifically, but does relate directly to EBD and special education. In revising the research question, it may be necessary to remove school violence from the research focus and instead examine the ability of therapeutic education to improve EBD issues in students. The participants could have a past history of school violence, but a quantitative instrument aside from a custom-designed survey does not seem to exist regarding school violence issues. EBD issues are, however, measurable via the NEPSY Battery.

Mattison, Hooper, and Carlson used the NEPSY to investigate neuropsychological deficits in EBD children, comparing outcomes to the Teacher's Report Form (TRF). The authors highlight that the NEPSY explores four functional domains, including language and attention functions, and should be used for intervention planning for teachers of EBD students: "Screening for neuropsychological deficits with a specific battery like NEPSY could prove valuable for intervention planning by EBD teachers for their students with serious academic dysfunction" (Mattison, Hooper, and Carlson, p. 177).

References

Mattison, R. E., Hooper, S. R., & Carlson, G. A.. Neuropsychological Characteristics ofSpecial Education Students with Serious Emotional/Behavioral Disorders. BehavioralDisorders, 31(2), 176-185.

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Gagnon, J. C., & Leone, P. E.. Elementary Day and Residential Schools for Children withEmotional and Behavioral Disorders: Characteristics of Educators and Students.Education & Treatment of Children, 29(1), 51-67.

Nickerson, A. B., & Martens, M. P.. School Violence: Associations with Control,Security/enforcement, Educational/therapeutic Approaches, and Demographic Factors.School Psychology Review, 37(2), 228-245.

Zhang, J.. The Shortage of School Recreation and Therapeutic Recreation Specialists inthe United States: A Correlational Study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,72(1).

Philosophy of Educationi

The goal of early childhood education is to ensure the access to academics that allows children to explore their potential and optimize their capabilities, whatever they are. The educational philosophy I have adopted toward early childhood education is one of educational progressivism informed by human development, and supported by scholarly practice. The knowledge and tools used in this paradigm include a strong reliance on pragmatic empiricism, often closely related to the widely known scientific method of inquiry. John Dewey was a proponent of this method of inquiry. To review this framework, one makes an observation about some problem or question, and then defines the concepts associated with the problem. Hypotheses are proposed to solve the problem. Past experience (existing evidence) helps inform the correct path of action to take, from which the most likely successful solution is tested, then the second likeliest, and so on.

Knowledge evolves in this fashion of observation, beginning at a very early age in the brain development of a child. The child engages in questioning, proposing hypotheses (what they think they see and how it works), and testing solutions (the child tests their own assumptions by engaging in creative play). Experience informs future action, which is what Dewey also espoused. Tools that have evolved along with the progressive trend in inquiry include a true scientific method involving widely accepted methods of research. The application of evidence-based practice in applying educational instructional strategies is harmonious with the underlying principles of educational progressivism.

Beliefs on How Young Students Learn and Develop

Students learn through first desire. Without a desire to know, there is no basis for learning. Trust, therefore, is of paramount importance in the student and teacher dyad. Trust must be built in the relationship, or the student will not explore to their best ability, any interest; moreover, the teacher will not be able to build interest in the student about a subject without having a trust relationship with the student. Therefore trust is first needed, then desire, and then the incorporation of material into the experiential referencing system of the student's inner psyche.

Dewey wrote that the experiences of the self are informed by previous experiences of the self. This can be interpreted in a holistic fashion; what has gone before in terms of learning, determines the 'how' of future learning practices. A positive early learning experience provides the foundation for the development of an engaged learner throughout a student's academic life. Also, the environmental experiences outside of the academic environment, such as home life and social life, shape the perceptions of the world that the student brings to the classroom. The teacher has to be able to identify students who are at risk of not engaging and determine how to build trust and a desire for learning and knowledge in the student's perception.

Therefore, the responsibility of providing early childhood education in terms of academics is the eduators; the role of providing a nurturing environment where the child can flourish and grow is the responsibility of the child's home care providers (parents, family, guardians). This can be a very difficult thing to accomplish, yet through understanding how students learn from an educational progressivism perspective and human development theory, the teacher has more tools to utilize in terms of pedagogical understanding in creating conducive learning environments.

Role of the Teacher

Dewey held that the role of the teacher was one that supported outcomes, which being the lifelong learning experience of the student even after they left school. Additionally, teachers were not there to lecture, they were there to develop thinking in the students mind so that they would ultimately benefit not only their own lives, but of larger society as well. "What nutrition and reproduction are to physiological life, education is to social life" (Dewey, Democracy and education: an introduction to the philosophy of education, p. 11). Therefore in keeping with Dewey's thought on the larger meaning of teaching to learning, and learning to benefit society, I believe the role of the teacher is with the ultimate end in mind of creating a life-long learner who gives back to society through sharing resources and skills gained from experience; experience is informed by knowledge. Knowledge is not a set of facts, it is a process. The role of the teacher is to facilitate this process by engaging the learning processes of the young child in terms of what we know about human development and how children cognize their world and experiences.

Creation of a Conducive Learning Environment - Example

Cremin, Burnard, and Craft discussed the theory of 'possibility thinking'. They examined how the pedagogical environment influences the young student's learning experiences, with specific focus on the idea of possibility thinking. Possibility thinking has creativity at its center, where it is utilized in the learning process by young students, as children interact with their environment. The teacher uses a pedagogical framework which influences the possibility thinking of the student. The researchers posited that teachers use a 'standing back' strategy with students, where they allowed the young students to explore during the learning process. The approaches of teachers that used creative play-based learning strategies supported possibility thinking in children. The primary point of this research finding is the perception of the teacher toward employing a pedagogical approach that supports creativity and learning exploration. The type of setting in which this could occur is reflective of that general framework, wherein children can engage their intrinsic possibility thinking various outdoor activities to build vestibular (and hence thinking) skills, and in indoor activities such as that deal more with the discipline subject matter.

Montessori educational theory would support the theory of possibility thinking. Therefore, the type of environment that I would provide, regardless of the age of the student, would be one that allows for a highly conceptual approach to learning by the student. This would entail a stripping of the typical ideas that are associated with a structured classroom, such as rows of desks, industrial colored walls, poor lighting, and institutional feel. This is the type of classroom I would structure in terms of teaching style and 'freedom with limit' idea borrowed from Montessori, informed by progressivist educational thought.

References

Cremin, T., Burnard, P., & Craft, A.. Pedagogy and possibility thinking in the early years. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 108-119.
Dewey, J.. How We Think. Boston: D.C. Heath and Company Publishers.
Dewey, J.. Democracy and education: an introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: Macmillan Company.

Research in Academia

The late 60s were a watershed for academia and research based practices, as new technologies emerged to restructure the painstaking process of collecting, analyzing and managing research data. In spite of initial resistance from faculty, research students began using rudimentary software such as Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) to undertake sophisticated quantitative analysis. Technological research tools not only alleviated the cumbersome processes of analysis and interpretation, they also lowered the inherent potential for human era. Today, a large majority of higher education institutions have embraced computer assisted qualitative and quantitative analysis for research purposes in different fields including sciences, law, medicine and social studies.

The use of cloud computing has particularly eased the process of data collection and analysis. Only recently, prior to the extensive use of software in academic research circles, undertaking research was a costly and lengthy affair involving questionnaires and surveys. Inevitably, the data collected from the participating subjects was not always accurate and would in effect result in gaps in the analysis of this data. In the absence of assistive technology, experimental research was equally a complex procedure that would require academics and their assistants to manually tabulate and compare numerous scenarios to establish the co-relation between the variable under study.

Perhaps the use of tape recorders in ethnographic studies laid the foundation assistive technology in conducting academic research. Tape recording as opposed to direct note taking was certainly a much easier method of recording and storing data. In a sense, first hand recording allowed the researcher to collect, record and store data without infiltrating the ensuing data with preconceived prejudices, as would be the case when making handwritten notes from observation and interviews.

In the 21st century, the introduction and adoption of computer assisted data analysis software continues to help researches in various steps of the analytic process. Assistive technology aids in the proper management of otherwise complex and cumbersome data that includes notes, numerical codes and text. Indeed, the validity of any research outcome is largely dependent on the careful and consistent management of data. Some technologies assist in generating reports and searching for key terms, while others compile codes and text for conclusive data interpretation.

Lewins and Silver explain that modern software programs undertake more complex functions beyond just searching for keywords and report-generation. Researchers are now using available software programs to assess co-relations between variables in the data collected in an effort to build scientific theory or models. Of course, computer programs alone cannot construct models or theoretical basis in a research project, but these software help researchers to easily study data and thus test hypothesis and generate possible theories. Such programs also support collaborative working amongst researchers, and the development of multimedia data that makes research findings more vivid and tangible for the researcher (p.14).

High definition photography and video technology have surprisingly been incorporated into the academic research process. Researchers are avidly using video and photography technologies for data collection and analysis. It is worthwhile mentioning that the widespread use of internet technology has also changed the methods and settings within which those in academia conduct research. For example, Mendeley, a free and popular social networking platform and reference site for academic researchers lets users find relevant academic papers and read them while on the move, generate bibliographies and collaborate with other researchers.

Lewins and Silver contends that Nvivo8 is equally reliable and versatile computer assisted qualitative analysis software used across many institutions of higher learning. This software allows users to undertake comprehensive data analysis, determine interrelations between different data sets, and establish potential theories through visualization tools. Nvivo8 also supports collaboration through its inbuilt social media network, which integrates YouTube video streaming and photographic technology. This software's interface is modelled on the Microsoft Outlook platform, with the workspace displaying various aspects of the project on a single interface for ease of use. Nvivo8 supports different data formats including multimedia, text, and code, graphic and audio files (23).

ATLAS.ti is powerful qualitative analysis software that enables researchers to store and effectively manage large amounts of data. ATLAS.ti is efficient at enabling the grouping of codes without the need to change the overall scheme of the program. Users are also able to assess the imminent relationship between identifiable variables, and to recover data via transitive relations embodied in the data. Through ATLAS.ti dynamic multimedia platform, researchers can easily link their multimedia quotations to text files, annotate multimedia data, and create multimedia data in different forms including video, images and audio from text-based documents.

Finally, Hyper Research is a valuable academic research tool especially for data collection, analysis and theory building in fields such as law, medicine, social sciences, marketing and political theory. This research technological tool allows for generation and analysis of transcripts in law, multimedia analysis of clinical data, which can be used to make diagnoses, analysis of themes in political discourse and assessment of multimedia data resulting from group interviews and surveys in social studies. As discussed earlier, modern computer assisted analysis software aids the researcher in theory formulation. As a reliable code and retrieve research program, Hyper Research features a theory builder that can categorize related data for testing of hypothesis and formulation of theory ideas (Schutt,p.350).

Tesch argues that although the use of technology in various fields of academia is a laudable milestone in advancing research findings and innovations, there is still much debate about the efficacy of cloud computing software in theory building. Some argues that programs that depend on code and retrieve mechanisms to establish theory models could be biased against other existing and potential theoretical interpretations. However, software developers continue to create advanced programs that are less skewed toward a single analytical methodology, to allow for valid data interpretation and outcomes (p.113-123).

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF INSTRUCTORS' PERFORMANCE IN LINCOLN COMMUNITY COLLEGE

As part of a review of the instructional staff at Lincoln Community College, 70 students undertaking different courses took part in a survey to evaluate the performance of 3 instructors, teaching different courses. The research data is quantified into qualitative and quantitative variables, all of which are applied to assess the overall performance of the surveyed instructors.

The qualitative material compiled and analyzed in the survey comprises of the number of course sections taught in the current term; the number of students enrolled in the first week of the term; the number of students who withdrew from the course; the grade spread as awarded by the instructor; the number of students who filled out the survey ; and the grading scale for instructor's performance ranging from 1-5, with 5 being the highest rating and 1 being the lowest. On the other end of the spectrum is the qualitative data collected which includes students' feedback embodied in the comments they provided concerning the instructor and their overall thoughts about the course.

A quantitative analysis of the available data indicates that Instructor A who initially had 45 students and teaches basic mathematics, faced the highest number of withdrawals, 12, during the course, compared to Instructor B and C. Instructor B, who teaches Computer Basics 101 had up to 120 students enrol in his course but faced the lowest number of withdrawals at 6, while Instructor C who teaches English Literature had the least number of enrolments at 38 students faced an equally low withdrawal rate of 8 students, compared to the overall class size. Even then, Instructor B had the lowest average grade rating of 2.46 out of 5, after surveying the 47 students. Instructor C performed the best, with an average rating of 3.44 out of 5, with Instructor A coming in second with an average rating of 3.34.

A look at the grading scale matrices used to rank instructors' performance indicates that Instructor C recorded the best performance across all indices. The instructor scored 4.7 out of 5 for the evaluation question "teacher knows material" compared to the 4.3 and 2.8 for Instructor A and B respectively. For the evaluation question "teacher helped me understand the material," Instructor C scored 3.5, while A followed closely with a 3.1 score and B with 2.8. Interestingly, Instructor B scored a higher average for the evaluation question "the course materials were helpful" at a score of 3.0, while A and C scored 2.8 and 1.8. This could be an indication of Instructor B's lack of proficiency in classroom-based instructional processes and a demonstration of advanced skills in preparation of relevant course materials.

The grading spread is an indication of the number of students who scored grade A,B,C,D,or F following the end term assessment. There were more students with a grade A, totalling 27, in the English Literature class compared to the Basic Mathematics and Computer 101 course, where were only 5 and 18 students scored grade A respectively. From a qualitative point of view, when these findings are compared to student's grading of their instructors in the evaluation questions, "teacher knows material," and "teacher helped me understand the material," there is a pertinent relationship between the grade spread and the students' perception of their instructor. Instructor C recorded the highest score in both these evaluation questions and had the highest number of students scoring grade A compared to Instructor A and B.

Students' comments and the subsequent grading of the instructors are indicative of the effect of the classroom relationship between students and instructors.

Rotenberg contends that in general, where students perceive that the instructor is involved in helping them understand course material, the students feel that the course was generally successful. The qualitative data indicates that out of the three instructors surveyed, those who allocated more time for assignments performed better than those who were perceived to allocate a limited amount of time for assignments. In particular, Instructor A and C both scored an average of 3.5 marks for the evaluation question, "The time allotted for each assignment was sufficient" while Instructor B scored 1.8. These results could further be an indication of the value the students place on instructor-student class relationships. Students could view shorter assignment durations allocated by the instructor as unrealistic and stressful, leading to the perception that the instructor is unyielding, difficult to relate with and demanding, which can result to antagonistic classroom relations between the instructor and students.

Overall, instructor involvement in simplifying and explaining course material is a determining factor in how students grade their instructors. Given that all three courses were basic introductory courses, students expect instructors to indulge in simple and in-depth explanation of course material instead of assuming that each student already understands the fundamentals at the start of the course. Such a pedagogical approach requires that instructors demonstrate a thorough understanding of course material as well as advanced skills in preparing and presenting course material.

In conclusion, while the qualitative and quantitative data collected from this survey provides a general model for assessing instructors' performance, a significant amount of contextual data is lacking. Importantly, the survey should assess instructors' specific teaching strategies to determine whether the pedagogical methods used are indeed effective or appropriate for the course. The survey would also be positively furthered by the collection of data that shows students' attitudes toward the course and how these affect their performance and as a result, their grading of the instructors.

Rotenberg indicates that such data may answer pertinent questions such as whether students' perception of mathematics and computer science as being difficult subjects could have resulted in their assessment of their instructors as being less conversant with the topic and less helpful in assisting the students understand course material. Attitude research can help to not only evaluate the instructors' efficacy in simplifying the subject matter, but also to assess the student's pre-conceived notions about exact sciences and subsequently, their attitudes toward the instructors who deliver these courses.

References

Lewins, A., & Silver, C.. Using qualitative software: A step-by-step guide. London: SAGE.

Rotenberg, R. L.. The art & craft of college teaching: A guide for new professors & graduate students. Walnut Creek, Calif: Left Coast Press.

Schutt, R. K.. Investigating the social world: The process and practice of research. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Pine Forge Press.

Tesch, R.. Qualitative research: Analysis types and software tools. New York: Falmer Press.

The Birth Order - Book Review

Dr. Kevin Leman's The Birth Order Book: Why You Are the Way You Are caused a bit of a pop cultural sensation when it was first published, and is still relevant in the updated edition published in 2009. The book's premise is that the order in which you and any siblings you might have were born has a lot to do with your personalities, in both positive and negative ways. According to Dr. Leman, birth order can influence what type of person you are, your strengths and weaknesses, the kind of people with whom you are compatible for marriage, and the sort of profession you might choose or be well-suited for. Birth order, according to this book, can also help you overcome your personality if there are negative traits.

In terms of genre, this book is a mix between a scientific study and self-help. Clearly, the author, who is a psychologist according to his biography in the book, has a scientific background and has a lot of experience to draw on, both from his medical practice and in his own life (especially since he has five children himself.) The book definitely has good scientific underpinnings. However, it is certainly not a rigorous scientific study, since it lacks some basic scientific ideas. The information contained within the text is not the result of one scientific study or even of multiple studies, at least not ones that are well-described within the book. Instead, it is a collection of anecdotes, statistics, and good ideas from the author. The scientific community would not necessarily accept this book as a standard source to be used for scholarly research: this is more of a pop psychology book, meaning it is meant to be accessible to a casual reader. Someone who is not a scientist can definitely enjoy this book, and it is entertaining looking for one's own personality traits and trying to see if they are related to birth order via the book's stories and examples.

One thing noticeable about the book is that, while it is not an overtly religious text, it definitely has some overtones of religion and references to Judeo-Christian concepts, with Christianity seeming to be a particular focus. This did not impact the experience of reading the book negatively, however. In fact, I found it to be interesting in the sense that it was clear that this was a part of the author's life that had a lot to do with his personal worldview. It did not detract from the book at all for me, although since I am not an observant Christian it was not a reason on its own to give the book my recommendation, either.

From a more academic perspective, birth order has been a field of psychological study for many years, going back at least seventy years, as seen in Haldane, Cedric, & Smith . Like many scientific disciplines, the study of birth order has gone through phases in which it is studied a lot, and phases in which it is not a focus of scientific inquiry. Through the years, birth order has been said to correlate to and with everything from income earning potential to intelligence. Rodgers et al synthesized a lot of the previous literature in an attempt to make sense of the conflicting data that existed on whether or not birth order had a relationship with intelligence. By examining data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth, they found that while parents with less intelligence (measured by I.Q.) tend to have large families, large families do not necessarily make low-I.Q. children. That is, being lower in the birth order is not a negative predictor for intelligence. On the other hand, Sulloway, agrees with many of Dr. Leman's contentions regarding artistic children and where they might typically fall in the birth order.

Reading this type of study along with Dr. Kevin Leman's book provides some perspective that I believe is much needed on the issue of birth order. Birth order may have something to do with how parents treat a child and perhaps even with the inner workings of a child's mind, but it is definitely a case of nurture, in my opinion, rather than nature. That is, I do not necessarily agree with Dr. Leman that there are inherent characteristics for people at different places in birth order. While he presents a lot of stories that fit his ideas, they are clearly carefully selected, and the stories of thousands of individuals do not likely match up with Dr. Lehman's ideas nearly as well. Yet, these stories are not mentioned. As a result, the book makes a strong and convincing argument at first glance, but when looking beneath the surface, more questions seem to arise.

According to Dr. Lehman, as an only child, I am supposed to be responsible to the point that I might even be too much so, and also am supposed to be quite a perfectionist. While I am certainly a perfectionist, I believe that this is due more to being from a family of people with very high standards, who always encouraged me to have extremely high standards for myself is well. If my parents had happened to have more children, the other children would be equally likely to be perfectionists, since all the siblings would have the same high standards applied by our parents. Therefore, while I see at least one instance in which Dr. Lehman's theories are borne out in my own life, I do not think that they are necessarily sound science, since he does not do a very good job establishing the causal relationship between behavior and birth order. He has a lot of anecdotal evidence, but that is all.

Ultimately, while I enjoyed this book, I found it a bit frustrating. This may be because I am somewhat scientifically minded. Dr. Leman seems to think that as an only child, I should be a natural leader, but I often choose to take a back seat to others to be sure that work is done thoroughly and correctly even if that means I do not get a lot of credit. Too often, in the course of reading this book, I found myself noticing a prediction about my own personality or future, or that of one of my friends, and realizing that there was not enough scientific evidence cited to back it up. It is clear that there is scientific evidence out there on birth order, and those looking for an academic study of the subject are more likely to find what they are looking for elsewhere. However, for an entertaining book with some interesting nuggets of knowledge about something that affects the lives of every individual, The Birth Order Book is a wonderful choice of reading material.

References

Haldane, J., Cedric, F., & Smith, A.. A simple exact test for birth-order effect. Annals of Eugenics, 14(1), 117-124.

Rodgers, J. L., Cleveland, H. H., Oord, E. v., & Rowe, D. C. Resolving the debate over birth order, family size, and intelligence. American Psychologist, 55(6), 599-612.

Sulloway, F. J.. Born to rebel: Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. New York: Vintage Books.

International Education Abroad

The intercultural advantages of studying abroad are often assumed. However, as explained in Chapter 2, "The Challenge of Learning across Difference: Employing the Elephant and the Blind Man," such advantages cannot be assumed. International education does offer the participating students to observe a new culture and interact with individuals of differing cultural backgrounds. However, these interactions are filled with potential problems and a seemingly good effort to learn about another culture can backfire, creating resentment on both sides.

For example, the author focuses upon the tendency of individuals to focus upon perceiving the world through the limited lens of their cultural understanding. It is natural for each of us to assume that our way is the correct way to view and understand the world, particularly when we spend most of our lives surrounded by individuals who believe the same thing. However, as the parable of the elephant and the blind man shows, individual position and perspective can radically influence perception, causing different persons to see the objective world very differently.

