Introduction

This essay discusses the costs of a recent business conflict and discusses how it was resolved. The conflict examined is the case of Ellen Pao, a former Silicon Valley venture capitalist who recently took on the position of CEO at Reddit, a popular online community. Pao filed a gender discrimination against her former organization, Kleiner Perkins Caulfield & Byers, a high-profile venture capital firm. The case was heard in March this year. During the case, Pao stated that she was excluded from important meetings, events, and other activities, and was passed over for promotion in favor of male employees more junior than herself. She also stated that she was subjected to sexual harassment after ending a forced affair with senior partner Ajit Nazre, and that this ultimately led to her firing. The firm rejected these claims, stating that she was fired for under-performance and poor interpersonal skills. The jury ruled against Pao, although she did file an appeal. The most recent development in the case was that Pao has been ordered to pay $276,000 in legal fees, about a quarter of the requested fees from Kleiner Perkins. Although this case has clear financial costs associated, each of the parties to the conflict also has other costs of conflict associated.

Discussion

There are two key questions in this situation. First, who are the parties involved and what are the costs of conflict to each of the parties? Second, how was this conflict resolved?

THE COSTS OF CONFLICT

Conflict introduces costs for all parties involved, whether these parties win or lose the conflict or it remains unresolved. An obvious example of costs of conflict is financial costs, for example costs of legal settlement of a conflict. Another financial cost is side-payments, or in other words money paid in order to resolve the conflict before it becomes more complex (such as buying a disputed patent). Parties can also have reputational damage, or damage to their personal or business reputation. Furthermore, conflict can have emotional costs to the participants. There is insufficient information to assess emotional costs, but there is clear evidence for financial and reputational cost for both parties.

The financial costs of the conflict have been generally disputed between the participants. Pao initially sued for $16 million, claiming lost wages and bonuses. While this claim was rejected, the parties also had outstanding claims for legal fees. Kleiner Perkins attempted to claim almost $973,000 in legal fees, but the judge rejected this claim and awarded only $276,000 in fees. (This does not include her own legal fees, which she will also be responsible for.) Thus, the financial costs to both parties were high, assuming that Kleiner Perkins' initial claim for legal fees was not exaggerated.

Both parties in this case are likely to have suffered reputational damage as well. Pao's claim was not unreasonable, given evidence for gender discrimination in the IT field, particularly in the world of venture capital. For example, one estimate shows that women hold only 11% of Silicon Valley executive roles, even worse than average compared to firms in other industries. Only an estimated 6% of venture capital partners are female, suggesting the problem is even worse in that industry. Furthermore, there is evidence that venture capitalists actually discriminate against female entrepreneurs as well. For example, one study showed that venture capitalists routinely selected entrepreneurial projects fronted by men over women, even when they were the same project. This preference seriously impedes female entrepreneurs, who struggle to achieve funding for their projects compared to male entrepreneurs. Kleiner Perkins is likely to have suffered reputational damage from the case, particularly given the revelations about the conduct of its senior partners (such as forcing romantic relationships on junior staff members and other inappropriate behavior). Pao is also likely to have suffered reputational damage, particularly as the case was brought as she was settling into a new role as CEO of Reddit.

RESOLUTION STRATEGIES

Pao's initial case was rejected by a jury after several weeks of trial by Pao and others regarding the climate at Kleiner Perkins. Pao immediately appealed the ruling, but the appeal has not yet been heard. The only further resolution has been the award of legal fees. However, Kleiner Perkins has stated that it is still ready to settle the case with Pao.

There were, and continue to be, several opportunities for side-payments that could help reduce the extent and cost of conflict. Side-payments are payments offered by one of the parties in order to resolve the conflict, such as legal settlements, purchases of disputed patents, and so on. For example, Kleiner Perkins offered to settle the case for an undisclosed sum prior to the trial. The firm also offered after the closure of the trial to not file a claim for legal fees if Pao did not file an appeal in the case. This would have limited Pao's financial costs (though it would have exacerbated Kleiner Perkins'), but it would also have controlled reputational damage and continued potential financial costs for both parties. However, Pao rejected this proposal and filed an appeal in any case. Thus, efforts at resolution through side-payments failed at several points. There is no reason to consider that this would help further resolve the situation. Furthermore, Pao's continued actions suggest that the case will continue in court.

Kleiner Perkins can try to reduce the potential for a repeated occurrence of this type of conflict by introducing a healthy conflict culture into the organization. The organization's conflict culture is the approach used to resolve conflicts throughout the organization, and can be classified as collaborative, dominating, and avoidant, according to Gelfand, et al.. By cultivating a collaborative conflict culture, Kleiner Perkins could help ensure that in future, organizational problems are addressed within the organization and addressed in a more effective way. This could also help resolve some of the underlying conflicts of Pao's complaint, such as personal conflicts between staff members.

Conclusion

The case of Ellen Pao demonstrates that organizational conflict sometimes has a broader effect than simply within the boundaries of