Certainly, international education would appear to offer a solution to the existence of divergent perspectives. By moving to a new location and learning a new culture, one can gain a better understanding of how members of that culture view the world. However, it is important to remember that immersion in a new culture creates a distance between the traveler and his or her own culture. As a student in Canada, I've felt this distance personally. To fit in, one has to learn the language, adopt similar interests to those living locally and try to blend in through personal dress. The failure to at least in some ways emulate the behaviors and appearance of the local students can lead the international student to feel ostracized. Feeling isolated and alone, that student is likely to form negative opinions about the new culture and to subsequently project an image that helps to create a negative view in the minds of the locals. If this occurs, then the supposed intercultural benefits of international education do not surface and intercultural relations may actually be harmed.

The author also raises an interesting point about the widespread nature of the English language. Certainly, English is the "current global language or language of commerce" (Tarc, p. 28). The diffusion of English around the world does aid in intercultural communication. However, it can also create problems, such as the perception of English as somehow superior, a perspective that can then be expanded to include English-speaking cultures or Western culture in general.

Ultimately, I still believe that international education offers many important benefits by introducing students to a new people and culture. However, as this chapter demonstrates, one should not be naive about the potential challenges that are likely to arise during any educational exchange. Any educator involved in international education must be prepared to address the mental, structural, linguistic and existential barriers of learning across cultural boundaries. In addition, any student considering an international education program should engage in a careful self-assessment to set expectations and prepare for likely challenges.

References

Tarc, P. International education in global times: Engaging the pedagogic. New York: Peter Lang.

College Credit Classes and Education Online

Different people from varying walks of life and ages seek to achieve academic progress by earning college credits. Consequently, colleges and universities in the United States, Canada and other industrialized nations use prior learning assessments (PLA) in order to assess learning that students had acquired outside of the classroom. Simply, PLAs are conducted for the purpose of assigning academic credit, and many individuals welcome this opportunity since this enables them to accelerate a degree or certificate in a cost-effective manner. The different ways through which individuals have obtained college-level learning outside of traditional classrooms are through corporate or military training, work experience, civic activity, or independent study. There are also certain advanced high school students who strive to earn college credits before they could enroll in colleges or universities.

Indeed, for some time now, the granting of credits for prior learning has been practiced in the United States. For instance, the American Council on Education's Credit Recommendation Service (CREDIT), the largest national program making credit recommendations for workplace and other training, has been providing college credits for prior learning since 1974. A number of colleges that specialize in the practice, including, Excelsior and Empire State in New York, Thomas Edison in New Jersey, and Charter Oak in Connecticut, have been operating since the early 1970s.

In today's technologically advanced society, PLAs have been considered as important pathways that may be integrated in open courseware and open learning, as well as into existing frameworks of accreditation and assessment. Thus, obtaining a college degree has become more affordable and accessible to increasing numbers of people. It must be emphasized that there are two fundamental truths about people seeking college credits. First, not all students start and finish at the same college; and second, significant learning can occur outside of the traditional classroom. A relatively recent development in the earning of college credits is for individuals to enroll in online colleges and universities.

Research Problem

However, not much is known about the benefits that students seeking college credits derive from online education. Numerous studies have been conducted on students seeking college credits and individuals seeking education through online platforms, but there seems to be a dearth of information about the benefits that students seeking college credits derive from online education, particularly those benefits pertaining to research. Against this backdrop, the proposed study seeks to fill this gap in literature by undertaking such a study.

Scope of the Problem

Specifically, the proposed study seeks to address these research questions:

1. What research-based benefits can students seeking college credits obtain from online education?

2. What are the possible barriers to the attainment of these benefits?

The scope of the study will cover only secondary research, through the use of databases such as EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SAGE and ERIC.

Significance of the Problem

The phenomenon the proposed study seeks to investigate is highly important. Only 15% of students who start their higher education at a community college complete their degree within three years. Moreover, only 57% of those who start at a four-year college complete their education within six years. Roughly 65% percent of postsecondary learning, in terms of spending, does not occur through colleges and universities but through workplace and other training, including, learning enabled by digital media and online platforms. In light of these, it is anticipated that the proposed study will provide insight to students who are seeking college credits through online education, education policymakers, administrators at colleges and universities, educators, libraries and curriculum designers.

Literature Search Criteria

Inclusion criteria that will be used for the study are (i) published in the English language; (ii) qualitative, quantitative or theoretical in approach; (iii) published in peer-reviewed journals; and (iv) focused on research-based advantages of online education for students taking college credits. Exclusion criteria for the study are (i) full-text article had not been translated to English; (ii) older than 2007 except for seminal works; and (iii) studies that involved unethical practices such as the use of human subjects for experimentation. Cross-referencing and searching from other peer-reviewed publications will be conducted in order to acquire more articles pertaining to the topic being investigated. However, cross-referenced articles will only be used to provide further information and support to the main studies.

References

Brigham, C., & Klein-Collins, R. Going Online to Make Learning Count.

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(1), 111-115.

Carnevale, A. P., Smith, N., & Strohl, J. Help wanted: Projections of jobs and education requirements through 2018. Georgetown Center on Education and the Workforce.

Kamenetz, A. The Transformation of Higher Education through Prior Learning Assessment. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 43(5), 7-13.

Rodriguez, C. MOOCs and the AI-Stanford Like Courses: Two Successful and Distinct Course Formats for Massive Open Online Courses. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 1-13.

A brief PESTLE analysis reveals the following about the macro-environment for this project:

- Political: Spain and the Russian Federation have strong existing political ties and a history of political cooperation. There are no political barriers to cooperation between the two countries, and economic and civil society cooperation between Russia and Spain could make learning Spanish potentially advantageous for Russian children.

- Economic: Unlike many regions of the world, the Russian economy is growing (though slowly). This bucks the trend of other high-income OECD countries. GDP growth is expected to be 3.9% in 2013, with attendant growth in personal income.

- Sociocultural: Gradually increasing personal income and freedom of movement have led to an increasing importance of travel in Russian culture, and Russians are now enthusiastic international travelers. This suggests a strong importance of second-language learning s well as travel.

- Technological: There are a growing number of online language training courses that could provide a substitute or compete with the program, such as the Ectacto program (designed for Android phones and tablets).

- Legal: Russian citizens do need a visa to visit the Schengen area, including Spain. These visas are good for up to six months. However, there have been suggestions that this policy could be relaxed and visa-free travel between the Russian Federation and the Schengen area could be eliminated by 2014. Thus, this may be a short-term issue.

- Environmental: The main environmental influence on the program may be the cost of travel, related to carbon offsets and the cost of airline tickets. However, this is a non-specific concern.

Market Analysis and Trends

Market analysis and trends have been considered across two views, including the Russian market for international language schools and the Spanish language school market generally. There are no official market reports regarding either of these markets (as this is a niche or specialty area of education), and as such secondary sources including news reports have been used.

According to a report in Language Travel Magazine the Spanish language school market plunged in 2009 due to lack of demand from sources around the world and economic struggle. However, 2010 represented a period of recovery and growth that increased enrollment, and 2011 was expected to be even stronger in this market. International markets including Brazil, the United States, and other European Union countries were strong, although markets like China were relatively weak because of the demand for visas. Russia was not mentioned as a major source of students to these schools, although of course this could potentially change over time.

As with Spain, outbound travel from Russia fell sharply in 2009 due to the economic crisis. Language Travel Magazine's (2010) survey indicated that the year involved a 12% loss in the number of students placed in outbound programs. This report also indicated that Spain was the chosen destination for 3% of Russian students placed through travel agencies. Summer vacation courses are the second-most popular choice. These programs are mostly chosen by secondary students. Overall indications suggest that language programs are closely connected with economic prosperity, and that Spanish language is a minor, but still noticeable, choice for Russian students.

Customer Analysis

The product being offered by the language school is a one or two-week language training and tourism course aimed at late-primary and secondary students (aged 9-17). The program will cost €725 for one week or €1,450 for two weeks, and further rates can be arranged for longer stays. The program fee includes accommodation, meals, language training, and outside activities, but does not include airfare or visa fees. Assistance will be provided in securing visas and group airfare rates will be negotiated from Moscow.

The program is intended first to appeal to families with at least one child, as the program is intended for children to travel unaccompanied. The academic and career-oriented nature of the language learning program is also clear, as 36% of Russian language travelers traveled for future work purposes and 24% for facilitating overseas studies (Language Travel Magazine, 2010). This indicates that the families interested in academic and job-oriented outcomes will be most interested in the program. A final concern is the socioeconomic status of the family. The average Russian monthly salary of 23,600 rubles (€588) means that the price of the program is very expensive for average earners. Thus, the target customer for this program will have above average earnings. It is estimated that this program will be most affordable for the highest 20% of earning families, which have an average of 47.13% of the earnings as of 2009 (which corresponds to a monthly income of €1390).

Market Segmentation

The target customer for this program (as determined above) is an academic or career-oriented family with one or more late-primary or secondary age children, and with an above-average income. In this section, market segmentation is performed in order to determine how large this market is likely to be.

The overall number of families with children is relatively low, owing to a sudden demographic shift in the 1990s that left Russia with a current total fertility rate (the average number of children that a woman gives birth to) at 1.54. This suggests that approximately 15% of the population is under age 15. Furthermore, approximately 20% of women do not have children. Because the program will also be limited to Moscow (due to the relatively small size of the program), only around 8% of these families will actually be reached.

In terms of educational focus, families with strong tertiary participation are likely to respond most to the program. This is quite high, with tertiary enrollment at 75.89% in Russia as of 2010. This suggests that interest in the program is likely to be strong, particularly for parents seeking an academic or international business oriented career path for their children. Overall, this suggests that many parents are likely to be interested in the program. The limiting factor is likely to be income. As previously indicated, monthly income in Russia is slightly less than a week of the language program.

Promotional Tools

The marketing and promotional budget for the program is fixed at no more than €5,000 for the initial program. Language Travel Magazine's survey of outbound Russian language travelers indicates that word of mouth (47%) and web sites (27%) are the most common recruiting methods used by agencies to generate business. This suggests that these two approaches are likely to be most effective in promoting the program itself. Word of mouth, a Web site, and distribution of brochures to secondary schools will be the main promotional tools used.

The selected promotional tools, including electronic word of mouth and a Web site, are primarily based in social media marketing, or using social media (such as Facebook and other interactive forms of marketing in an online environment) to distribute information and build excitement about a given program. Facebook will be a major outlet, both for providing information and enabling customers to distribute information easily. Approximately 5% of the Russian population uses Facebook, with the largest age group being in the 25-34 age range and the third-highest group in the 35-44 age range. This figure has grown by approximately 15% in the last six months. This suggests that Facebook will be a strong approach to providing information to parents of secondary students, particularly in the higher income levels that will be required to sustain a program over time. Facebook has an advantage in that using Facebook to provide information to users is free (requiring only time from an employee to maintain the site), though using pay-per-click advertising will cost. A Web site will provide supplementary information for the program, enable contact and signup, and provide all forms and other requirements needed for administration of the program. Brochures distributed to secondary schools will provide awareness of the program to teachers and headmasters helping students plan their educational paths. This three-pronged promotional plan will offer students, parents, and schools awareness of the program and encourage participation while still retaining low costs.

References

Ectacto. Spanish for Russian speakers.

Evans, D. Social media marketing: The next generation of business engagement. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.

Gusev, A. The relations between Russian Federation and Spain.

Hancox, N. Demanding Spain. Retrieved from Language Travel Magazine.

Hua, E. How to identify a Russian traveller.

Language Travel Magazine. Russia Challenged.

Polish Language Translations - Academic Research Resources. Web. polish-translations.com/articles/

RIA Novosti. Putin laments Russia's income gap.

Schengen Visa Services. Schengen Visas.

Social Bakers. Russia Facebook Statistics.

Vasilenkov, S. EU to abolish Schengen visas for Russia in 1.5 years?

World Bank. Data - Russian Federation.

World Bank Development Research Group. Russia - income distribution.

Commercialization of Academia

The study of the humanities is of absolute importance; it has greater importance than any means-to-an-end, such as software engineering, or law, or even medicine. The study of the humanities is in a separate category from any means to an end, because it is the human act of self-observation and self-reflection. The humanities represent human experience and accomplishment. But should the purpose of education be to encourage such reflection, or should it be something more practical? I think it will inevitably be practical, because colleges need to offer students a strong return on their investments. For educators who want to promote the humanities it will be necessary to integrate the study of humanities with the study of other, more practical topics.

College education is an expensive commodity. Menand was challenged to justify the return on an investment in college education, and this notion of education-as-investment suddenly seemed blasphemous or irreverent of the concept of higher education. It is not supposed to be viewed as an investment, but of course it must be viewed that way when students find themselves hundreds of thousands of dollars in debt with student loans. We can see a fascinating example of the way competitive capitalism leads to the degradation of humanity when we look at the way we are ignoring study of the humanities and focusing instead on subjects that make us more competitive in our professional fields.

In this increasingly competitive society, students and educators see a trend in which some subjects must be neglected in favor of those which can increase students' ability to get a job, have job security, and earn money. That means we are learning about business and Internet Technology and neglecting things like the humanities. It is natural and necessary for students to neglect subjects that do not help them make their resumes more competitive. In addition to the fact that employers may favor an applicant who studied IT over one who studied humanities, it is also true that the high cost of tuition forces students to choose more carefully when investing in classes. Everything is about cash.

This trend of higher education being approached as an investment rather than as an enlightenment experience is not consistent with the classical ideals of education as a way of transmitting culture and awakening the mind. It is also inconsistent with educational philosophies from theorists in more recent decades, such as Stanton, who thought educators could prepare students to be intelligent citizens by encouraging them to be involved with public service, use critical thinking, and participate in active learning. Compare what actually is happening to the education industry with what he envisioned, and you see that things cannot be so simple. Increased competition leaves people without enough time for the luxury of doing community service and using critical thinking. There is no profit in that.

Colleges cannot be expected to use Stanton's idealistic process for creating upright citizens, because they are alongside the students trying to keep up with the competition. As the price of tuition continues to increase, colleges need to become increasingly efficient in the way they market the product they sell. Research by Urciuloi shows that colleges cannot easily market their liberal arts programs because the benefits of studying liberal arts cannot easily be quantified as easily as studying other subjects.

Inspired educators should create curricula that integrate the study of humanities with the study of more practical, more appealing, and more monetarily 'valuable' subjects. It is not necessary for colleges to market their liberal arts/humanities programs more aggressively. The purpose of higher education should include both job preparation and culture preservation, so it is appropriate to incorporate the study of the humanities with the various curricula for specialized programs in business, computer science, hospitality, nursing, and so forth. We cannot say there is any single purpose of education, and it is not appropriate or necessary to choose one purpose that is most important. Instead we can acknowledge multiple purposes: teaching people to think, preserving culture, preparing them for their jobs, and so forth. Now it is easy to observe what is actually happening and find a way to integrate the humanities into every kind of curriculum.

References

Menand, L. Live and learn. The New Yorker.

Stanton, T.K. Liberals arts, experiential learning and public service: Necessary ingredients for socially responsible undergraduate education. Annual Conference of the National. ERIC Database.

Urciuloi, B. Excellence, leadership, skills, diversity: marketing liberal arts education. Language and Communication, 23(3-4), 385-408.

Example English Poem Research Paper

Before I began this class, my personal reading interests were mainly in the contemporary fiction, especially that of drama, thrillers and suspense. Some of my favorite authors included Dan Brown and Brad Thor. The action is intense and many times it is hard to guess what is going to happen next. While taking this class, I begin to find an appreciation for literature, which actually surprised me a little bit. I usually find much of the classic literature hard to understand and boring. However, there were a couple of stories that truly held my interest, especially those of "A Rose for Emily" and "The Yellow Wallpaper." Two poems also interested me as well and those were "Because I Could Not Stop for Death" and "I Heard a Fly Buzz."

My personal research interests for this project delved quite a bit into the psyche of the characters. For the character of Emily, I mostly focused on searches involving character analysis. She is on the surface a character who does not appear to be complex, only coddled. However, as I kept reading closer to the middle of the story I began to think that maybe I had prejudged her and she was much deeper than I had originally given her credit for. When she began to see Homer and eventually bought rat poison, I began to wonder if maybe there was some insanity behind the mask of always seeming propriety.

Emily always seemed to either be a recluse or on the cusp of society. She never seemed to be the kind of character we see in the end of the story. This made me want to delve more into the psychological aspect of her character and the possible reasons for her behavior. Once the end of the story came and I realized that she had been sleeping with the corpse of her lover, I knew then that the character of Emily was most likely clinically insane. I wanted to research the reasons why and delve further into this.

Was Emily jilted by Homer and, if so, was it the reason that she poisoned him? The narrator in this tale never really lets you know. It appears that she was jilted but I could only guess. One interesting item that I came across in my research was the theory that Emily had an Oedipus complex. "Emily Grierson was possessed by an unresolved Oedipal complex. Her libidinal desires for her father were transferred, after his death, to a male surrogate - Homer Brown (Scherting 3). This theory made quite a bit of sense when I really thought about it, because her father appeared to control everything in her life. He is the one who thought no one was good enough for her and the main reason that Emily never settled down or married as other younger girls during that time period usually did.

She sees her father in Homer and when, in my opinion, jilts her, Emily takes it upon herself to make sure that Homer can never leave her for anyone else. She kills him and then keeps his corpse to lay with each night. While this behavior would be extremely disturbing to most people, Emily appeared to believe that it was perfectly acceptable. She has already lost the only other man in her life and she could not bear to lose Homer, even if he was treating her poorly.

The more I began to think on it, the more I believe that Scherting had an excellent theory with his comment on the Oedipus complex. Emily was sheltered and coddled by her father for her entire life and when she lost him, she appeared to lose a piece of herself. I am of the belief that this is when her behavior began to deteriorate from that of an eccentric socialite into something more sinister.

In similarity to this story, "The Yellow Wallpaper" fascinated me because it dealt with a woman, also the narrator, who slowly slips into total insanity. While the story of Emily Grierson is told in a third person point of view, this one is told in first person. The first person point of view allowed me to see firsthand her descent into total madness. With the character of Emily, it was from another person looking in from a distance. Readers do not get to see the slow slip from being sentient into someone who no longer understands right from wrong or justifies their actions and behaviors due to their madness.

In this story, she is letting readers know exactly how far she is slipping based upon the things she is currently seeing. This is why I have chosen this particular short story. I enjoyed reading these two stories and seeing how two aristocratic women can go from being particularly normal to being considered clinically insane. Although, in this story, she appears to be normal in the beginning and it is only as we read further on that we realize how much she is declining.

For this story, I researched insanity and the Victorian period. Women during this period were mostly humored by the men they were married to. Their opinions were not respected and they mostly lived a life of gentility. One line in particular seems so stress her frustration with her life. "She is a perfect and enthusiastic housekeeper, and hopes for no better profession. I verily believe she thinks it is the writing which made me sick!" (Gilman 1). An analysis I was able to find states, "She is the imprisoned woman who is perfectly fine with her prison, even blaming the narrator's sickness on her untraditional thinking and writing" (Parrish 1). This is an extremely telling statement because really the women in this period were truly in a metaphorical prison because they can never do what they truly wish to do. It seems that the narrator is frustrated with her inability to do as she chooses and she begins to show frustration with her husband because of his patronizing treatment of her.

For the poetry section, I chose "Because I Could Not Stop for Death" and "I Heard a Fly Buzz," both works by Emily Dickinson. I chose these because I truly enjoy the work of this poet. Sometimes I find some of her work a little hard to understand, but I find that if I read it again I can usually begin to grasp what she is speaking of.

"Because I Could Not Stop for Death" revolves around her imminent death. She is calmly accepting it and as she rides with Death, she begins to see flashes of her life pass her by. Death is imminent for everyone but most people are fearful of the end of their life. Most do not accept it as calmly as she does. Shaw writes, "By recalling specific stages of life on earth, the speaker not only settles her temporal past but also views these happenings from a higher awareness, both literally and figuratively" (Shaw 1). She is able to see her life from someone else's point of view and this is what I believe makes her accept it more fully. She has already lived it and sees only one side. By seeing it through another view, it appears to allow her to accept it more gracefully.

I also thought this poem related to the question everyone has about life after death. What is it that happens to people after they die? Are you able to take a ride and see snippets of your life in full color, courtesy of someone else? I thought this was an interesting question, although one not easily answered. I found an interesting analysis by Allen Tate. "This is the heart of the poem: she has presented a typical Christian theme in all its final irresolution, without making any final statement about it. There is no solution to the problem; there can be only a statement of it in the full context of intellect and feeling" (Tate 1). Tate appears to be saying that Dickinson has left the question of death unanswered because it is a question that no one actually knows the answer to.

I also enjoyed the poem, "I Heard a Fly Buzz When I Died." This one also is about death, although it appeared to be mostly about what happens to those you leave behind when you die. It recounts her final thoughts, what she is seeing and thinking about. It is most interesting because she is not really thinking deeply emotional thoughts, she is thinking of the most minute things when it is her time to go. Although it appears that the people she is leaving behind are only thinking of her, it seems as if they are dealing with her death the best way they know how to.

There was an interesting analysis of this poem posted on an academic website. It speaks of literal readers wondering how a dead woman is able to narrate her own poem and continues with, "Less literal readers may face appalling possibilities. If the dead woman can still speak, does this mean that dying is perpetual and continuous? Or is immortality a state of consciousness in an eternal present?" (Cuny 1). I had not thought of it that way, probably because I did not realize that the woman was dead while she was narrating the poem.

I enjoy her style of writing poetry because it is rich with symbolism and meaning, yet rich. It reminds me of Hemingway's work, because he was always so succinct in his word choices, yet he was still able to bring to life rich and entertaining stories. Although Emily Dickinson's tone is much darker than Hemingway's work, the writing style is reminiscent of the other.

Each of the stories and poems I picked out for this essay I really enjoyed for one reason or the other. I thought each of them was filled with rich meaning. In Faulkner's work, the writing seems to be slow and cumbersome, yet we can still see the slow decline of madness in the character of Emily Grierson. In "The Yellow Wallpaper," the narrator is very descriptive, almost overly so, and I was able to experience a writer, who was actually a writer, slipping slowly into madness and fixated on the wallpaper clinging to the walls. In, both of the Dickinson poem's there seems to be a preoccupation with death, either with accepting it or with being able to recount the smallest details during the final moments.

All of these works I thought would benefit from further research. I enjoyed being able to not only read these works but also having the opportunity to delve further into them and learn more about them, while also further understanding their symbolism and hidden meanings. I also enjoyed being able to differentiate the stories, while also comparing their similarities.

Works Cited

"A Literary Analysis of The Yellow Wallpaper | ParrishCo.." ParrishCo.com. N.p., n.d.

"Emily Dickinson." The City University of New York. N.p., n.d.

Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. "Gilman, The Yellow Wallpaper." College of Staten Island Library. N.p., n.d.

Scherting, Jack. "Emily Grierson's Oedipus Complex: Motif, Motive and Meaning In Faulkner's "A Rose for Emily"." Studies in Short Fiction 17: 397-405. Print.

Shaw, M.N.. "Dickinson's Because I Could Not Stop for Death." The Explicator 50.1 (1991): 20-21. Print.

Special Needs Students

The National Longitudinal Transitional Study 2 (NLTS-2) is a study that is designed to follow special needs students from the ages of 13-16 (beginning in 2000) through middle high and high school and into the transition into employment or higher education (NLTS-2, 2010). This study is intended to update the findings of the initial NLTS, a study that was conducted between 1987 and 1993. This study uses data collected in waves that are spaced some years apart, and collects data based on school records; standardized test scores; parent, teacher, and student interviews; and various other sources (NLTS). However, this study only produces large amounts of descriptive data, and as such further analysis is required in order to focus on specific areas of concern, such as success in transition into the workplace or vocational training.

The purpose of this research is to define a standard of success within the confines of the NLTS-2 study and identify, using this standard, to what degree students within the study sample have experienced successful transition between secondary education and further vocational training or professional employment. The research design will use quantitative analysis of the secondary data provided within the NLTS-2 Wave 4 data, the most recent data that has been released. This data reflects results of information collected in 2007-2008. The research will focus on defining success, and then analyzing results of a randomly selected subsample of the study respondents in terms of this success. This will include the use of inferential statistics (such as means difference tests focusing on independent variables such as type of special need or LD, gender, race, and other defined factors within the data set) as well as descriptive statistics.

The research questions that will be used within this study include:

1) How successful are the students within this study in terms of their transition to employment or further vocational training?

2) What differences are seen between groups in transitional success depending on demographic and needs-based factors, such as race, class, gender, type and degree of LD or special need, and other identified factors?

The second research question will be the hypothesis testing question. The research hypothesis can be stated:

H1: Differences in successful transition will be seen based on demographic and needs-based factors.

While the null hypothesis can be stated:

H0: There will be no differences in successful transition seen based on demographic and needs-based factors.

Data collection will rely on secondary data collection and selection of random subsamples from the NLTS-2 Wave 4 data sets. Construct validity is expected to be particularly difficult within this context, as there is no previously defined construct regarding the clear definition of success for a similar population. However, a working operationalization of success in transition will include entry to full-time work, part-time work and tertiary or vocational education, or tertiary or vocational education within one year of high school graduation.

This research method is considered to be appropriate because by using a random sample of a wide study, it will be possible to provide generalizable results. Additionally, because no identifiable human subjects will be used, this reduces the burden of anonymity upon the research and increases the usefulness of the data. Finally, the use of secondary research is justified because it provides a considerably wider view of the studied population than the researcher could gain in individual research. Reliability and validity will be protected by the quantitative research design, use of random sampling, and other approaches. The main limitation within this study is expected to be the issue of construct validity.

Bibliography

NLTS-2. Welcome to NLTS2.
Trochim, W. M., & Donnelly, J. P. The research methods knowledge base. Mason, OH: Thomson Custom Publishing.
Student Privacy. https://essayscam.org/forum/gt/student-privacy-writer-knows-school-goes-1237/

Instant Messaging and Texting: What do the Linguistics Say?

In recent years the use of short message service (SMS) and instant messages (IMs) have greatly increased as the technology that utilizes them (cell phones and personal computers) becomes ubiquitous throughout the world. In December 2008 alone, Americans sent over 110 billion text messages (Yen). The popular media is full of tales of horror insisting that students lose their ability to communicate with correct grammar and spelling once the texting demon has taken hold, but is this the truth? This paper investigates Texting and Internet Messaging and attempts to determine whether or not there is cause for concern from a linguistic standpoint. For the ease of reading during this paper, the word 'texting' will refer to any form of IMing or SMSing from this point on, unless otherwise specified in the text.

Is the Concept of Messaging or Texting New?

Most emphatically, the linguistic concepts that underlie messaging or texting are not new. The technology that allows us to send texts and SMS is recent, but the concept of sending short, abbreviated messages to express one's self in the shortest form possible has been around since mankind developed speech and communications. Today's texting, which is composed of a variety of linguistic forms, is an extension or advancement of forms that were developed many centuries ago. Today's texting has merely been adapted to modern technology. The use of the linguistic concepts behind texting, however, has been fairly consistent throughtout history.

John Sutherland, Lord Northcliffe Professor of Modern English Literature at University College, London, is quite negative on both the sociology and linguistics behind texting. Although he points out that "Human beings will use any medium to communicate and to make records. We can go back to the Incan "quipa" (mnemonic string knots), Sumerian clay pots, medieval tally sticks" (Sutherland, 18), he also states point blank that texting is "Snot-talk." Sutherland even likens texting to a "pig's ear." Crystal, however, disagrees, and suggests that texting is actually a new type of language which integrates various facets of linguistic strains from hieroglyphics and other mneumonics. Indeed, Crystal believes that one of the reasons that observers believe that texting is deviant, like a pig's ear, or Snot-talk is the general lack of punctuation in texting messages. He also believes that texting is not a foreign language; it is a new type of language. The linguistic basis of this new form of language, however, is not new.

Letters, Logograms, Rebuses. The idea of using letters, logograms, and rebuses in writing has existed for centuries. A logogram is a written symbol which represents a word but does not express its own pronunciation. Crystal uses the examples:

b4 - before
2day - today
xxx - kisses
zzzz - sleeping
^_ ^ - cute
*o* - surprised

The concept of using an actual symbol to represent its name was the basis of hieroglyphics. One example of the way that hieroglyphics resemble English, according to Crystal, is the use of the smile symbols:

:-) smile

:-( frown

Further, ancient Egyptian writing contained the rebus, or a message that utilized pictures to show the sounds of the words. Most school children have completed numerous rebus-type puzzles in their basic grades. Crystal utilizes the example of the bee:

Good. Be good.

Or this:

Be[bee]fore.

Da Vinci utilized rebuses, as did several other well known writers in history. Thus when modern texters say things like:

B good B4 U zzzz, or Bgud B4 U zzz

they are really following an old tradition. Taking this a step further, the use of initialisms has not only been "around" for centuries, but is ingrained in our personal and professional lives. We have ADHD. Our cousin works for NASA. We watched Hurricane Katrina on CNN. We respond NP (no problem) to the memo that asks us to work late. Our GF or BF (or g/f or b/f) (girl friend or boy friend or best friend) brings us dinner when we work late. It's time to LOL(laugh out loud) when someone tells a great joke, but sometimes they have to type that they are JK (joking) when we just didn't get that it was a joke, not a serious comment.

Going back in history a step further, we might respond to all our emails in the PM (post meridiem), and regret that the friend who had signed an IOU (I owe you) is now RIP (resting in peace). It scares us; it is time to see the MD (doctor) ASAP (as soon as possible) so the same thing does not happen to us. Though this is a fun paragraph, IMHO (in my humble opinion) it must stop b4 (before) I can go on to the next topic, that of other uses in history of texting.

Telegraph. The Phillips Code was established by congress in 1879, and renewed in 1907, and designed to provide a method of easily reporting information for press reports and for court reporting (Phillips). As the author of the code points out:

"The necessity for codes and coding be-came apparent with the earliest forms of signalling, as only very limited intelligence could be transmitted by the crude devices of those days. When the electric telegraph made possible the speedy transmission of alphabets and numerals, coding was still important to reduce line time and costs."

This definition essentially encompasses the reasons that texting became popular on cellphones: it originally reduced line time and costs. It is also important to remember that the Phillips Code was developed for use with Morse code. Thus, not only did the codes themselves represent information, but each 'code' was made up of Morse code! This makes the level of complexity of our current texting appear to be child's play.

The original Phillips Code indicated that the letter "B" could be used to signify the word 'be'; "C" signified 'see'; "R" signified 'are', and "U", 'you; there is a direct correlation with modern texting. One of the largest differences, however, is that the Phillips Code provided a definitive listing of texting shorthand, approved by Congress. In today's texting world, the dialect can vary considerably depending upon the demographic of the user.

Wire signals defined in the Phillips Code provided another, even more succinct way to communicate. If the sender sent at "2", he had important business. "12" asked if the receiver understood. A "13" in response meant that the receiver understood. "17" meant there was lightning on the sender's end. "88" sent love and kisses. "95" meant that the President was sending out a wire, and other traffic would stop.

Police and Rescue. Until 2005, police, fire, and rescue units, along with ham radio and citizen's band radio operators utilized a code called the 10 code, developed by the Illinois State Patrol in 1937 as a response to the need for quick and clear communication over lines that were sometimes garbled. Radio operators might ask "10-20?" as shorthand for "What's your location?". The use of the word "ten" before each code allowed the radio system time to come up to power after the microphone was keyed, and ensured that the listeners received the full message. Though the federal government recommended that 10-codes be dropped in 2005, many police jurisdictions still use them because it allows the broadcast of sensitive nature without divulging the information to the public at large. The Association of Public Safety Communications Officials International (APCO) still produces a list of recommended standardized 10-codes that can be utilized in emergency situations (Association of Public Safety Communications Officials International, 49). Although the 10-codes are a verbal code, they exist for the same reason that do text shortcuts: to facilitate communication over the airwaves in a quick, efficient, and cost saving manner. In this regard, and in the way they are organized, the codes are another example of text-type codes.

Summary. Shortened version of regular communications, delivered across a variety of medium, has existed nearly since man began to communicate. Texting is an example of this type of communication adapting to new technology.

Linguistic Analysis of Texting

There is little empirical analysis of linguistic forms of texting. Segerstad, however, suggests that texters accomplish short messages in text or SMS by omitting punctuation, utilizing unconventional forms of punctuation, leaving out spaces, spelling like the words are spoken, writing with only consonants, writing either in all capitals or all lower case letters, using short words rather than long ones, using emoticons, using symbols to replace words, using punctuation for emphasis, and using asterisks (Segerstad). This dovetails with Thurlow's description, which includes omitting letters, omitting punctuation, utilizing initialisms, using unconventional forms of spelling, and using stylized accents (Thurlow).

Other areas of linguistic concern in texting may include ambiguity, use versus mention, type versus token, and indexicality.

Ambiguity. There are four types of ambiguity that are especially pertinent to texting. Lexical ambiguity, semantic ambiguity, syntactic ambiguity, and grouping ambiguity can all make an important difference in how texting is texted, and how it is understood by the receiver.

- Lexical Ambiguity, or Vagueness. Lexical ambiguity can result when a word that is being used can be used in more than one sense. A burrito can be good (tasty). A child can be good (nice). A woman can be good (moral). A pastor can be good (exemplary). Each of the uses of the word 'good' in this paragraph provides a different interpretation of the word. Unless the receiver has some relation to or understanding of the material being presented, it may be difficult for him or her to glean the sender's true meaning.

- Semantic Ambiguity, or Equivocation. Semantic ambiguity can result when the word can have different meanings. If I were to text the instructor the line "Your class is bad", the meaning is unclear. Is the class acting bad? Is the class a bad (ie, ineffective or inadequate) educational experience? Is the class bad in the slang term, in which case it would really be good?

- Syntactic Ambiguity, or Amphiboly. In this form of ambiguity the sentence can mean different things bec ause of the way the text is presented. "The horse was tatooed on her back." Was the horse tatooed on the horse's backside, or did the woman have a horse tatooed on the woman's back? "She drew the drapes." Did she close the drapes, or did she take a pencil and paper and draw a set of drapes?

- Grouping Ambiguity, or Composition and Division. In this form of ambiguity, the meaning is not clear because of the way the items are grouped. "The Rottweilers eat more than the terriers." Do Rottweilers always eat more than terriers, or do they eat more this time because there are more Rottweilers than terriers? How about a teacher's classic line "My 302 section is doing better than you are." Is the whole section doing better than me personally? Or are they doing better than the entire class, including me?

Use versus Mention. In speaking and communicating, people talk about words. This can cause a great deal of confusion. Consider the orange orange. We eat the orange, and it is colored orange. If we are discussing the orange orange, we might also note that it contains six letters. Clearly the orange itself, the orange orange, does not hold six letters. The word orange does, however.

Type versus Token. The concept of type versus token can be difficult to understand. Consider the example below:

[The orange is orange.]

How many sentences are there in the box? Some readers will say one; some readers will say two. Both readers will be correct, after a fashion. One sentence is repeated twice, as is pointed out by those who count only one sentence. This is a type. Readers who say two sentences, however, are inferring that the sentence is a token, or a string of words. Since there are two strings of words, there are two sentences in this interpretation.

Indexicality. Indexicality is a sentence which can be true or false depending upon who is reading the sentence or upon the content of the sentence. The indexicality is determined by an indexical word. An indexical word's meaning is related to the context of the sentence. Here is an example one might see in a text message:

[Ur mother is a tramp.]

Most readers would immediately reject this sentence as being false; no one wants to believe their mother is a tramp. However, if a reader's mother really is a tramp, and goes out each night in high heels to make her salary as a streetwalker, this sentence will not only give the reader dis-ease, it will be true. Taking the analysis a step further, and adding in the concept of semantic ambiguity discussed earlier, there may well be no one in the room who believes their mother is a tramp. The other meaning of this sentence, after all, would be that one's mother is a true tramp, complete with Charlie Chaplin style makeup and a hobo's bag on a stick.

Discussion and Synthesis

How does all this talk of tramps relate to texting? The subject topic makes a fun, but enlightening, comparison come to life. Consider that the reader receives a text:

[Bring over 2 tramps.]

The reader has some choices to make.

HERE are two tramps.

Here are two more tramps.



And when the reader, the text receiver, finally thinks they have the situation resolved, more choices present.

If this isn't enough to cause a dilemma, perhaps the sender meant to bring home two of the band the Saddle Tramps, or the Menstrual Tramps, the Cadillac Tramps, the Magic Tramps...

Crystal pointed out that texting is likely here to stay, but he also has pointed out that the language structure and linguistic structure of text messages is very similar to that of a bonafide language. The examples shown here, however outrageous, could also apply to a verbal conversation or a written letter or an email. The difficulty is with the language expression itself and the variability of the language, not of the mode of delivery (which is text). The difficulty is also not related to abbreviations and their use; the research showed that abbreviations of various kinds have been in common use for centuries.

Instead, text users do not have as much context on which to base their meaning decisions as do readers of books, novels, letters, and even emails. There are not as many 'clues' in the verbage, which is very short and limited to 168 characters at most. The net result is that the reader learns to study the few available clues for context and meaning, and to construct a likely meaning from what they know of the sender, the situation, and the text of the message. In short, they learn to analyze what they read, a short sentence at a time.

Crystal's contention is that this is a valuable skill, one which actually increase language understanding and develop reading and communications skills. I agree.

Works Cited

Association of Public Safety Communications Officials International (APCO). "10 Codes."

Crystal, D. Txtng: The Gr8 Db8. Oxford: Oxford Publishing.

Phillips, W. The Phillips code: A thoroughly tested method of shorthand arranged for telegraphic purposes. And contemplating the rapid transmissio of press reports; Also intended to be used as an easily acquired method for general newspaper and court reporting. New York: New York Telegraph and Telephone Age.

Segerstad, Y. af. "Use and adaptation of written language to the conditions of computer mediated communication." Unpublished PhD dissertation, Goteverge University. Goteberg University.

Sutherland, J. "Cn u txt?"

Thurlow, C. "Generation txt? The sociolinguistics of young peoples' text messaging." Discource Analysis Online.

Yen, H. "Popularity of texting edging out cell phone calls."

Teacher Interview 1: Darren Cline

Biography

Darren Cline is a rare male elementary school teacher. He is currently employed at Cayuga Heights Elementary School in Ithaca, New York, where he teaches the second grade. Darren holds a master's degree in elementary education and a certificate to teach Pre-K to Grade six in the state of New York. Darren has over twenty years experience as a teacher. He initially taught the first grade but he has taught the second grade for the past fifteen years.

Major Challenges

Parent Involvement

According to Darren, the single largest challenge he faces as an instructor is the low level of parental involvement. When asked to elaborate, he explained:

Many parents just don't care about education. They think that high school graduation is the end of the school and the beginning of adult life, which means getting a job and starting a family. We're located near Cornell, an Ivy League university, and they don't even consider college a possibility for their kids.

According to Darren, the lack of interest of local parents in their children's education undermines his ability to teach his students. Many students refuse to do their homework and don't try during class because their parents don't reinforce the need to learn.

Darren further described the division of his students into three groups. The first group is fortunate enough to have parents interested in their education. Many are the children of local teachers or college professors. Their parents are actively involved in the school, at conferences and in the PTA. The second group is composed of poor students. Many come from broken homes and have minimal parental supervision. Darren's attempts to contact these parents are often unsuccessful because the parents are busy working. The third group is mostly middle class students with parents who didn't attend college. Many own local small businesses. These parents can be contacted but are rarely interested in supporting Darren's efforts to teach their children because believe that their own personal success shows that their kids don't need an education to succeed.

Class Size

Class size is another challenge. Budget cuts over the last few years have progressively caused the class size to expand. Darren explained that his average class size was just above twenty when he started teaching. Now, his class is at the legal limit of 32 students. The room is crowded and physical resources are stretched thin.

Satisfaction as an Educator
Student Feedback

Despite the problems noted, Darren says he is happy to be a teacher. The primary reason behind his satisfaction is his students. He loves teaching younger students. While discipline problems do occur, Darren finds his students curious and creative. When parent involvement is low, he tries to serve as a role model to illustrate the benefits of pursuing excellence in education. At the end of the year, Darren is often greeted by appreciative hugs and gifts from students who thank him for his time and effort. The gratitude of a few students are enough to justify Darren's continued involvement in the profession.

Compensation and Schedule

With a smile, Darren admitted that he was initially drawn to teaching by the promise long vacations. He enjoys the freedom of summer vacations and other holidays. The regular schedule gives him time to unwind and deal with the stressors of teaching.

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Teacher Interview 2: Sara Baker

Biography

Sara Baker teaches the fifth grade at Harrison Avenue Elementary School in South Glens Falls, New York. Sara has worked as an elementary school teacher for eight years. She initially taught the sixth grade but she has taught the fifth grade for six of those eight years. She holds a Pre-K to Grade six certification for New York State and recently began her master's degree program.

Major Challenges

Student Discipline

Sara's primary problem is student discipline. She explained:

Students in fifth grade are at a rough age. They aren't quite teenagers yet but their hormones are starting to get active. They're starting to think about sex and starting to challenge boundaries. Some days, it can be really hard to keep everyone in line and focused.

Harrison Avenue Elementary School serves a rural community. Bullying is a serious and persistent problem. Minority and special needs students are often targeted for ridicule.

In addition, over the past few years, Sara has noticed a rise in cyberbullying. Most students bring cell phones to class. Sara has had students start crying in class because of a cruel email or text sent during her lectures. Sara is required to confiscate their phones if students use them to disrupt class. However, following school disciplinary policy has led to several angry confrontations with parents who believe that their children should be allowed to have their cell phones with them during class. Sara complains that parents don't ever think that their children are at fault.

Motivation

Sara confessed to struggling to stay motivated. She entered teaching with a strong positive attitude but in the interview, she acknowledged that she was naive when she entered teaching. Today, several factors contribute to her motivation problems. The first is money. For the work she completes and the hours put in, Sara feels unappreciated and undercompensated. In addition, the student disciplinary problems she noted previous constantly erodes her patience.

Accountability Standards

Sara's continued interest in teaching is also challenged by the standards of the No Child Left Behind Act. Being required to teach students the content of a particular test has made her class curriculum very narrow. She feels like her creativity as an instructor is being diminished because there are many subjects she'd love to introduce to her students but can't because they aren't part of the achievement test requirements.

Satisfaction as an Educator

Administrative Support

Sara complimented her principal and the other members of the school administration team. Professional development support, including tuition reimbursement, is readily available to Sara and the other instructors. Sara knows that she will receive the backing of the administration in student discipline issues.

Collaboration

In addition to the professional support gained from administration, Sara enjoys a very strong and supportive relationship with her fellow teachers. The fifth grade teachers often collaborate on lesson plans. They organize field trips and other activities together. Several other teachers share Sara's enthusiasm for new technologies in the classroom. Sara feels like she is part of a small but dedicated family of educators who want to see their students succeed.

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Personal Response

The interviews with these two teachers highlighted five serious challenges: parental involvement, class size, student discipline, teacher motivation and teacher accountability standards. These challenges are not surprising. The experience of Sara and Darren are shared by teachers around the country. The nation's economic problems have contributed to budgetary shortfalls, contributing to issues like increasing class size and decreased job satisfaction among instructors. In addition, the failure of enhanced teacher accountability to improve student achievement has helped to increase awareness of the importance of parent involvement. The professional success of teachers is influenced by the presence or absence of a home environment that values education.

While I recognize that the development of a solution to these two issues is not easy, I do not feel dissuaded from pursuing a career as a teacher. I remain committed to this career option for two reasons. First of all, I feel strongly motivated to help the neediest students realize the value of education. When Darren explained that the positive response of some of his students was enough to keep him motivated and satisfied, I understood and agreed immediately. If I can positively impact the life of even a few students every year, then my effort will be well spent.

In addition, I am very interested in education policy. I believe that many of the problems identified in the interviews are the result of poor public policy and the government's mismanagement of the public education system. As a teacher, I believe that I can generate positive change by acting as a policy advocate for educational reform. Therefore, while I can see that many different challenges are likely to arise during my work as a teacher, I believe that I can contribute to the development of effective solutions within my school.

In recent years, education studies have concentrated on how important support is for teachers entering the profession. Rather than focus on assessment, more attention has been given to providing teachers support during the early years of teaching. This support has come in the way of teacher induction programmes (Howe). In the UK, teacher induction programmes are a requirement for service during the first year of practice. Teachers must pass induction, or relinquish the right to teach. The purpose of induction programs is manifold. Teacher induction programmes offer beginning teachers much value within their profession. According to agents implementing programs, the benefits of such programmes include improved job satisfaction, reduced turnover, opportunities for increased professional development and the opportunity for educational facilities to attract superior professionals within their communities. Teacher induction programmes may also be equated with a probationary programme. It is an opportunity for early teachers to try their hand at teaching, and become acclimated to the field or profession. One may assume that many teachers enter the field with little experience, and on entering determine that teaching is more difficult than first expected. Thus teachers entering with induction have much more support than those without, and can expect to enter the profession armed with tools to succeed, rather than fail. The following analysis provides an overview of teacher induction, with emphasis on the UK, providing a review of the literature currently available on teacher induction. The researcher assumes that teacher induction programs are similar, and provide similar benefits regardless of the place of origin.

Background of Teaching Profession/Requirements

According to Lomax, historically within the profession of teaching, there are very high rates of attrition, particularly during the earliest years of teaching. Many factors may contribute to this, including lack of adequate support and preparation during the earliest years of entry into the profession. Teachers come from many diverse backgrounds. Some teachers enter the profession from another background or profession. The current demand for teachers is high; thus many incentives are offered to entice professionals into the profession. This is promising for those that would transfer to teaching from another profession or background. However, this does not guarantee that anyone entering the teaching profession will find success, or that teachers will find satisfaction once they begin a career in teaching. Many report that despite the need for teaching, teaching is in fact also a lower paying profession, which may result in greater dissatisfaction among teachers later in the course of career development. Among the reasons many cite for entering the profession include a personal interest in providing for the care and welfare of others, and an interest in a new line of work.

Given this it may benefit new teachers to learn of the demands placed on teachers during the first year of work, and in the future, especially related to continuing education, special events, extracurricular activities and continuing needs of the educational field. This is not to discourage teachers, but to provide new teachers with perspective related to their chosen profession. Realistic expectations may prove beneficial for teachers with high aspirations, particularly given many fields simply require a student have a degree, making them capable of beginning work in their chosen field immediately. This is not the case for teachers, who require ongoing education and support, along with continuing training throughout their career.

Induction programs can help teachers prepare for the demands of teaching. These programs prepare teachers for the rigors of the classroom, and for the demands of continuing education. During the induction period teachers, or NQTs, learn to balance the demands of the classroom, along with other demands that will come with time. These demands may include continuing education, meetings, extracurricular activities, developing lesson plans, and the ordinary stress of managing a new schedule. Induction also allows classroom administrators, mentors, and support staff evaluation a teacher's efficacy as a classroom mentor, teacher, and professional. While most people pass the induction period, there are some who do not manage the rigors of induction. Induction was not always something that was included as part of the teacher curriculum. Time has demonstrated however, that this additional planning and preparation has provided many teachers with the added support and understanding necessary to succeed in the classroom. Induction is very similar to the transition that students go through when they transition from high school to the workforce. Many high school students struggle to become acclimated to the demands of the real world. Jumping into real life is much different than mitigating and navigating the classroom. In the same way, navigating or teaching a classroom is much different from theory learned about teaching, or developing a curriculum. The practice of induction is a helpful transition, allowing a teachers an opportunity to apply what they have learned about teaching in a practice and supportive environment.

According to Howe, research among educational facilities carried out among programmes in Australia, Britain, France, Germany and related countries demonstrates that having "exemplary induction programmes" can improve teacher satisfaction and performance (249). However, what qualifies a programme as exceptional? An exceptional induction programme may be best described as one that provides first year teachers with support, collaborative opportunities, reflection and is one that helps teachers acclimate to their profession (Howe, 2006). According to Howe other features are highlighted among the best induction programmes; these include opportunities for extended internships, the opportunity to work with seasoned mentors and in-service training sessions with a focus on helping teachers succeed in the classroom during their first years as a teacher, rather than highlighting assessments.

The Basics of Induction

Most induction programmes follow basic features. By understanding the basic features of induction, one can better understand why induction is important, and how induction can better assist new teachers, and their students in the long-term. The basics of induction are similar regardless of whether one reviews induction programmes in the UK, in Scotland or in other parts of the country, with the exception being that in England the induction period is shorter than it is in some other regions of the world. The basic features of a British induction programme are as follows, according to the Department for Education in England:

- A personalised, independent programme allowing professional development and support.

- A personal assessment comparing achievement against the Teacher Standards.

- As an NQT, 10 per cent reduction on the allowable timetable for professional development of teaching ability, away from classroom time.

- 10 per cent planning, preparation and assessment (PPA) time.

- Support from an individual induction tutor.

- Reviews of progress and discussions post-term with tutor and head teacher.

These basic elements are common to each induction programme to ensure the success of the NQT. In addition to these common elements, it is vital to understand that some programs may be more successful than others in reducing teacher attrition rates, and helping teachers to acculturate to the teacher environment than others. What determines how successful an induction programme is? It is worthwhile to explore the literature in determining what quantifies a programme as superior in terms of induction success vs. induction failure. In the next section, superiority in induction training is reviewed and elaborated on.

Qualities of Superior Teacher Induction Programmes

Quality induction programmes appear to have many common features. According to Howe, these include opportunities for seasoned teachers to work alongside beginning teachers in a collaborative environment. Seasoned teachers carry with them years of expertise that include highs and low points of the classroom. There is no better education than that which comes from experience; by pairing experts with new teachers, the induction process allows teachers to share expectations, insights and the growth process. New teachers may then have an opportunity to join with other teachers at a future date, after they have gained experience several years later in their teaching careers, and give back to their community. While most basic elements of an induction programme require mentoring, it appears more critical that beginning teachers have an opportunity to work alongside experts in their field. This element of a successful programme may allow teachers the opportunity to model good habits and incorporate these habits into their own teaching repertoire.

A new teacher first entering the field would not have the skills or curriculum development plans needed to understand the expert skills an experienced teacher would. Thus, good induction programmes enabling beginning teachers the opportunity to work with seasoned teachers would allow just this opportunity. In addition, newer teachers have opportunities to gradually become acculturated to the teaching profession alongside experts in the field. This is of particular importance in regions of the world where a pool of quality teachers has been steadily declining; expert teachers have the potential to demonstrate expertise in subject area content knowledge, along with common knowledge in areas that include communication skills, solid ethics, and strong basic teaching skills. Beginning teachers that are not quite certain about their ability may have the opportunity to work with teachers that are established professionals that can identify weaknesses in teachers that are not yet capable of identifying their own. This partnership can prove highly successful in the field of academia.

Many successful teacher induction programmes also highlight the benefits of continuing education for teachers, which is vital for continuing success within the profession according to Howe (2006). Expert teachers regulate some teacher induction programme; this is the case in British Columbia, Ontario and other regions within Canada for example, according to Howe. Continuing education can come in many different forms. When working with expert teachers, a seasoned professional can identify areas where a new teacher may require ongoing education or added education. A new teacher may require further studies in content areas, or may require further education in the way of communication skills, or conflict negotiation. Working with experts in the field, it is much more feasible that a beginning teacher will have an opportunity to identify areas for continuing education successfully, and pursue these areas competently and with confidence. Expert teachers may also be familiar with areas of continuing education, having had to complete these areas of continuing education after having worked in the field for many years. Thus, working in collaboration with one another proves mutually beneficial for teachers, students, new teachers and administrative professionals on all aspects of the field of education.

The Significance of Acculturation

Teacher acculturation is often more important than many administrators give attention the subject. Teacher culture and familiarity with environment can sometimes make or break a teacher's success in the learning environment. Teachers often encounter difficulty during their first year or two of their field of expertise, much of which teachers can relate to the burden of understanding the learning environment. Establishing oneself as an expert in the field, and learning to adapt to the art of teaching and the art of communicating with one's peers can prove equally challenging. Collaborating with peers and gaining assistance with acculturation can prove invaluable during the induction process. This can help reduce rates of turnover and help teachers work longer and become more dedicated to the teaching profession, according to Howe (2006) and Britton (2004). Howe refers to this process as the "rite of passage" that all teachers must endure as they become familiar with the profession of teaching (251). Novice teachers must also endure extracurricular activities associated with becoming the new kid on the block in many school systems. Learning to accept and adopt this process may prove a hardship for some teachers that move out of an environment where a job is strictly the job written in stone or associated with one's job description. Further, some teachers may feel at a loss having to work on their induction programme, and classroom, and having to work on extracurricular activities, and at special events held outside of the classroom. Working with the support of mentors, tutors and support staff to acculturate to the teaching environment may dramatically improve a teacher's success in this circumstance, improving attrition rates, leading to improved success, job satisfaction, and overall happiness with the teaching environment. Mentorship and induction can help teachers navigate these waters with greater success.

In some global regions, more emphasis is given to mentorship and induction related to acculturation. Teacher participation in some acculturation programmes, however is not mandatory; rather, teachers are required to participate in training that helps them succeed with regard to skill's acquisition. However, according to Howes (2006) teachers participating in acculturation programmes and diversity training voluntarily demonstrate benefits immediately because of their participation. These programmes are typically designed one-to-one to allow teachers to understand the culture and environment within the organisations they work within.

Britton suggests that teacher induction in Britain suggests that induction take place for more than a short period of caring support for novices. Comparing teacher induction in Britain with programmes in China, France Japan and New Zealand, the researcher suggests that programmes in other countries generally are twice as long as those in Britain, and thus make much greater progress in helping the novice "become a better teacher" (389).

Basics of Effective Induction

Bubb describes induction as a period of mentoring and learning. The regulations covering the first year of teaching vary in Great Britain depending on the part of the country a teacher works in. While teachers in Great Britain only experience on year of induction, in other parts of the world teachers may be subject to one to three years of induction. In Scotland, the first year of work is referred to as a probationary period rather than induction, but the principles are much the same. In Britain and individual entering induction is referred to as an "NQT" and is led by the General Teaching Council for England (Bubb, 2007). The "General Teaching Council for England" directs new teachers through induction, pairing their skills against Core Standards.

According to Bubb, Great Britain has among the largest and most deeply ingrained induction standards throughout Europe, brought about in May of 1999. Part of the goal of the programme is to encourage good habits in teaching. Statistics from the General Teaching Council for England (Bubb 2007) note that more than 28,000 teachers have been awarded their teacher training, and nearly 5,000 teachers have graduated from the programme since its inception. Some primary features of the programme include:

- Individualised programme of support.

- Tutor to monitor new teacher from the start of the programme.

- Assessment meetings.

- Objectives established during early term.

- Ongoing support.

It is important for teachers to pass the programme; if a teacher does not or fails induction, they may not teach in schools in the future. These are severe consequences, but nonetheless the requirements of the programme. Induction is meant to provide individualised support while also providing for a teacher's understanding of the skills necessary for the country core knowledge standards.

Induction Standards

England provides many methods of carrying out induction. Most inductions are carried out from the period of September through July within a school period. Some individuals begin induction in the spring. Teachers undergoing induction generally have a lighter workload than ordinary teachers, so there is time to complete the requirements of induction and professional development along with providing for the needs of the classroom. According to Bubb, NQTs have approximately 10 percent less course load than traditional classroom teachers, improving their risk of passing the induction period.

Tutoring / Mentoring

Induction includes tutoring or mentoring of NQTs or teachers that are part of the induction process. Induction tutors spend time monitoring or reviewing the work of NQTs, supporting new teachers in their roles and assessing the work of new teachers. Most have regular or daily contact with new teachers. According to Crawford (2013), a tutor may have the role of a head teacher or a coordinator within a school. There may be two tutors interacting with an NQT. For example, the head of a department the NQT works in may interact with an NQT, as may a senior administrator. It is vital that an NQT understands each of the roles that an NQT carries out. Crawford (2013) states that the primary role of each tutor is support and collaboration to ensure the success of the NQT. Colleagues and tutors take on many roles, including partnering, assisting with planning, supporting, advising and at times, disciplining a new teacher to ensure that work tasks as carried out.

Tutors are not the only individuals that work to support new teachers during the induction period. The entire staff work together to help new teachers succeed. New teachers can only become acculturated when staff members work as teams to provide NQTs clear outlines of the roles and duties of the teacher in the classroom and as part of the organisation as a whole. The more support a teacher receives, the more likely the teacher is to become successful in the classroom and as part of the organisation. Here are some guidelines for mentoring and tutoring the NQT according to Crawford and Bubb:

- Assisting with curriculum design and planning.

- Helping the NQT understand and learn roles and responsibilities inside and outside of the classroom.

- Providing counselling and support to the NQT.

- Reviewing the NQT progress and measuring this against goals, objectives and mission statements.

- Ensuring that there are assessment activities taking place.

All activities occurring within an induction period must be in accordance to guidelines established by government agencies and by school administrators. This will ensure the success of the NQT and the school. Induction tutors and mentors may need to define their own developmental needs working in conjunction with head teachers or administrators. This can all be easily accomplished with proper pre-training or undergraduate training on the part of the NQT. Bubb states that during this process, most importantly NQTs want to see that they are in an institution that is eager to have them, that will support them and provide the time necessary for the teacher to succeed. Having a mentor and a tutor available is vital for support and recognition. It also provides for honest and open feedback and provides new teachers with a resource for listening and for communication that may not always be available for new teachers that are uncertain of their ideas and environment.

Structure of Induction Programme

Crawford recommends the following structure for teacher induction programmes: that teachers develop an online portfolio, enabling NQTs to track progress throughout the programme. Tracking can be done through digital media or an eportfolio allowing for instant changes and review by administrators and tutors, or by hard folders and files. Electronic file storage can allow new teachers to share information electronically through email and other means. In an age of technology, doing so can allow the teacher to communicate his or her continuing education to the educational facility over time in a streamlined manner. An eportfolio may contain a "Teaching Folder" with the following elements, according to Crawford:

- A Timetable for completion of each element of the induction timetable.

- Record of assessments.

- Lesson plans, including resources for each lesson.

- A record of other's observations for the lesion, including tutor assessment and observation.

- Self-evaluation for each lesson carried out to completion.

- Examples of pupil work at various levels of ability and achievement.

- Second lesion, with resources included for the lesson, and examples of others' observations for the lesson.

- Additional self-evaluation of the lesson and examples of pupils work at different levels.

- Examples of each year of completion and various observations at each year of completion, including continuing progress made, continuing goals one wants to follow, and observations made at each level of completion.

- Professional Folder, containing a curriculum vitae, record of the roles and contexts in which one works, record of continuing professional development activities including observation by others, training activities participate in.

- Record of completion date of induction, pass or failure.

This record can prove highly successful in organising material for induction, and future completion of continuing education for the teacher. It may also prove helpful in demonstration student achievement or examples of lesson plans.

Discussion

The review of the literature demonstrates that most induction programmes carry similar elements. Successful teacher programmes carry elements that include overwhelming support for teachers, acculturation and acclimation to the environment, and ongoing support. The most successful programmes are the educational induction programmes that provide teachers with additional support from seasoned teachers that can model successful teaching habits, coupled with continuing education that addresses new teacher's ongoing needs. Additionally, evidence suggests that longer induction programmes, like those in other countries including China, Japan and Scotland, may benefit teachers in Great Britain. This suggests that teachers may struggle for longer than the first year of teaching. It may be interesting to conduct a case study of teachers well past their first year, to determine whether teachers do benefit from longer induction programmes and continuing tutoring and mentoring. A comprehensive survey of teacher success rates following continuing mentoring for 6 months to one year following induction routine may reveal how effective ongoing support would be in teacher attrition and long-term job satisfaction. A study of student success in the classroom may provide even more information as to the success of this type of programme.

Reflection and Conclusion

Teacher induction programmes have a beneficial impact on attrition and job satisfaction. Induction programmes are important for teacher success. More research is necessary to determine whether longer induction programmes may affect teachers in a positive manner, and whether longer induction programmes may affect student performance and learning outcomes in a positive way. Induction programmes can help with teacher encouragement based on a survey of the current literature available.

References

Britton, E., et al. Comprehensive Teacher Induction. British Journal of Educational Technology. 35(3): 388-90.

Bubb, Sara. (2007). Successful Induction for New Teachers: A Guide for NQTs and Induction Tutors, Coordinators and Mentors. New York: Sage.

Crawford, R. (2013). The ICT Teacher's Handbook: Teaching, Learning and Managing ICT in the Secondary School. New York: Routledge.

Howe, Edward R. (2006). Exemplary Teacher Induction: An International Review. Educational Philosophy & Theory. 38(3):249-99.

Lomax, Donald E. (1973). The Education of Teachers in Britain. London: Wiley.

This project is a demonstration of synthesis of learning in the Foundation Subjects, Science, ICT, and RE sessions during the year. It represents a holistic approach to learning. The project is a reflection of the integration of learning and practice in PG 3100.

Cross-Curricular Links

As adults, instructors and teachers understand the interrelated nature of the world and all the facets in it. Children have not yet discovered how things relate to each other. The education and learning curriculum provides teachers with multiple opportunities to develop cross-curricular links in educational modalities. One of the best ways to develop these links is through the school visit. Learning outside the classroom is defined as "The use of places other than the classroom for teaching and learning" (DIES). According to DIES, making links between feeling and learning help the child develop into adulthood. In the process of that development, the links help affect the child's eventual lifestyle and work. The goal of learning outside the classroom is to "transfer learning experienced outside to the classroom and vice versa" (DIES).

The National Curriculum is extremely flexible. It provides guidance for a number of broad educational areas required for regular instruction, plus locally agreed syllabi to be used for religious education and a personal health and safety, social and citizenship curriculum (DIES). The National Curriculum also establishes key skills that students must develop not only for academic success for life success. Communication skills, working with others, problem solving, improving one's own learning and importance, utilising information technology, and learning to apply number skills are not only critical to life success but are apt venues for application of school visits.

Creativity is a vital part of the child's educational experience. The teacher who fosters creative activities concentrates on purposeful activity, original work, with value to student and his or her education (Quigley). By teaching the main features of the lesson, defining criteria for success, giving students wide latitude regarding the presentation of the work, and evaluating the work, a four step process for engendering creativity takes place and enhances the learning process.

As Quigley points out, learning creatively is not just a Monday morning activity; creative learning can be developed in all subjects across the curriculum. The advantages of creativity including helping the child develop life skills, encouraging them to develop their talents, and helping them to learn self-motivation while improving self esteem. Although there are established standards for learning, it is important to understand that the standards are for learning, not necessarily for learning in the classroom. In fact, Quigley stresses that by utilizing the key skills, contexts for learning can be developed for all subject areas (Quigley).

School visits offer an excellent application of the key skills and contexts of learning. With careful planning it is possible to intertwine the requirements of the different curriculum areas to produce an exciting study experience. Dean points out that there are several key concepts for teachers to remember when planning curriculum that encompasses a school visit. At Key Stage 2, the level utilized in this project, placing British history in a framework for examining change and continuity can easily be adapted to incorporate RE, or new religions in Britain; geography, environment, music and technology. When planning the school visit to the Science Museum of Central London, I ensured that Key Stage 2 items were incorporated. The visit allowed the incorporation of religious education, science, ICT, history, art, and geography. Students were able to learn how math, English, PE and modern languages all related to the main study materials.

While students go on the school visit as an adjutant to their regular learning, even the trip to the location of the school visit offers educational opportunities. By taking the underground to the museum students learn life skills. The trip also offers excellent reinforcement for diversity of humanity as students observe the people in the underground.

Destination for Visit

Newbury Park Primary School is very close to the Newbury Park underground station. The station itself is one the central line of the underground. The Science museum itself is very near the underground station. There is a tremendous amount of activity at the Science Museum, and the venue fits in well with the themes of study at the school. The IMAX 3D cinema is always attractive to children of this age range. The Fly Zone has cross-curriculum study of its own as students can watch the Red Arrows in the IMAX and then use the controls of a fighter jet in the flight simulators, called Fly 306°. The thematic unit that was developed during the pre-visit is a study of Islam. This visit will allow the linkage of all of the major curriculum areas.

Making the connection with British history is the Black Arrow rocket display. Britain was the fifth nation to launch its own satellite. Discussions for study and reinforcement include how the movement of the stars and moon are tracked, who invented the tracking devices, and how they are made. Other displays in the museum prompt investigation by students. Religion can be incorporated by investigating the display of the ways that Muslims were involved in science, including the Islamic calendar. The Islamic calendar, based on the moon, is quite different from the current calendar. The museum had historical calendars displayed, including one from Iran in 1667, one from Iraq in 1765, and one from Syria in 1766.

Hazarat Ali's sword was on display in the museum during the pre-visit. Children are fascinated with swords and medieval weapons in general. The study of Hazarat Ali's sword and where it came from, as well as where and how it was made, offers an excellent interlink with both art and history. Children can even look at the sword online before they visit; it is very exciting to talk about something and then locate it in the museum. This also provides a tie-in to the Information Technology portion of the curriculum. Other areas of linkage in Information Technology include how Information Technology has led to the current space research. The museum houses an astronaut's suit and rockets.

While Hazarat Ali's sword is an excellent example of Muslim art and history, a discussion of the sword should lead to discussion of the Ottoman Empire and a review of a timeline of history with names of people of importance to the Muslim religion. Students can make their own art, reflecting their ability to communicate with a paint brush or art pencil. Learning to make 3-D shapes ties in to mathematics but also to a wide variety of 3-D interactive displays available at the museum (Science Museum).

Mathematics, literature, and geography all have links to the Arab world. Even PE has benefitted from the Islamic culture, for Arabic dance is well known for belly-dancing. Arabic dancing belts are a form of art themselves. The location of the Arab world, the Ottoman Empire, and counties like Iraq and Syria can be explored using the guidelines established by the national curriculum. Design and Technology curriculum can be enriched with study of space rockets. Finally, the use of Arabic languages words and names can be utilized throughout the unit.

During the pre-visit, the following areas of the museum were reviewed:

- Islamic art and artifacts - Hazarat Ali's Sword, other art
- Astronomy - calendars, movements of moon and stars
- Astronomy/ICT - space suits, rockets
- History - Hazarat Ali's sword, Black Arrow Rocket, role of the Ottoman Empire

Spider Diagram

Risk Assessment

As UK Field Trips have stated, "where there is fun and adventure, there are normally risks to accompany it." The purpose of a risk assessment is to manage risk. In managing risk, teachers must consider not only the obvious risks of accident or injury but also more subtle and unlikely risks, such as kidnapping or terrorist attack. In today's litigious legal environment, responsible teachers must do an accurate risk assessment to protect children from danger, but also to protect themselves and their schools from untoward legal action (West & Hailstone).

As West and Hailstone have pointed out, by following the appropriate procedures for risk assessment and documentation, students are protected, the teacher has a better idea of situations that may be encountered, and an audit trail is developed in case there as issues later.

Risk assessments consider the type of people involved in the school visit, the context of the visit and the location of the visit. The risk assessment, outlined below, is modeled on the Lancashire Risk Assessment is outlined below.

- Make up of the group - 30 eleven year olds
- Staffing of the group - Teacher, an aide, six to ten parents
- Equipment to be used (Underground, cross walks, elevators, escalators)
- Environment - The trip will consist of outside walk, inside Underground, inside museum
- Travel - limited travel, on Underground
- Emergency procedures - In medical problem, contact emergency, contact parents. For public emergency follow directions of police and rescue units watching children until parents can be contacted.

A detailed risk assessment is provided in the Appendix.

Engagement with Learning Environment

This section provides three separate learning activities that I would provide during the visit to the Science Museum and provides the learning objectives.

Activity 1

Calendar study: Compare the Islamic calendars on display with the current calendar. Determine the date that you would have been born using either the calendar from Iran in 1667, Iraq in 1765, or Syria in 1766. Parents and teacher will help with this activity.

Learning objective: real-life problem solving, Maths problem solving

Subject/areas of learning: Maths, history, Islamic unit.

Activity 2

Red Arrows 3D movie in the IMAX followed by Fly 360° flight simulator. Watch the Red Arrows and practice flying in the simulator.

Learning objective: to experience first hand the way that flying feels and to place this in the context of the development of flight from the time of the Ottoman empire's first rockets.

Subject/areas of learning: History, design and technology.

Activity 3

Worksheet.: develop a timeline of the events you experienced today. Students can work in teams if they desire. Teacher will provide a list of the events. Students should try to put in them timeline order from the earliest activities or discoveries until the most recent.

Learning objective: to internalise the lessons learned during the school trip; to place historical events in their position in time; to problem solve alone and with others. .

Subject/areas of learning: History, geography. Working with others.

Discussion

In activity one, the difference in culture between the ancient Islamic cultures and today's culture will be emphasized by attempting to figure out birthdates based on these moon-based calendars. The teacher will impress upon the students that the Islamic or moon based calendar is still in use in some Middle Eastern countries. If the children are interested in a discussion (or the discussion may be saved for a return to the classroom) the class may discuss how difficult it would be to use this calendar while the majority of the world utilises our current calendar. A number of discussion questions will naturally evolve from this discussion, including discussion of religious rights. This topic could broaden into other cultures if the class is interested and the teacher desires.

In activity two, activity with the Red Arrows, the students will experience what flying feels like. The discussion should concentrate on the historical participation of the Islamic nations in the development of rockets. The teacher can stimulate learning by asking what it would feel like to pilot a plan 'for real'. How many students are interested in being pilots? Are any students interested in being astronauts? What type of education would a student need in order to become an astronaut some day? Is it possible that the ancient Ottomans thought about flying to the moon? The moon was very important to them; would they have fantasized about visiting it?

Activity three encourages students to work together to accomplish the timeline activity. Student groups that have arranged the time lines inaccurately can be encouraged to discuss why they made the choices they did. Problem solving techniques can be used to teach students very basic logic skills by asking 'could this have happened before that?' "Why or why not?' The point of this exercise is to make the effort and to work together, more than getting the correct answer the first time.

Classroom Display 250

This section describes an interactive classroom display to be produced at school after the school visit and related cross-cultural activities. It demonstrates a variety of interactive elements and engages children with different learning styles.

Interactive Display: Belly Dancing

The interactive belly-dancing display will have a variety of stations. The first will provide harem pants in both male and female styles, along with belts and necklaces. Scarves will be provided for children to imitate turbans; the scarves will be laundered daily at the end of the day.

- A variety of drums and tambourines will be provided.
- Music will be available through a laptop set up at the station.
- Students will be able to watch videos of both male and female belly dancers.
- The laptop will have a built in webcam for recording the children as they practice with the belly dancing video. Parental permission for the action will be acquired.

This first section of the interactive display will address Art, Music, PE, History, Design and Technology (Quigley).

Interactive Display: Discussion

Students will participate in discussion afterwards:

- Is belly dancing a good form of exercise?
- Why might a male (boy) have practiced belly dancing during the Ottoman empire? Possible answers are that it would be good exercise, or that it would make them physically fit. There may be more innovative answers. Students may also say (based on watching of the videos) that it helped men or boys learn to fight with swords.

This section of the interactive display will address PE, problem solving, communication, and history.

Interactive Display: Feedback

Students will write a brief evaluation of the activity telling what they liked, what they disliked, and what they learned. Presentations will be made to the whole class. Some students may need accommodation for this portion of the activity.

Reflection

Times have changed since I was a child. Wilson pointed out that in the last twenty years there has been a global revolution in education and that revolution has placed focus on creativity. However, while increasing the level of creativity has undoubtedly raised the interest level of the child, it brings certain tensions to teaching. Creative thinking has been named a key skill in the National Curriculum.With the memorialisation of creative thinking as a required skill comes a new responsibility for teachers. No longer is creativity something "extra" that teachers do for their classroom and discourage in their students! Instead, creativity is a vital part of the curriculum. It is my profound personal belief that the cure for cancer and AIDS will be found by a student who has been taught to think both critically and creatively, and who has been encouraged to 'reach for the stars'. I would like to be that teacher.

Cross-Curricular Learning

Jones and Wyse express that film can be a way of stimulating children to talk. It is this concept that suggested the interactive display to me. Children naturally respond to film; they love to watch it, they love to make films. The combination of allowing the students to dress up, make music, and film themselves incorporates the best of creative thinking and design and technology. It also incorporates a wide variety of cross-curricular learning facets. Cross curricular learning is an excellent way to engage students. How much more fun would it be to figure out the financial worth of the coins on a belly-dancing costume than to do Maths worksheets!

My favorite character on the old A-Team TV show from America repeatedly commented "I love it when a plan comes together!" I suspect he would have understood the concept of cross-curricular learning very well indeed.

Learning Outside the Classroom

Key stage 2 attempts to broaden a child's understanding of history and his or her place in it (Hoodless et al.). It takes us from how it used to be, to how we got where we are today. We are fortunate in Great Britain that there are so many learning places available. Museums, churches, cathedrals, historic buildings, castles - each of these marvelous settings offers a way to broaden a child's perspective of history and the humanities. Similar facilities are available for the sciences, Maths, design and technology: the list is endless. Learning outside the classroom is a gift, to be nurtured I children.

Learning outside the classroom does not stop with a round of museums and historic buildings. It represents so much more. By developing a partnership with teachers, parents, and community leaders, we further the child's opportunity to learn outside the classrooms (DIES):

Implication for Future Practice

Beetlestone stated that "physical, emotional, and cognitive development are closely linked" in children. It is my sincere belief that children who enjoy learning, who have an active learning experience, are better able to learn. Their emotional well-being has a great deal to do with their cognitive development, and healthy minds make healthy bodies. Utilising a cross-curricular modality with a wide variety of elements so that children with different learning styles are still engaged offers the best opportunity for future learning for the children that we will be teaching. This exercise has had a tremendous impact on my level of understanding of education of the primary child. I regret that my teachers did not have this curriculum guidance! It has impacted my future practice greatly.

Reference List

Barnes J. Cross-Curricular Learning 3-14: Developing Primary School Practice. London: Sage

Beetlestone F. Children, Imaginative Teaching (Enriching the Primary Curriculum - Child, Teacher, Context.) UK: Open University Press

Bonello, P. School Trips. Health and Safety March, Volume 3.

Cropley A. Creativity in Education and Learning: A Guide for Teachers and Educators. UK: Routledge Falmer.

Dean, J. Cross-Curriculum Learning. Nuffield Primary History.

DfES. Excellence and Enjoyment, A Strategy for Primary Schools Nottingham: DfES

Hoodless P.et al Teaching Humanities in Primary Schools: (Achieving QTS). Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd.

Jones R. and Wyse, D. Creativity in the Primary Curriculum. K: David Fulton Publishers Ltd.

Lancashire Risk Assessment.

Quigley C. Key Skills for an Excellent and Enjoyable Curriculum Book. UK: Focus in Education Publications.

Appendix - Risk Assessment

School: Newbury Park Primary School

Section 1: Make Up of the Group

- Number of Pupils: 30
- Student exceptionalities: None
- Evidence of consideration:
- Of the 30 students, 18 are female and 12 are male. The average age is 11 with two students aged 10 and one aged 12.

Students will be divided into groups of four. An adult will be assigned to each group. Students in each group will be given a card with the emergency cellular phone number of the group leader on the card. Students will also be given a copy of a behavioral contract that they have signed; they will keep the contract with them at all times.

Section 2: Staffing of the Group

- Number of Staff: 2 (One teacher, one aide)
- Number of parents: 8
- Evidence of Consideration:
- Staff are trained in first aid; four of the parents are very experienced in the area near the Museum.

Section 3: Equipment to be used and environment to be Considered

- Equipment will be sufficient outer clothing for the chill air; rain hats and coats as necessary.
- Environment - The trip will consist of outside walk, inside Underground, inside museum
- Evidence of Consideration:
- Children will be advised to check the weather report before leaving home; a discussion of suitable clothing will be held in the days before the trip.

Staff will carry a first aid kit and emergency cards for all of the students. Students will be requested to bring water bottles in their packs. Students are to limit valuables and carry their school ID. Small maps of the area were made and laminated as a class project; they will be distributed to students. Staff will carry a detail map.

Section 4: Travel

Travel will be limited with a two block walk to the Underground, a ride on the Underground, and a one block walk to the Museum.

- Evidence of Consideration.
- Students will obey staff directions and will walk together in a double file group.
- Students will not leave the group without permission. If students must utilise the facilities, they will go in assigned pairs.
- Students have been reminded of proper crosswalk etiquette.
- Students have been given directions of what to do if they are lost or injured: they are to use their emergency card to call an adult in the group.

Section 5: Emergency Procedures.

- If there is a medical emergency students are to notify their accompanying adult, who will contact emergency and contact parents.
- For public emergency follow directions of police and rescue units watching children until parents can be contacted.
- Evidence of Consideration:
- There is a high level of supervision
- All adults will carry cell phones and at least one child in each group will have a personal cell phone
- Students carry staff emergency numbers; staff carry emergency numbers for all parents.
- Buddy system has been assigned.
- An emergency meeting point at the west exit has been designated.

Verbal Learning

Introduction

Psychological research in the area of verbal learning has its historical antecedents in the 19th Century work of Herman Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist who used himself as a subject when attempting to determine the relationship between learning and memory. Ebbinghaus and other early researchers emphasized the behavioral aspects of verbal learning through studies which analyzed the significance of independent variables such as repetition when learning lists of words while more modern recent research into verbal learning has taken a decidedly cognitive approach (Terry). The study of verbal learning can be divided into three distinct areas: serial learning, paired-associate learning, and free-recall; each of these approaches attempts to determine how the organization of information impacts upon the learner's ability to remember and reproduce information over the short and long term. No single approach to verbal learning is superior to another; instead, the most effective learning processes are dependent on the learning context and a learner's own unique learning abilities and strategies. The awareness that the acquisition of verbal learning skills varies from individual to individual has heavily influenced recent trends in both educational psychology and teacher education, as both researchers and educators strive to develop optimal techniques to improve the verbal learning skills of their students (Pashler). A similar approach has been taken in the study of mnemonics as a tool for improved recall of verbal stimuli. Techniques such as acronyms and narrative chaining have been found to improve the ability of learners to encode and retrieve information, although this method can be more complex and time-consuming than other verbal learning strategies.

Conclusion

The techniques associated with developing verbal learning skills have major implications not only for traditional classroom environments, but also for the ways in which individuals complete everyday tasks and interact with one another. For example, serial learning, paired associate learning, and free recall are the basis for everything from learning the alphabet to remembering the names of the people that we meet on both a regular and infrequent basis (Terry). Similarly, mnemonic devices which are used in association with visual stimuli present important educational and real-world opportunities to improve our ability to encode and retrieve information. Learners can utilize mnemonic techniques in a variety of ways, such as using the method of loci to remember facts, concepts, and even basic directions. Recent research in the area of visual learning suggests that our ability to learn and remember everything from simple word lists to complex sets of instructions are affected not only by the ways in which we learn, but also by the context in which learning occurs. Thus, our memory and ability to apply our knowledge is most effective when the context in which the information was learned matches the context in which the learner is trying to retrieve it (Robinson & Rowling). Clearly, the work first begun by Herman Ebbinghaus has resulted in a greater understanding of the ways in which behavioral and cognitive elements can affect the visual learning process, leading to a range of practical learning strategies aimed at assisting learners in acquiring and retrieving information over the short and long term. This area of psychological study is incredibly relevant, not only for its value in an academic environment, but also for the insight which it offers regarding our ability to perform everyday commonplace tasks in a variety of scenarios and environments.

References

Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. Learning styles: Concepts and evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(3): 105-119.

Robinson, S.J. & Rollings, L.J.L. The effect of mood-context on visual recognition and recall memory. The Journal of General Psychology, 138(1): 66-79. doi:

Terry, W.S. Learning and memory: Basic principles, processes, and procedures (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

Abstract

Today's generation of college students is more technologically advanced than ever before. With that being said, however, current leaders in our generation feel the young adults of today are not adequately prepared for the responsibilities of adulthood and the demands of the workforce. While more high school students are attending college, more students are leaving college unprepared for their subsequent jobs. This paper attempts to explore those areas in order to better understand why young adults have not been adequately prepared and how the current generation may be able to assist.

Working After College

Introduction

Every year college students graduate and enter into adulthood. They are met with a new set of responsibilities as they make the move into the working world. This often overwhelms young adults because many of them have lived exclusively dependent on their parents for the past eighteen to twenty-two years and do not understand the meaning of responsibility or, in essence, life. Often, these young adults will begin college with a positive attitude and will quickly begin to spiral downhill in their attitudes and general way of thinking as deadlines and class projects pile up in addition to other duties outside of school such as work or possibly family responsibilities. By the time college graduation occurs, these students are not prepared for the extra demands of having a steady job and diving into a lifetime career. As a society, we pride ourselves with providing for our children throughout their childhood and adolescent years in order to give them everything they need to nurture their physical and emotional growth. They are literally handed almost everything one could imagine, from food to video games to cell phones and designer clothes. The problem is that all of this comes with a price and our young adults essentially are the ones who have been left to pay the bill. The question posed is this: are college students unprepared for adulthood and the world of work?

Literature Review

Many college graduates reflect upon their high school and college years with disenchantment, because they feel they were not quite ready for college or the working world. A poll was conducted to examine how many recent graduates felt as if they were actually prepared for college or work. Approximately forty percent of these graduates reported substandard preparation and felt that, if they had the chance to change things, they would have worked harder in high school to become more prepared for what they now are facing in the beginning stages of their adulthood (Levine). It is alarming that almost half of the students polled could already understand the importance of being prepared for their future and how they had not taken this seriously while in high school in order to prepare in college for the challenges they would face afterward.

Focus group interviews were also conducted in a research study with 22 students to help determine their strategies for college success. These students spoke in great detail about their various academic endeavors and accomplishments, academic failures, social interactions, and how well they were handling the overall environment of the college life. Although the students spoke of several strategies that they felt led to their success in academics and helped them feel a sense of accomplishment rather than failure, the reports reflected that they did not always use those self-strategies in their daily lives (Yazedjian, Toews, Sevin, & Purswell). The key to this study is that the students realized the strategies needed while they were in college, yet did not incorporate them in order to help make their lives easier. Rather, they inevitably learned the hard way.

Lowe and Cook performed a study to examine whether or not certain study habits of high school students would remain persistent throughout their time in college or if they would taper off after the first semester. They found that students were not as prepared as they originally felt prior to entering college for the first time. Also, many of the students participating in the study appeared to be at risk of not fulfilling the objectives set in their individual classes and some of the students were on the verge of probation before the first semester was over. Many of these students chose to drop the class and return to retake the class the following term in order to have another chance at passing the course.

Although there are reportedly more high school graduates attending college today than ever before, this does not necessarily mean they are ready for the challenges of college life and the responsibility that accompanies it. Four out of ten high school graduates are required to take college remedial courses when they begin to take college, according to a Washington based nonprofit educational organization, and two-thirds of the students in Ohio and Kentucky do not earn their college degrees within six years (College preparedness lacking, forcing students into developmental coursework, prompting some to drop out). The current unemployment numbers are staggering, and without a college education, many adults find the task of securing meaningful employment directly out of high school a daunting task that they were not prepared for and either settle for whatever job they are able to find or join the ranks of the unemployed for weeks and months on end.

As a matter of fact, employers have voiced concern over the influx of graduates entering the workforce due to the fact many do not possess the needed skills required and are only satisfactory when competency is concerned, even after a fair amount of training has been provided. They are concerned that the retirement of the 'baby-boomer' generation will cause a shortage of capable workers that can meet the demands of today's increasingly hectic workload and shorter turnaround times. While many of the college graduates entering the work force are academically capable of reading and writing, they are not mature and responsible to handle the demands of the positions needed immediately (Casner-Lotto & Barrington).

One problem students have is that they have spent most of their academic lives learning on a lower level of comprehension and they do not fully understand how to think. Upper level courses such as Chemistry, Calculus, and Politics cause students to ponder situations and think on a higher level rather than simply memorize formulas in order to take a test. This is important in so many aspects of life. Students often will concentrate on memorizing the content in order to pass the test, but if the material is geared towards their style of learning, they will find it more interesting and easier to follow. This will, in turn, equip them with the tools needed to solve problems on a daily basis as they move through life after high school and college.

Each of these students has a different way of learning. There are visual learners, hands-on learners, auditory learners, and learners who have a combination of different forms. If students are encouraged to find their optimal learning form and use this to their advantage, they will understand at an earlier age what is needed for them to better understand how to solve more complex problems and navigate certain situations. This will help them whether it is in a routine college class or on the job solving a problem during the day (Levine).

It is also important for young adults to be exposed to the issues and current events that are happening in our society in order for them to find their voice and understand how our government works as well as our society as a whole. At first, young adults may not feel the need to attempt to understand current events and wonder why this relates to their lives. However, if an adult takes the time to explain how this can affect them in terms of their future job, academic career, family, or other issues they can relate to, young adults will not be as hesitant to ignore important issues happening in our society. This will, in turn, help increase their responsibility in life as well.

Yet another aspect young adults have not quite grasped is the sense of entitlement. Due to the fact we have provided them with almost everything available from day one, it is partly our fault as leaders of the current generation. The future generation of leaders already feels that they should have everything at their fingertips without working for it. This is a fact that is absurd at best. If you ask nine out of ten people today what it took to climb to the top of the career ladder, whether or not they went to college, they will answer: "hard work and determination". This is important for young adults to understand and practice. They cannot expect to enter the job field fresh out of school and be on the top of the career ladder. This is something that will not happen in 99% of all cases. While it is true that college will almost always better prepare a person for his career and increase one's earning potential long term, it will take a combination of hard work and determination in order to see this through and reap the rewards. Nothing comes without hard work. It is lesson young adults have not had to learn at this point in their lives and one that, sadly, they will need to learn if they are to make it in the working world.

Conclusion

Today's college students are quite different than those of twenty or even ten years ago. With the advent of new technology and increased ways of performing tasks, some of the skills needed to prepare them for adulthood and the world of work have fallen by the wayside. While it is important to move forward in order to be a competitor in a global economy, it is equally important that we not forget the foundational keys of our initial success in becoming a leader in the global market. Today's college students are not adequately prepared to face the world and they must acquire better tools in order to meet the increasing demands that society has pushed on everyone. It is important that, as leaders of the current generation, we equip our young adults with better cognitive skills, a greater desire for being informed of current policies and events, an increased desire to work hard, and a greater determination to succeed in what they do in order for these adults to be able to succeed once they are on their own rather than be overwhelmed by the responsibilities of an ever-changing world that shows no mercy and allows for minimal mistakes.

References

College preparedness lacking, forcing students into developmental coursework, prompting some to drop out.

Casner-Lotto, J., & Barrington, L. Are they really ready to work? Employers' perspectives on the basic knowledge and applied skills of new entrants to the 21st century U.S. workforce. Partnership for 21st Century Skills, Corporate Voices for Working Families, & Society for Human Resource Management.

Levine, M. The essential cognitive backpack. The Prepared Graduate, 64(7), pp. 16-22.

Lowe, H., & Cook, A. Mind the gap: Are students prepared for higher education? Journal of Further and Higher Education, 27(1), 53-76.

Yazedjian, A., Toews, M., Sevin, T., & Purswell, K. "It's a whole new world": A qualitative exploration of college students' definitions of and strategies for college success. Journal of College Student Development, 49(2), pp. 141-154.

Teaching Math - Multiple Intelligence Students

Since Howard Gardner's initial articulation of his Multiple Intelligence Theory (MIT), academic reform proponents have embraced the notion that students are intelligent to varying degrees in different, interconnected areas. Gardner has asserted that the framing of intelligence as specific to the individual is a relatively new concept in Western society, and student success is rooted in his or her own, unique interpretation of the material. By extension, teachers are facilitators of learning insofar as they utilize strategies that correspond to multiple intelligences.

The Activities: Mathematics for Seven Intelligences

While Gardner identified eight, human intelligences, this particular inquiry asserts general, mathematics activities for seven intelligence areas (McClellan and Conti 213; Vardin 40); namely, logical-mathematical, kinesthetic, verbal-linguistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, and visual-spatial. Specific activities for the seven, intelligence areas will be recommended for each of the eight, following, content areas: Exploring real numbers, adding real numbers, subtracting real numbers, multiplying real numbers, dividing real numbers, properties of real numbers, order of operations, and variables. Though the activities are designed with the aim of enhancing achievement for ninth grade students who scored between the 25th and 45th percentile on the Illinois Standards Achievement Test (ISAT), they are concurrently founded on the empirical evidence demonstrating that integrating the intelligences within a classroom yields more positive results than segregating classrooms according to intelligence style (Hill 127).

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

Often more simplistically labeled as scientific thinking, logical-mathematical intelligence supports, above all else according to MIT, efficient problem solving (Gardner, 19-20). An individual that embodies this type of intelligence is able to organize and prioritize multiple variables and formulate hypotheses with the specific aim of solving a problem; this realm is indicative of nonverbal intelligence. Gardner writes in his text entitled Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice that "a solution to a problem can be constructed before it is articulated. In fact, the solution process may be totally invisible, even to the problem solver" (20). The crux of IQ tests and comprehensive, standardized assessments are devoted to evaluating logical-mathematical reason in conjunction with language skills. Undoubtedly, an individual who holds this form of intelligence is predisposed toward mathematical achievement. However, when this individual is failing to reflect his or her logical-mathematical knowledge in the classroom or on tests such as the ISAT, there are activities that can facilitate the use of his or her efficient, problem-solving abilities.

Exploring Real Numbers

During an introduction to real numbers, the goal for students with logical-mathematical intelligence would be to channel knowledge through minimal verbal activity (Adams 86). For these abstract thinkers, perceiving comparisons between fractions, decimals, and percentages is relatively simple, as they are naturally inclined to sort, order, and compare bodies of data. Specifically, introducing students to real numbers by presenting them with related figures, such as a simple 1/3, .33, and 33%, and asking them to ascertain the relationship between these figures would facilitate learning for logical-mathematical learners.

Adding Real Numbers

By extension, the act of adding real numbers for logical-mathematical students could be presented as a means to solving a more complex, numerical problem. For instance and using the above example, students could be asked the following: "If you were trying to add 1/3 and 33%, what would be the optimum ways in which to communicate the problem?" Students should be unfailingly encouraged to make hypotheses and test their ideas, even if they may yield results that are less than ideal.

Subtracting Real Numbers

Logical-mathematical students are generally adept at databases, spreadsheets, and other, similar software that channels order. Logical-Mathematical students could make use of Microsoft Excel in order to explore real number subtraction. In groups, students could be given a problem, then charged to set up formulas within the cells to automatically subtract decimals, fractions, or whole numbers from one another. Groups could then defend their spreadsheet organization as the optimum way in which to find a solution to the problem.

Multiplying Real Numbers

Technology can assist in learning multiplication skills with respect to real numbers as well, as logical-mathematical students can conceptualize how addition relates to multiplication and reflect this on a calculator or software program (Wills and Johnson 260). For instance, the repeated action of adding 1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3 to yield 1 can be presented as tantamount to 3 X 1/3= 1. Of course, more complex multiplication problems, potentially using negative numbers or lengthy decimals, can be taught this way as well.

Dividing Real Numbers

The connection between multiplication and division is one that can be presented to logical-mathematical learners with relative ease. For instance, learners may be able to make the following inferences: "If 10 X 9 = 90, then 9 X 9 = 81 because 90 - 9 = 81; If 90 / 9 = 10, then 81 / 9 = 9 because 90 - 81 is 9;" such methods support a problem-solving approach to division that is more effective than memorization, particularly for logical-mathematical learners (Wills and Johnson 260).

Properties of Real Numbers

In order to present logical-mathematical students with the commutative, associative, distributive, density, and identity properties of real numbers, the teacher could present the natural problem-solvers with examples of the properties (ie. 3 (2+3) = 15 for distributive) and charge them to ascertain how the properties work on their own. Such activities would organically lead into activities related to the order of operations.

Order of Operations

Unlike linguistic learners who benefit consistently from verbalizing mathematical concepts, logical-mathematical learners conversely benefit from maintaining the purity of numbers. In teaching the order of operations, teachers could present students, or groups of students, with the elements of the order (ie. groups, exponents, multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction) in no particular order, problems that encompass all of those elements, and the correct answer, charging students to figure out the order of operations on their own and defend their position.

Variables

Variables are most frequently introduced through word problems, as teachers ask students to identify the unknown element and represent it as X. However, for logical-mathematical learners, the identification of the unknown is one of the most salient tasks, as the latter operations that allow the student to solve for the variable may come easily. Teachers could present students with a visible scenario, as opposed to a word problem on a worksheet, such as giving Student A five dollars, giving Student B an undisclosed amount, and giving student C twenty dollars. Students could then formulate hypotheses regarding how to possibly set up and solve a related equation.

Kinesthetic Intelligence

MIT posits that kinesthetic intelligence is related to the cognitive strength of movement (Gardner, 23); this is a form of problem solving in that the body ascertains how to best solve a problem, such as expressing an emotion through dance or hitting a baseball, with movement. In either case, calculations are made and movement is enacted accordingly. The amount of kinesthetic intelligence, undoubtedly, varies considerably between individuals, and this form of intelligence presents the greatest problem within small, overcrowded classrooms that inherently oppose movement.

Exploring Real Numbers

A core method for facilitating learning for bodily-kinesthetic learners is to integrate physical movement and tactile sensation through as many channels as possible (Adams 86). When exploring real numbers, students should be encouraged to act out example problems through dramatization (Adams 86). For instance, the teacher could use a line of students to represent a number line, giving a certain color hat to "negative" students, and having the class explore how spaces on a number line are represented (ie. 3-5 = -2 on a number line).

Adding Real Numbers

Similar simulation could be utilized during the addition of real numbers, as could the association of certain movements with the act of addition. For instance, students could raise both hands in the air while learning about key concepts in the addition of real numbers; this could be mimicked on an exam to foster memory.

Subtracting Real Numbers

Subtraction concepts could then be conversely represented by dropping hands below the waist or another movement that could be used to trigger memory. For instance, in asserting that -2 - 3 = -5, the teacher could charge students to drop hands down a level for each negative sign to indicate that the number is becoming increasingly negative.

Multiplying Real Numbers

Teaching both multiplication and division using groups of people is a salient way in which to facilitate these operations for bodily-kinesthetic learners. Grouping students, for instance, into three groups of two and then charging them to articulate the solution to 3 X 2 is a simple example, but can be utilized within a myriad of contexts.

Dividing Real Numbers

Using the same example, having the groups reflect on 6 / 2 using their dramatization is a way in which to engage students in physically embodying mathematical operations. A group of six, for instance, can be factored into two groups of three or three groups of two.

Properties of Real Numbers

Keeping the students moving and in groups, properties of real numbers can be taught by adding objects into the dramatization. For instance, in demonstrating the distributive property using the equation 3 (4 X 3 X 2) = 72, three groups of students could be passed a "transforming ball" that represents the number 3 in succession, with the "4" group being changed to a "12" group, the "3" group being changed to a "9" group, and finally the "2" group becoming a "6" group after being passed the ball.

Order of Operations

Orders of operations could be taught by having a group of five students represent various parts of an equation. For instance, an equation of 3(X-4) + 12 = 15 would have one student represent "3", another represent "X," and so on. The seated students can discuss which operation should be performed first in order to solve the equation.

Variables

Introducing variables for bodily-kinesthetic students can be done using objects, similar to the activity for teaching properties of real numbers. A "variable ball" or "ball x" could be used to represent the variable with students representing various parts of an equation. The "equals" sign could be represented with a line, and students could dramatize solving for "ball x." The goal would be to keep students engaged through physical movement.

Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence

Linguistic intelligence is frequently considered on most standardized tests, including IQ tests. However, this type of intelligence often eludes consideration for mathematics curriculum developers. Gardner cites that "the gift of language is universal, and its development in children is strikingly constant across cultures. Even in deaf populations where a manual sign language is not explicitly taught, children will often "invent" their own manual language and use it surreptitiously!" (Gardner 26). For individuals with a particular affinity for language, however, the need to learn through verbal and written communication is paramount.

Exploring Real Numbers

A key component of mathematical learning for verbal-linguistic students is word problems. While logical-mathematical students are able to efficiently find solutions to word problems, verbal-linguistic students learn by creating and verbalizing the problem (Adams 86). When exploring real numbers, by extension, it is key to not just present these students with problems but charge them to create their own; these problems need not be limited to a brief paragraph but can be "problem stories" that embody decimals, fractions, integers, and other real number concepts.

Adding Real Numbers

For all operations of real numbers, verbal-linguistic students benefit from keeping a journal that allows them to personalize the learning experience. When introducing the addition of real numbers, for example, the teacher could write a prompt-problem on the board such as "3/4 - (-1/2) = X" and then ask students to first try to solve the problem and then articulate in their journals any problems they encountered and why they believe they encountered them.

Subtracting Real Numbers

Similarly, when subtracting real numbers verbal-linguistic students benefit from verbalizing the learning experience. Outside of the context of their journals, these students can create oral presentations of concepts for their classmates. The teacher could group students into fours and ask them to present a scenario in which a key subtraction concept is reflected.

Multiplying Real Numbers

Verbal-linguistic students have an affinity for organizing information into verbal patterns (Adams 86). By extension, when learning multiplication of real numbers, students could be charged to create a presentation for their fellow students that teaches them the key concepts learned; this could be a short or long-term project that could include the creation of a mock "textbook" or worksheets.

Dividing Real Numbers

Similarly, students could be asked to create a "division story" that will be presented to the class. Individually or in small groups, the teacher would stipulate the story had to relate to certain concepts, such as dividing fractions, and then students would have a class period to create their story. Alternatively, students could pull words out of a hat such as "mailman" or "thunderstorm," and the story would need to include these words in addition to the mathematical themes.

Properties of Real Numbers

When introducing students to real numbers' properties, the students could be grouped and assigned a particular property. They could then be asked to create a study sheet for their assigned property that is no more than one-page and clearly articulates the key concepts of the property; this sheet would then be copied and distributed to all students so that each student would have a sheet on each property. Groups could then recommend two to five problems related to their property to be included on the assessment and the teacher could synthesize a student-made test.

Order of Operations

Though GEMDAS or PEMDAS is the device utilized most frequently for the memorization of the order of operations, verbal-linguistic students could be charged to create another way in which to memorize the order; this could be a song, poem, story, or other manifestation of language. Ideas could be presented to class for a vote on the optimum alternative to GEMDAS.

Variables

Variables are an abstract concept with which verbal-linguistic students can struggle if they are disallowed to process it in their own way. The teacher could introduce variables by asking students to articulate the definition of an unknown in their journals. After responding to the prompt, students could discuss how unknowns surface in real life situations and how algebraic equation could be used for solving those unknowns.

Individuals with interpersonal intelligence are sensitive to distinctions among other people, particularly with respect to emotions, honesty, and intent (Gardner, 23). Teachers, politicians, and counselors usually embody this form of intelligence and the most apparently sociable students may be interpersonally intelligent. Group cohesion, solidarity, and socialization are critical vehicles for learning for students who are interpersonally intelligent.

Exploring Real Numbers

Interpersonal students are generally the born leaders in the classroom, and they thrive within group contexts. When exploring real numbers, the teacher could charge students to design a word problem specifically for another student in the classroom using what they know about them (Adams 86). Each student would then have a personalized word problem that may correspond to their likes or dislikes.

Adding Real Numbers

Cooperative learning that is highly organized is a salient context for interpersonal students. Placing students in small groups and affording each student a specific role, such as the recorder or speaker, and then tasking them with creating addition problems to present to the class would relate directly to those with interpersonal intelligence.

Subtracting Real Numbers

Because interpersonal students excel at interpreting the positions of others, asking them to create a lesson plan or presentation for a specific group of people aids them in learning as well. For instance, when being introduced to subtracting real numbers, students could be charged to, in groups, design a learning exercise for students who struggle with fractions or decimals. They would then be asked to defend their choices.

Multiplying Real Numbers

Bridging the gap between verbal-linguistic and interpersonal intelligence, an exercise for both types of these students to learn multiplication would be to create a mock-debate over various multiplication concepts (Adams 86). One side of the debate would knowingly be wrong, and the "winning" side would have to prove why their position is correct. Each team would then switch so as not to damage the self-efficacy of students.

Dividing Real Numbers

A key concept for these students is collaboration; thus, if the constructs of scheduling allow, students could team with the science class in discussing and defending real-world applications of real numbers' division. For instance, students could brainstorm as many science-related topics as they could think of that utilize division consistently. These ideas would then be presented to the class or to the teacher for assessment.

Properties of Real Numbers

In extending the verbal-linguistic exercise in which students were placed in groups and assigned a property in order to create a study sheet and student-designed test, an interpersonal extension of this exercise would then be to have students reinterpret what they have learned in their journals. For instance, students would reframe what their fellow students were teaching them in their own way, and aid their own group members in understanding that which was taught by other groups.

Order of Operations

A unique exercise for exploring the order of operations is to group students in large groups of six, assigning each student an operation (groups, exponents, etc.). The students then have to defend their operations place in the order. Alternatively, students could be grouped in small teams and assigned an operation (Team Exponent, Team Addition) and then defend their position in the order as a collective to the class.

Variables

Using the natural leadership skills of interpersonal students, an activity for exploring variables could involve the creation of a presentation for an elementary school student that explains what a variable is and how it is useful. The presentation could involve visuals or dramatization and would aim to simplify the abstract concept of a variable into terms a child could understand.

Intrapersonal Intelligence

In contrast to interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence is, in essence, self-knowledge (Gardner, 25). These students are generally private and may struggle with social situations. In group contexts, by extension, interpersonal students may be submerged under their comparatively more interpersonally intelligent peers.

Exploring Real Numbers

Intrapersonally intelligent students thrive in setting their own personal goals for growth, as they are generally cognizant of their abilities and scope of current understanding (Adams 86). When exploring real numbers, students could use their journals to reflect on what they know about certain real number concepts already, and what they hope to learn in the future. The teacher could use these journals in alternative assessments.

Adding Real Numbers

When learning the addition of real numbers, these students would benefit from exploring the concept on their own initially, which overlaps slightly with how concepts should be introduced to logical-mathematical students (Adams 86). The teacher would present students with a set of problems and ask them to try to find solutions and, if they struggle, ask them to articulate why they are struggling.

Subtracting Real Numbers

These students also thrive on self-reflection. When learning real numbers' subtraction concepts, students could be asked to create a word problem, or story problem, that relates to a personal experience. These should not presented to the class but to the teacher in journal form.

Multiplying Real Numbers

Prior to the introduction of multiplication concepts, students should be asked to ascertain ideas about multiplication from what they have already learned. For instance, teachers could prompt students to write in their journals how the following two problems might relate to one another: "1/3 + 1/3+ 1/3" and 3 X 1/3."

Dividing Real Numbers

Similarly, students should use what they have learned about multiplication during any introduction to division, even though the core concepts may diverge from one another. Students could be charged to articulate a real-world scenario that they might encounter that would involve real numbers' division in their journals.

Properties of Real Numbers

Intrapersonal students would benefit from creating a "Properties Journal" or "Properties Packet" that serves as a personal study guide. Students would be urged to make the work visually appealing and correspond to their own tastes specifically. Each property could have a page that lists core concepts of the property, a personally applicable word problem, and other relevant information.

Order of Operations

Similar to the verbal-linguistic exercise for creating an alternative to GEMDAS, intrapersonal students could be asked to create their own device for remembering the order of operations. For instance, a student who likes music might assign band names to each letter or a student who likes sports might assign team names to each letter.

Variables

An introduction to variables might begin with a self-reflection on what an unknown is. For instance, the teacher could charge students to write in their journals regarding a time when something was unknown in their lives, and how that affected other areas of their life.

Naturalist Intelligence

Naturalist intelligence corresponds to knowledge of the living world. Those with naturalist intelligence are the biologists and environmentalists of the world. These students learn by interacting with nature and can often feel stifled in the classroom space.

Exploring Real Numbers

During real number exploration, students could be asked to bring in ten to twenty natural objects, such as rocks or shells, and use those to explore fractions, decimals, and other critical aspects of real numbers. Alternatively, the teacher could bring students outside and have them gather their objects on school grounds.

Adding Real Numbers

During addition, students could write a story about how a biologist, animal, or explorer would have utilized addition in the past. Students could pull words such as "ocean" or "woodcutter" out of a hat for creative inspiration.

Subtracting Real Numbers

Similarly, students could create word problems or story problems that correspond to the natural world for homework and exchange them during class the next day. Students would then be finding solutions to each others' created problems; this could be extended by having the second student who is solving the problems write a related problem designed for the original writer.

Multiplying Real Numbers

Naturalistic learners are inclined to investigate and solve problems similar to the way in which logical-mathematical learners are inclined to do the same (Gardner, 48). By extension, having students discover multiplication concepts is conducive to this type of intelligence. Teachers could present students with multiplication problems, such as .33 X .66, and charge them to find the answer first on a calculator and then work backward in order to extricate the steps for discovering the answer.

Dividing Real Numbers

With respect to division, teachers could present naturalistic students with nature-specific word problems or story problems. For instance students could relate cell division to real number division and teach this relationship to the biology class.

Properties of Real Numbers

Properties of real numbers can be taught using science-related scenarios as well. For instance, students could be asked to team with the science class or science teacher and discuss real-world instances of when scientists make use of the properties such as within chemistry formulas.

Order of Operations

The order of operations could be conveyed by unifying naturalistic and visual-spatial intelligence. Students could be asked to construct a representation of GEMDAS using natural objects (ie. twigs, pebbles, etc.). The class could then have an "Order of Operations Nature Exhibition."

Variables

Again relating back to scientific scenarios, naturalistic learners could discuss when there is an unknown in a scientific experiment and how the scientific method is similar to an equation. Students could then, in groups, endeavor to solve a problem using variables and the scientific method.

Visual-Spatial Intelligence

Visual-spatial intelligence relates to the creative, right brain. These learners are artists, engineers, and designers. They learn by seeing and, by extension, can struggle with abstract, mathematical concepts.

Exploring Real Numbers

The key to catering visual-spatial students is to facilitate creative, visual representation of mathematical concepts in space. While this is relatively simple in the realm of geometry, algebra can present more significant challenges when strategizing for this unique population. When exploring real numbers, charge students to represent concepts in their journals using vivid colors, perhaps red for negative numbers and black for positive numbers; green for proper fractions and orange for improper fractions.

Adding Real Numbers

When teaching these students about real numbers' addition, task them with creating a poster that would represent key concepts, such as a negative plus a negative equals a negative. Alternatively, groups of students could use physical objects such as blocks or popsicle sticks in order to explore addition concepts (Adams 86).

Subtracting Real Numbers

Similarly, students could prepare a work of visual art that relates to real number subtraction; this could overlap with verbal-linguistic activities in that the piece could have a written, background story and students should be able to defend elements of their piece. For instance, the right side of the sculpture is red because the solution to the problem was negative.

Multiplying Real Numbers

Working backward from the addition activity, students could be introduced to multiplication by exploring concepts visually in their journals and then assigning colors or shapes to key concepts. Students would then search for an artwork that embodies some or all of those elements. For instance, a Picasso painting might represent rules of fractional multiplication for some students.

Dividing Real Numbers

More simply, division could be explored through the use of paper cutting. Students could individually explore how a whole piece of paper might represent 4/4, and four pieces would need to be yielded if that paper was to be divided by four (Adams 86).

Properties of Real Numbers

With respect to properties of real numbers, visual-spatial students might struggle with the abstract concepts unless they can visualize the properties. Students could be placed in small groups or pairs and assigned a property, tasked with visually representing that property and then presenting their finished work to the class.

Order of Operations

Students could also visually demonstrate an alternative to GEMDAS. In groups, students could select a color or design element that corresponds to each function (ie. bold, red lines for subtraction) and then create a poster that embodies their ideas. Students should then defend their choices to the class or in a written document for assessment.

Variables

A creative introduction to variables could involve a strictly artistic task. Students could individually consider what an unknown is to them; this could be an extension of the intrapersonal, journaling exercise. Following a journaling experience, students would be tasked with creating a work of art that represents an unknown, and titling it accordingly.

Synthesis and Summation

Catering to the plurality of intelligences is one of the greatest burdens of twenty-first century mathematics teachers. However, many of the activities described herein correspond or can be extended to two or three intelligence areas. Improving the academic performance of students struggling in mathematics is rooted in strategies that relate to MIT. More saliently, however, constant observation of students and solicitation of feedback ensures that students are genuinely responding to teaching strategies (Lamarche and Bisson 268).

Works Cited

Adams, Thomasenia Lott. "Helping Children Learn Mathematics through Multiple Intelligences and Standards for School Mathematics." Childhood Education 77.2: 86.

Gardner, Howard. Intelligence Reframed Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, Howard. Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. New York: Basic Books.

Hill, Denise. "The Mathematics Pathway for All Children." Teaching Children Mathematics Oct: 127-131.

Lamarche-Bisson, Diane. "Learning Styles - What Are They? How Can They Help?." World and I: 268.

McClellan, Joyce A., and Gary J. Conti. "Identifying the Multiple Intelligences of Your Students." Journal of Adult Education 37.1: 13-20.

Vardin, Patricia A. "Montessori and Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences." Montessori Life Winter: 40-43.

Wills, Jody Kenny, and Aostre N. Johnson. "Multiply with MI: Using Multiple Intelligences to Master Multiplication." Teaching Children Mathematics: 260.

Teaching and Schooling - Research Paper Instructions

:

Write a Critical Summary that demonstrates an understanding of the selected chapter by stating the main point, argument, or thesis of the chapter, and then presenting a brief discussion, analysis, or evaluation of its contents.

Also answer the following based on your own opinion:

Employ your understanding of the chapter and its major points, arguments, or concepts to critically reflect on your own educational experience and your future thinking or practice as a teacher in an urban context. Your reflection must specifically address the following two questions:

1. What does one of the reading's major points, arguments, or concepts make you think or help you to understand/explain about your own experience in school?;

2. What does one of the reading's major points, arguments, or concepts make you think or help you to understand about your future practice as a teacher in the socially and culturally diverse context of urban schooling?

"The Importance of Presence: Immigrant Parents' School Engagement Experiences" by Carreon, Drake, and Barton conveys some of the finding from four years of research they have conducted on the relationships that immigrant parents in high-poverty urban areas desire and develop with their children's formal education. This includes their relationships with the physical space, educators and administrators, and their children's experiences of education.

They noted that parents, teachers, administrators, and policymakers did not share "a common understanding" of what parental involvement should be and that disparity was echoed in the literature. However, parental involvement has been consistently correlated with higher academic performance, test scores, positive attitudes, homework completion, behavior, and retention. However, the authors note that previous research reveals that parents who disagree with the schools are considered troublesome and that parents do not experience school-planned activities as invitations to participation. The study also cites the statistic that about one in six children in the U.S. live with an immigrant parent or guardian.

Parents are aware that activities to improve the quality of education are not level or equitable, but are defined by administrators, legislators, and educators. One parent noted that though 60% of her son's school is Latino, there was not one person who spoke Spanish in the administration. The article includes three case studies of parents and describes a variety of types of educational involvement. The authors' conclusions include that parental involvement does not have to occur on school grounds, but can include dedicated efforts at home or in other private spaces that effectively support their children's educations. However, they also highlight the necessity of a parent having at least one trust ally within the school's system of educators and administrators.

I appreciated the researcher's realization that school-based activities are hierarchical, especially for poor, working class, immigrant, and/ or minority people. The school's authority in those circumstances can be cultural, linguistic, and professional, all at the same time. Parents know that even in ideal circumstances, failure to comply with the school and its administrators can alienate them and their children from educators and the educational framework. There can also be complicating factors involving whether people are documented and their fear of repercussions, whether they are documented or not, regarding immigration status. For my own parents, I did sometimes see them intimated by school officials. At times I witnessed school officials intentionally use their positions to intimidate my mother out of expressing concerns, usually by being condescending and patronizing.

How much my mother was involved in school related events depended on whether she was comfortable with the teachers that I had. Certain teachers were more hostile and condescending to parents in general and it worked for them because few parents would involve themselves in classes and students became silent and withdrawn. Friendlier, kinder teachers always had enough parent help for outings or in-class events and the other teachers usually avoided any such activities. Upon reflection, it is easy to see creating positive relationships with parents enables teachers to do more with their classes and to do those additional activities more easily because of the support they had in and out of the classroom.

That a school with a 60% Latino student body has no bilingual staff is more than an administrative hurdle for parents. Though it is of course as significant practical problem, it also suggests to students and parents that they are not welcome, that the school is not theirs in the same way it belongs to other students and parents. For a school in predominantly Latino community to have no Spanish speaking staff is not possible by mere coincidence. This is a reminder to advocate for representative staff who can meet the needs of students, which means a staff that can effectively communicate with students. Our jobs are not to teach or serve a single imaginary student, but to teach the many real students who are in our classrooms.

That is, many people imagine that there is a normal student, probably white, probably of average intelligence, with parents who can always afford supplies, and who shows above average compliance in the classroom. Students who do not fit that bill become special problems, and teaching them is framed as additional or exceptional work. I would suggest a framing where we imagine our jobs is to teach the children in front of us, rather than to approach our classrooms as a series of varied deviations and exceptions.

Respecting difference means welcoming it and in order to do that it is necessary that the children you teach are normal, whoever they are. I believe that, whenever possible, it is important to live where one teaches. It is also important to remember that urban and minority schools are not always diverse. I have sometimes heard neighborhoods that were 90% or more Black or African American referred to as diverse, because the person's perspective is still white. Using diversity as a euphemism for ethnic communities ends up portraying their lives as unusual. As a teacher of young people, I think an important to resist that by ensuring that my classroom and my style is not aimed toward an imaginary middle, but actually teaches and welcomes my students, their lives, and their families.

Write a Critical Summary that demonstrates an understanding of the selected chapter by stating the main point, argument, or thesis of the chapter, and then presenting a brief discussion, analysis, or evaluation of its contents.

Also answer the following based on your own opinion:

Employ your understanding of the chapter and its major points, arguments, or concepts to critically reflect on your own educational experience and your future thinking or practice as a teacher in an urban context. Your reflection must specifically address the following two questions:

1) What does one of the reading's major points, arguments, or concepts make you think or help you to understand/explain about your own experience in school?; and,

2) What does one of the reading's major points, arguments, or concepts make you think or help you to understand about your future practice as a teacher in the socially and culturally diverse context of urban schooling?

Book: Cultural Nature of Human Development (Author: Rogoff) Chapter 9: Cultural change and relations among communities

Cultural Changes in Communities

Cultural Changes - Point I

This chapter made it clear that people are functioning within several cultural contexts and traditions. Many people are living as immigrants, or have families that have lived as immigrants or minority group members with lives that have many different cultural traditions. Of those who have a cultural heritage that matches the dominant one of the nation, they still may live in neighborhoods or schools that are culturally diverse. Some families rely on children to serve as translators, which can help children develop. This can help encourage children in one way, allowing children to serve as a bridge; at the same time, children may be conflicted as to whether to serve or act in the American way, or according to their cultural heritage. Children benefit by learning various cultural traditions. This helps them value their own background, and understand diversity better. This can encourage confidence within the community, at school, and in the future workplace. I find all of this to be true.

Growing up in an ethnically diverse neighborhood, I witnessed firsthand children translating for parents that had no ability to speak English. Sometimes this was frustrating for children that had to be dragged away from games or other activities to serve as a translator for their parents. At the same time, one of the best paying positions in the workforce presently is to serve as a translator. Thus, many of these children are learning skills that may serve them well into the future. It is also important that as a community and in schools, we learn to value the diversity that is inherent in our cultural traditions. It can be conflicting learning to embrace cultural heritage, but also the American heritage.

Cultural Changes - Point II

As a teacher, I think it is important to teach children to embrace their diversity, and personal heritage, while also thinking in terms of national culture. Learning to help children embrace diversity, and learn to take pride in their personal traditions, and see the value in this, can be rewarding and help children learn to be confident, self-aware, and confident individuals as students and community members. I do not see why it has to be one way or the other. Rather, it is important for students to intermingle and develop friendships with individuals from multiple cultures. The text notes that diversity is present, but can also present challenges including hostility and resentment, resulting from multiple reasons including stereotypical behaviors or cultural misunderstandings. However, working with children and schools to adopt behaviors that teach cultural awareness can improve the odds that children in academia will learn to embrace cultural differences rather than engage in hostility or cultural blindness. Teaching cultural awareness can help prevent cliques from forming, which can be segregating and spread into stereotypical behaviors.

It is common for friendships to form around similar bonds. I would encourage friendships to form around common bonds. However, rather than encourage students to bond around a minority bond or something similar, I would rather see students bond and find common strengths like strong communication skills, reading skills or other academic strengths, rather than see students form rivalries because of cultural conditions with other groups based on cultural factors. As the text pointed out, it is important that groups in school and in communities learn to respect one another. Mutual respect can be formed for many reasons. One way that respect can develop is by discouraging negative stereotypes that often form of individuals based on ethnic or cultural reasons and stereotypes.

Cultural Changes - Point III

My own experience in school has taught me that cultural differences are commonplace and school, and often a cause for misunderstanding and cause for miscommunication. People tend to want to compete for resources. Social arrangements however, can easily be made when people reach for a common goal. I have been successful at making very good relationships in school, largely because I have learned to relate to other students based on the want to promote respect, and the want to build friendships with people. This has taken considerably effort and a desire to meet other people, and a desire to want to learn about other cultures. If there is support for this, and a forum for people to have an opportunity to do this, as I have found there often is depending on the school environment, then friendships can more easily form. In the event there is friction, normally mediation or collaboration can take place with third parties in a neutral environment where individuals have an opportunity for shared growth. One difficulty that can present is a lack of resources. This can breed fear for scarcity.

When there is a competition for resources, if a means to develop greater resources can be found, then students and communities are less likely to argue over getting what they need. Instead, the common goal can be acquiring the resources that everyone needs, rather than fighting over the few resources that exist. People can learn to relate to one another, and work better together to find a mutual benefit in this regard. The key is finding strong people to communicate this common purpose, and finding initiators that will take the first steps toward realizing this goal. Typically, influential people work best, or members of the community that already carry influence among their common culture or party, that can influence people to work together among people that might otherwise might not be inclined to do so. Breaking down barriers including fear may take time, but in the end, it is very much worth the effort. Students are as much a family as one's natural family. When people begin realizing this, then much power and possibility is realized for radical reform.

Works Cited

Rogoff, B. The Cultural Nature of Human Development. Oxford University Press.

Teaching Students about Diverse Culture

Education can have a significant impact upon the perspective of children which lasts well into adulthood: according to Joel Spring, the ways in which the Native Americans were painted as primitive and savage by many American textbooks was not simply unjust and misleading but had a real, material impact upon the ways in which the community was treated in the U.S. Education is also often a battleground of ideology, whereby the racial assumptions of a nation are written. Education can also be an instrument of control. Fears of racial mixing in education were present prior to the Civil War even amongst Americans who ostensibly were opposed to slavery. African-Americans were actively punished for learning to read in the south (Spring 3).

The history of America in regards to historically-marginalized groups has affected their education: enslavement in the case of African-Americans and colonization in the case of Hispanic-Americans. In the case of segregated schools in the South, the conflict between supporters of integration and proponents of segregation became so violent federal intervention was necessary (Spring 3). However, assimilation has also proven to be a powerful, negative tool in the wars that have ensued in America over race. Minority groups have been taught that their culture is something that is not compatible with American citizenship and must be overcome, as was the case with Native American children, for example. There is an agenda of decultralization, or denial of pluralism within the U.S. in terms of its cultural landscape, even while the U.S. is ostensibly a democratic nation.

Although the U.S. no longer has segregated schools or tries to 'reeducate' Native American children about the superiority of white culture, there are still more subtle examples of oppression within the educational system, including, according to Spring, the tendency to overlook the influence of racism in the shaping of the American worldview, laws, and government (Spring 5). America is a nation modeled upon creating consumers that adhere to a particularly type of lifestyle-Thomas Jefferson admitted as much when he called for the Native Americans to be weaned off of viewing the land as collectively owed and by forcing them to abandon hunting for agriculture.

America, after all, was not begun as an experiment in democracy but by European colonists who had a firm belief in their own cultural superiority and a past history of exercising that influence over other, often nonwhite peoples. (The Irish, incidentally, were not regarded as white but as savages in the 19th century) (Spring 6). The anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, slaveholding status of our Founding Fathers makes many teachers uncomfortable, even though it is the true history of America.

In my own classes, my education has not been so 'whitewashed' that I was unaware of the history described by Spring. I think the ideology of 'America first' is not only advanced in school but also in the wider media and culture. Schools can take a more proactive role in encouraging students to think critically about their race and culture and to at least grow more self-reflective about the losses which other peoples have incurred to support American expansion.

As an educator, I believe I must make a commitment to truly teaching a diverse range of cultural views. It is not enough, for example, to note that Native Americans and Africans were oppressed or colonized, but to give adequate attention to their competing worldviews and viewpoints and to treat their cultures as valuable and worthy of respect.

Unit Plan: Learning Teamwork

Unit Overview

The emerging interconnectivity of the international community has positioned collaboration, teamwork, and effective communication strategies at the forefront of global citizenship. The socialization of elementary school students within the United States toward support of these elements is therefore crucial, with teamwork representing an essential skill that will aid children throughout their academic lives and well into the future. This unit focuses on various elements of teamwork for a third-grade classroom, affording particular attention to navigating diversity, enhancing trust, supporting communication, and encouraging group creativity.

The five-plan unit applies various techniques which can be applied in multiple disciplines, with language arts, social studies, and visual arts being particularly applicable to the lessons contained herein. The entire unit will take three weeks to complete, assuming that time and energy are devoted to the lessons on a daily basis. An overarching goal of the unit is to aid students in supporting personal autonomy within the team environment, becoming more conscious of the ways in which their personal actions contribute to the team's effectiveness.

Assessment Techniques

Cumulative portfolios will be created by each team throughout the course of the unit, with each student tasked with organizing their own section of the team portfolio; contained within each student's personal section will be reflective journaling, peer and team reviews, and progress reports regarding the team's evolution. The individual student sections of the portfolios will be reviewed by the teacher after each of the first four lessons are completed in order to allow for amendment of the lesson if adequate progress is not being made. The student portfolio analysis will allow for the educator to be sure the objectives are being met, with a key aspect of successful teamwork being the equitable contribution of each individual. If the portfolios suggest that the students are not contributing equally to the team, roles may need to be rearranged or the educator may need to afford greater attention to one team over another.

The final assessment of the team portfolio will be completed after the fifth lesson. This represents the cumulative work completed by the teams, with each team receiving a final grade weighted to equal the individual grades. The assessment of the team portfolio will be used to assess the group dynamic in general, the effectiveness of the teams as a single unit rather than a collaboration of individual contributions, and the ability of each team to produce a cohesive, final product for all of the work they have completed in the unit. In terms of both the individual portfolio sections as well as the final team portfolio, this formative method was chosen in order to allow for greater, qualitative, comprehensive assessment of individual and team progress. Summative, standardized tests would not afford the educator sufficient understanding of team progress and individual perspectives. Additionally, the linkages between the unit and the humanities, namely language arts, visual arts, and social studies, validate such assessment for its ability to support multidimensional narratives on the parts of all students.

Unit Lesson Plans

Lesson 1: Elements of Teamwork and Team Collage

Grade Level: 3

Duration: Day 1, 1 Hour

Subjects: Language and Visual Arts, Social Skills

Content Standards: Language Standards: Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking; Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing. Visual Arts Standards: Students apply artistic processes and skills, using a variety of media to communicate meaning and intent in original works of art.

ELL Standards: Standards 1 and 2: The Language of Social Skills and the Language of Language Arts

Vocabulary: Team, Collaboration, Diversity

Materials: Premade PowerPoint presentation on the Elements of Teamwork, Construction Paper, Markers, Crayons, Scissors, Magazines, Unit Folders for EACH STUDENT

Objectives:

1. Teacher will place students in teams of four; for the duration of the unit, desks will be arranged in these team groups.

2. Teacher will present the elements of teamwork via a multimedia presentation. Students will be asked what they believe a team is, why teams are important, and what different types of teams are.

3. Students will individually create "Team Collages" which will reflect understanding of the various kinds of teams. The collages will be the first element of the portfolios.

Checking for Understanding: Teacher will float from group to group to check for understanding an evaluate the collages.

Closure: Teacher will ask students to begin thinking about what they like to do, their hobbies, favorite subjects, etc., and how their abilities/skills/preferences can contribute to the group.

Independent Practice: Students will brainstorm, on lined paper, their favorite activities and subjects; this will enter into the student portfolios.

Assessment: By the end of this lesson, students will have two things in their Unit folder; the collage and the brainstormed preferences/skills.

Homework: None

Lesson 2: Team Culture

Grade Level: 3

Duration: Days 2-4, 1 Hour Daily, 3 Hours Total

Subjects: Language and Visual Arts, Social Skills

Content Standards: Social Skill Standards: "3.4 Students understand the role of rules and laws in our daily lives and the basic structure of the U.S. government. Determine the reasons for rules, laws, and the U.S. Constitution; the role of citizenship in the promotion of rules and laws; and the consequences for people who violate rules and laws. Discuss the importance of public virtue and the role of citizens, including how to participate in a classroom, in the community, and in civic life." Language Arts Standards: Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing.

ELL Standards: Standards 1 and 2: The Language of Social Skills and the Language of Language Arts

Vocabulary: Culture, rules, laws, government

Materials: Lined Paper and Pencils, Construction Paper

Objectives:

1. FOLLOWING a social studies lesson on rules, laws, and government, the teacher will introduce the team as a small society/community.

Day 1:

2. The teacher will ask students to name some laws that are important in society, writing responses on white board.

3. The teacher will ask students to designate one student in the group to be the scribe, and write down suggestions for "team rules" (Included in Team Portfolio).

Day 2:

4. Teacher will review the previous day's content and introduce the Bill of Rights project.

5. Each team will create a Bill of Rights for their team members on construction paper, drawing from the previous day's rules discussion and name their teams (included in Team Portfolio).

6. Teams will present their Bill of Rights to class.

Day 3:

7. Teacher will review previous day's content and introduce "team culture."

8. Each team will discuss what is important to their team (ie. Honesty, trust, etc.).

9. Individually, students will write ten sentences about why their team is special (included in unit folders).

Checking for Understanding: The teacher will float from group to group to check for understanding and assess each of the day's content individually.

Closure: The teacher will summarize/synthesize the lesson by going around the room , acknowledging each team by name, and citing what is important to that team.

Independent Practice: See Number 9

Assessment: Student Unit Folders now include content from lessons 1 and 2; from lesson 2, the folders contain the "why my team is special." The team portfolios now include a bill of rights, team name, and team rules.

Homework: None

Lesson 3: Team Logo Project

Grade Level: 3

Duration: Day 5, 1 Hour

Subjects: Language and Visual Arts, Social Skills

Content Standards: Visual Arts: 5.3 Visual Literacy: Look at images in figurative works of art and predict what might happen next, telling what clues in the work support their ideas; 2.0 Creative Expression: Students apply artistic processes and skills....

ELL Standards: Standards 1 and 2: The Language of Social Skills and the Language of Language Arts

Vocabulary: Logos, Marketing, Brand.

Materials: Magazines, markers, construction paper, premade PowerPoint presentation on logos

Objectives:

1. Teacher will introduce various logos via slides and have students guess at their representation.

2. Teacher will have students begin looking at the visual elements of the logo (ie color, size, shape, line, etc.) and discuss how they make them feel.

3. Teacher will recount the team's names and elements from Lesson 2, giving teams time to brainstorm regarding how they could visually represent their team.

4. Teacher will designate one team member to be in charge of the color of the logo, one team member to be in charge of the size of the logo, one team member to be in charge of the shape of the logo, and one team member to be in charge of the slogan which will be associated with the logo.

5. Students will have thirty minutes to design their logos on construction paper and include in the team portfolio.

Checking for Understanding: During the brainstorming session and logo-creation, the teacher will move between groups to check for understanding.

Closure: The teacher will briefly move through all teams and have them present their logos with their chosen slogan.
Independent Practice: See Homework.

Assessment: The team portfolios will now contain the logo and the slogan from this lesson, while the individual unit folders/portfolios will contain the following homework.

Homework: Students will, over the weekend, create their own personal logo and slogan.

Lesson 4: Team Diversity and Leadership Project

Grade Level: 3

Duration: Week 2: Days 1-5

Subjects: Language and Visual Arts, Social Skills

Content Standards: Language Arts: Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking; Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing. Social Studies: 3.3 Students draw from historical and community resources to organize the sequence of local historical events and describe how each period of settlement left its mark on the land.

ELL Standards: Standards 1 and 2: The Language of Social Skills and the Language of Language Arts

Vocabulary: Leadership, Communication, Diversity, Mission

Materials: Construction paper, drawing materials, PowerPoint Presentation on Leaders, building blocks, trash bags, computers for each team with internet access.

Objectives:

Day 1:

1. Teacher will present a wide range of relevant leaders within communities, drawing from a Social Studies lesson regarding community formation (see Standards).

2. Students will be asked to discuss what makes a good leader.

3. Individually, students will write one paragraph beginning with the prompt "I am a good leader because...".

Day 2:

4. Teacher will review leadership, and have students review the content from lesson one regarding their unique abilities/skills/attributes.

5. Teacher will cite that each of the next days within the lesson will have a different group member as "leader," with each day focused upon one activity that the day's leader will direct.

6. Teacher designates the leader for each group for Day 2.

7. Teacher cites that the activity for the day is to construct a building out of blocks (the building can be framed as the team community's "center/capitol/etc.")

8. Leaders will lead the activity within the groups, and the teams will end the activity by reflecting on the leadership of the group (the leader will write a self-evaluation, and all team members will write a peer evaluation).

Day 3:

9. Teacher designates a new leader for Day 3 and introduces the next task.

10. Day 3's task is to clean a designated portion of the playground (pick up trash, etc.).

11. The leader will lead this task, and the teams will end the activity by reflecting on the leadership of the group (the leader will write a self-evaluation, and all team members will write a peer evaluation).

Day 4:

12. Teacher designates a new leader for Day 4 and introduces the next task.

13. Day 4's task is to conduct an internet search on a local community/neighborhood (history, places of interest, etc.) and prepare a very brief report.

14. The leader will lead this task, and the teams will end the activity by reflecting on the leadership of the group (the leader will write a self-evaluation, and all team members will write a peer evaluation).

Day 5:

15. On this final day of the leadership lesson, the teacher will designate a new leader for Day 5 and introduce the final leadership task.

16. Day 5's task is to assess/brainstorm issues which really matter to a local community (for instance, a local community center closing, a community garden opening, etc.) and compile a list of these issues.

17. The leader will lead this task, and the teams will end the activity by reflecting on the leadership of the group (the leader will write a self-evaluation, and all team members will write a peer evaluation).

Checking for Understanding: The teacher will be very involved in moving between the groups in order to ensure students understand all four tasks. The peer/self evaluations will be reviewed as well in order to check for understanding.

Closure: The teacher will close this task by offering all students a "Leadership Certificate" and reading some of the positive peer comments on their leadership skills.

Independent Practice: Peer and Self Reviews are conducted independently each day.

Assessment: Contained within the student portfolio by the end of this lesson will be peer and self reviews as well as the "I am a good leader because" writing. The team portfolio will contain the community assessment projects from Day 4 and the community issues project from Day 5.

Homework: None

Lesson 5: Team Community Project

Grade Level: 3

Duration: Week 3: Days 1-5, 1 Hour each day

Subjects: Language and Visual Arts, Social Skills

Content Standards: Language Arts: Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking; Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing. Social Studies: 3.3 Students draw from historical and community resources to organize the sequence of local historical events and describe how each period of settlement left its mark on the land.

ELL Standards: Standards 1 and 2: The Language of Social Skills and the Language of Language Arts

Vocabulary: Strategy, Mission, Presentation, Plan

Materials: Construction paper, writing materials, computers with internet access for each team,

Objectives:

Day 1:

1. Teacher will review dominant concepts from unit thus far, including the leadership issues from the previous week, the culture of the team, and the importance of team diversity.

2. Teacher will present the lesson for the week by citing that all teams will create a community goal that addresses one of the issues from Day 5 of Lesson 4. The teams will then brainstorm about what issue they will be working with throughout the week.

3. Individually, students will write about their team's issue (ie. The community garden is important to me because...".

Day 2:

4. Teacher will present various mission statements for companies/organizations.

5. Teacher will ask all teams to write a mission for their project, using their team's name.

6. Teams will present their missions.

Days 3 and 4:

7. Teacher will present various strategic plans (simple) and discuss the importance of plans when seeking to achieve a given goal.

8. Teacher will ask teams to create a ten-step plan for achieving their goal, with this plan recorded on paper to be included in the portfolio.

9. Teams will assemble their team's portfolios in preparation for the final presentations the next day.

Day 5:

10. All teams will present their portfolios to the class, discuss their strategy and plans for achieving their community goal.

11. Individually, students will write final reviews on the team experience, responding to the prompts "I liked the team lessons because/ I did not like the team lessons because"

Checking for Understanding: The teacher will move around the room throughout the five days in order to ensure understanding and, most saliently, ensure that students are choosing reasonable goals and strategies.

Closure: The lesson will close by all teams receiving a "Teamwork Reward"

Independent Practice: See numbers 3 and 11.

Assessment: At the conclusion of the Unit, the teacher will grade the team portfolios which contain all of the team-specific work as well as the student's individual folders. The teacher will give a team grade as well as an individual grade to each student, equally weighted.

Team Portfolio:

- Lesson 2 Bill of Rights, Team name, Team rules
- Lesson 3 Logo and Slogan
- Lesson 4 Community Brainstorming and Issues list from Days 4 and 5
- Lesson 5 Mission and 10-Step Plan

Individual Student Folders:

- Lesson I Collage and Preferences List (2 Items)
- Lesson 2 "Why my team is special"
- Lesson 3 personal logo and slogan
- Lesson 4 peer and self-reviews on leadership experience and "I am a good leader because" exercise
- Lesson 5 assignment on why the community project is personally important

Homework: None

1. Watch a tv show or video online for ~1 hour (little less or more is fine). Video/show MUST be in a different language from yours to the point where you understand LITTLE to NOTHING. Then write about your reaction to this experience. You must comment on (a) what you thought the show/video was about. (b) How you made sense of what you were watching. (c) How you felt while watching. (d) and a different language to English language learner may effect them and how you will teach them correctly.

2. Teach yourself how to do something completely new (scuba dive, sing in public, play an instrument, eat new food, etc). Explain how the process was for you to do/learn something new. Relate this process/product to what you have learned about second language acquisition and content area instruction. How will this be applied to teaching?

3. Observe a classroom of your choice. Write a reflection on the lesson observed. Discuss how the ELD teacher, SDAIE teacher, and special ed teachers work together to ensure ELLs, IEP, ISP, or section 504.

4. Interview with parents (own or others) about Urban schooling/society. More information given afterwards.

1. Film in Nigerian

Certain elements of human communication are universal despite sociocultural differences. Increasingly, as the global community becomes unprecedentedly interconnected, the similarities and differences between the languages of nations which have long been isolated from one another are becoming apparent. The advent of Web 2.0 technology and the consequent social media has created opportunities for individuals to be exposed to a wide spectrum of language without leaving their homes, with file-sharing sites such as YouTube and Instagram paralleling social networking sites such as Facebook in their promotion of cross-lingual relationships. Additionally and perhaps more saliently, the interconnectivity of the human community has opened doors to political and social changes by rendering issues and events which would be otherwise unseen in wealthy, Western societies very visible. The following inquiry responds to my viewing experience of a video dedicated to various aspects of the Nigerian schoolgirl abduction, all of which were in the Nigerian language.

While I was aware of the abduction of the Nigerian schoolgirls, the precise context of the video was unknown. The description of the video online was ambiguous and I assumed it was primarily interviews with the families of the kidnapped girls. However, the content of the video proved to be markedly diverse, including long portions of video dedicated to the leaders of Boko Haram, military scenes, and classroom scenes of presumably Nigerian schools; all of this was interspersed with significant videos of protests that did not all seem to be located in Nigeria but also other nations.

I tried not to infer any information about the kidnappings while watching the video and am still unsure of the precise media context for the video; it could have been privately directed or a news piece. The video began by showing jungle scenes with a Nigerian voice-over, and the rhythm of the language oscillated between angry and loud to low and melancholy; these scenes were communicatively ambiguous compared to those of the wailing mothers holding signs demanding their children be found. I do not speak Nigerian, but the emotion on the women's faces was pure anguish and genuine rage. During these scenes, and there were many, I made sense of the content by the sounds, expressions, and body language of the women; these were all very intense. Additionally, they were holding pictures of their daughters which clearly highlighted why they were protesting, even in the absence of any knowledge about the kidnappings.

The content focusing on the interviews with Boko Haram leaders, some of which were parts of the actual films released by the leaders was strange, with the language generally monotonous in tone but intermittently becoming jovial and containing laughter. These parts of the video were largely unsettling, because the communication seemed unpredictable. I assumed he was making demands or delineating his reasoning for the kidnappings, but he seemed to be very informal. The communication had little genuine emotion behind it but still seemed unplanned, and I had a difficult time making sense of these sections of the video. Ultimately, the aspects the video which evoked the most emotion for me were those of the crying mothers, while the Boko Haram scenes were primarily confusing. As a language teacher, I would promote understanding of the value within facial expressions and body language as integral supplements to spoken language, urging my students to acknowledge the interconnectivity between various human cultures.

2. Knitting

The acquisition of a new language is similar to the acquisition of a new skill in several ways; it is challenging and requires dedication as well as experience. Over time, the new language becomes more easily accessed through increased exposure, but, in the beginning, learning the new language is significantly arduous. The language learner must be prepared to encounter barriers, add to existing knowledge, and generally be aware that the journey to language acquisition is not an easy one. The following inquiry compares learning a new language to my experience learning how to knit, a skill that my mother always urged me to acquire but I resisted for various reasons.

Prior to learning how to knit, my existing knowledge about the skill was very minimal; I had watched my mother and sister knit entire blankets in a few days, moving very quickly with the needles and barely even looking at their work. However, I had never truly paid attention from the perspective of a prospective learner. I wanted to at least attempt to teach myself on my own, using the internet as a primary source, so I began by searching the basics. I found a few YouTube videos which were very basic, but I was still confused about the materials I needed. The salesperson at the craft store told me that larger and longer needles were easier to work with, so I bought cheap, nylon yarn and a pair of pricey bamboo needles in the largest size I could find.

I learned the basics of straight knitting, applicable to scarves and blankets, very quickly. Casting on was difficult at first, and I admit that I do not do it the precise way the videos recommend; it makes more sense to me to wind the yarn around with my fingers in a way that diverges significantly from what I had seen in the videos. My first few rows of knitting were completely botched; I had dropped several stitches and changed directions without really noticing. After a few days of picking up my knitting whenever I had a few spare moments, however, my common mistakes became less frequent. After a few weeks, I was able to knit scarves and blankets very quickly, was experimenting with decorative yarns and different needle sizes, and was trying to read more challenging patterns. Once I felt I had mastered straight knitting, however, I attempted to apply what I knew to knitting socks and mittens; this was so glaringly different, however, that I became frustrated and temporarily gave up. After knitting at least a little bit every day for a month, I did not knit anything for several weeks before starting again. Presently, I am continuing to struggle with any type of pattern that is not straight knitting, but I am trying not to get frustrated in the process.

The hurdle I encountered when I attempted to add to my existing knowledge is a common one when learning a new skill, and I believe that the most difficult aspect of the process was admitting that while I had mastered a small aspect of the skill, there was still very much to learn. Languages are complex and demand years of practice; some would say there is no true native-level mastery of a second language after a certain age. In teaching language acquisition, I would encourage students to remain motivated but not committed to any sort of mastery, with experience and practice necessarily supplementing formal instruction.

3. Classroom Observation

The ability of educational professionals to work closely with one another and mutually support the learning process is critical to the ability of language learners to achieve their full potential. ELD, SDAIE, and special education teachers must work together to promote the learning process for relevant students. The following inquiry provides an overview of an observation which was contextualized within a general education classroom in grade three of a public school.

The lesson focused on astronomy, specifically on the solar system. There were two English language learners (ELLs) in the classroom, both of whom had an IEP. Prior discussion with the general classroom teacher highlighted that the ELD and SDAIE teachers frequently worked in partnership in the classroom, and that no special education teacher was utilized for these two particular boys, both of whom were eight years old and native Spanish speakers. During the observation, only the SDAIE teacher was present. However, the ELD and SDAIE teacher had met prior to the lesson and discussed their collaboration with respect to relating language learning to the third-grade science standards. The SDAIE teacher sat in close proximity to the two ELLS but not with them, and the instruction was primarily delivered by the classroom teacher. The relationship between the planets and the sun was discussed, with PowerPoint presentations used in addition to a handout. Both of the boys had a copy of the presentation in Spanish, but it was text-only; it seemed that both boys were missing out on the visuals within the presentation by being overly concerned with their handouts. The SDAIE teacher only communicated with the boys once, ensuring that they understood the instructions for homework and going over the worksheet with them.

In reflection, it seemed that the SDAIE could have been more involved with the boys by translating what needed to be translated instead of having them rely heavily on their handouts. Overall, however, it seemed that the boys did clearly understand the content and what was expected of them for homework, but they missed out on the visual learning experience of the presentation. In the absence of actually witnessing the SDAIE and ELD teacher work with one another, I am unsure as to the extent of their collaboration. However, the classroom teacher assured me that the professionals are very collaborative in nature and communicate every few hours with one another. They are frequently in the classroom together, but this was a unique day which demanded the ELD teacher be elsewhere in the building.

4. Interviews

Gender inequality remains a significant problem within elementary schools, with significant research suggesting that female students are treated differently than male students with respect to communication, subjects such as mathematics, and disciplinary processes. The following interviews took place over the course of several days in an urban public school in California, with the three interviews following the same protocol. The participants were one father and two mothers in four separate families, all of whom had daughters who attended the school in grades one through three.

The interview protocol was structured to highlight whether the participants believed that gender discrimination existed within elementary schools and, more saliently, the extent to which they believed this problem to be systemic in nature. Rogoff (2003) suggests that individuals are socialized to become members of cultural communities, with cultural norms and values systems thus inextricably bound to the particular agent of socialization. In this instance, the socialization agent is the elementary school, with the belief that gender discrimination exists in elementary schools thus paramount to the perpetuation or converse weakening of gender-based prejudices. In essence, schools exist, in part, to convey cultural norms to children, with discriminatory practices then particularly problematic in the elementary school environment. The following report documents the participants and their answers, with the five questions as follows:

1. Do you believe that your daughter's education is affected by her gender?

2. How do you feel about male or female teachers for your daughter? Do you have a preference?

3. Have you noticed any differences in communication between your daughter's male teachers versus her female teachers?

4. Do you believe your daughters' performance in mathematics or science is hindered at all by her teacher's instructional or communicative style?

5. As a parent, what do you believe your role is in empowering your daughter within her academic experience?

Participant A: John Juarez, High School Graduate, Construction Foreman, Daughter: Nita Juarez, Grade 2, [School and Location], Middle Class, Interview 5/14, 12:30pm at the School

Participant B: Sandy Middleton, BA in Journalism, Administrative Assistant, Daughter: Janine Middleton, Grade 3, [School and Location], Upper-Middle Class, Interview 5/14, 12:50 at School

Participant C: Joy Wright, High School Graduate, Stay-at-Home Mother, Daughter: Rowan Wright, Grade 1, [School and Location], Middle Class, Interview 5/15, 12pm at School

Interview Summaries and Analysis

Participant A's Interview:

Question 1: "My daughter's education is not negatively affected by her gender, if that's what you mean. In fact, I believe she is treated better, as a girl, than most of the male students in her class."

Question 2: "I have no preference, as long as they're good at what they do."

Question 3: "No, but I wouldn't know. I rarely get to see them communicate with one another since I work all day while she is in school."

Question 4: "Again, I wouldn't know."

Question 5: "I encourage her in school the way I encourage her in everything; she can do whatever it is she wants in this world. No one will stop her."

Participant A's interview focused largely on the interviewee offering short-duration answers; it was the briefest interview of the three. The interviewee was defensive regarding the issues raised in the interview and seemed unwilling to speak about most of the questions. In summation, Participant A's answers highlight that he does not believe gender issues to significantly impact his daughter's schooling.

Participant B's Interview:

Question 1: "Absolutely. My daughter is affected by her gender in the classroom the way she will be affected by her gender in all areas of her life; it is unfortunate, but it is reality."

- "Socialized to be compassionate and nurturing"

- "Taught what good little girls should do"

- "The same with male and female teachers"

Question 2: "Not really. Male and female teachers are equally guilty of subjugating female students. It's our culture."

Question 3: "My instinct is to say that I prefer female teachers, but I don't believe that's really true. It is my hope that schools will eventually be vehicles for gender equality, but that is not the case now. And definitely not in this school."

Question 4: "Yes. Absolutely. Girls are taught they can't do well in math and science, and the teaching system is biased to support this; it's a subtle but pervasive problem."

Question 5: "I believe that it is my role to encourage my daughter to think critically about everything, and to be aware of how schools are cultural institutions which can act to reinforce inequities.

In contrast to Participant A, Participant B adamantly believed that gender issues affected her daughter's schooling. She believed these issues, more saliently, to be systemic in nature rather than indicative of individual biases. In summation, this interviewee was the most vocal regarding gender discrimination in elementary schools.

Participant C's Interview:

Question 1: "Yes, unfortunately, but it seems to depend on the teacher. She's had wonderful teachers which motivate her, both men and women, and she's had terrible teachers of both genders as well."

Question 2: "Her best teacher was a man; he encouraged her in everything that she did, and he was wonderful. He told her that she could become an astronaut if she wanted, and she still talks about that."

Question 3: "Not personally, but that doesn't mean it doesn't exist."

Question 4: "Again, I'm not really sure. It's possible, but I haven't seen it happen. I think that might be something that becomes a problem later in life but not so much now."

Question 5: "I think I need to be endlessly supportive; that's my role. If a teacher treats her differently because she's a girl, then I will call them out on it. I don't think there's a need to highlight a problem that may not exist, though."

Participant C seemed to fall mid-way on the spectrum between believing gender issues are a significant problem in elementary schools, the position taken by Participant B, or rejecting the notion that gender problems existed in elementary school, the position taken by Participant A. In summation, Participant C acknowledged that gender discrimination existed but did not suggest it was a widespread, systemic problem.

Clearly, the father held a divergent perspective on gender equality in the classroom from the two mothers. While the father rejected the notion that gender inequality existed in his daughter's academic experience, both of the mothers highlighted that the problem did indeed affect their daughters at various times in their lives. Interestingly, while Participant C's interview was very brief, with the mother at first acknowledging inequities and then becoming resistant to talking about them, Participant B's interview was twice as long in duration and the mother was very open to talking about all of the issues raised.

All three parents believe they are positioned to empower their daughters as needed, and both women acknowledged that male and female teachers are both guilty of gender oppression. Outside of the interview protocol, Participant B offered hope that gender equality would actually begin in schools and then enter into other areas of the social, political, and economic spheres, but she offered only limited hope that this will occur in the near future. The interviews generally aligned with the literature, highlighted that gender issues are apparent even in elementary school, with gender roles socialized in lower grade classrooms.

Notably, all three interviews seemed resistant to recounting any specific stories about their daughter's education, with even Participant B failing to delineate any specific narrative of an experience that would back-up her key points; despite her full disclosure and streamlined viewpoints, she did not seem to have any specific information about why she felt the ways she did about gender inequality in elementary school. She did specify that her degree was in Women's Studies, and that she tended to get "political" when discussing gender issues. Participant C did seem to have a specific experience in mind about her daughter's interaction with teachers who did not treat her fairly but she was not willing to elaborate. Participant A seemed to be uncomfortable with the line of questioning at all, heralding most of his daughter's teachers for their treatment of her and fellow students.

The interviews were limited in several ways, with the participants all very divergent in terms of social status and culture; all of their daughters attended the same school, having many of the same teachers over time, but the participants' perspectives were all very different. Participants A and C were particularly resistant to the questioning, presumably thinking that they were being asked to target specific teachers despite assurances of confidentiality and anonymity. Participant B seemed to have an agenda of her own which additionally may have skewed the results. Overall, however, none of the participants seemed to be dishonest regarding their answers, with a broader participant pool potentially countering similar limitations in future research.

The interviews do, however, reflect a common problem within the literature relative to feminist theory; if all institutions are orchestrated in order to serve the predominant patriarchal paradigm, then even elementary schools are serving to protect male power and maintain the inferior position of women, beginning in childhood. Regardless of whether or not a feminist framework is applied, however, schools remain social institutions wielding considerable power over the values systems, and by extension the futures, of children. If gender inequality thereby exists within elementary schools, however inadvertent it may be, then it will inevitably be sustained more completely than if schools sought out ways in which to be gender-equal. Rogoff's articulation of the sociocultural environment as particularly pertinent to human development has particular implications for this analysis, as young children are susceptible to the cultural norms conveyed to them as children. If a young girl believes she is unequal due to consistent unequal treatment which manifests in a number of ways, then this belief will continue to impact her throughout her lifetime.

Spring asserts that schools have negatively impacted vulnerable populations in general, with the dominant power of the heteronormative, Anglo-Saxon culture proving detrimental to minority cultures. The same author suggests that the school system is an unfortunate force, as it is structured presently, in the maintenance of the Euro-American culture as the most powerful. Women remain a vulnerable population, in essence, with the position of schools to counter such inequities a solid one that should be wielded to open up opportunities for greater social mobility for women in the United States, narrowly, and global community, more broadly.

In reflection, this interview project aided me in framing the urban schooling environment as affected significantly by parental perceptions. Parents, as important stakeholders in the school system, undoubtedly vary in terms of their acknowledgment of in-school discrimination, with the three interviewees highlighting how divergent these perceptions can be. As a future educator within the urban school system, I will seek to empower parents and students alike to promote schools as a more significantly equalizing force in American society.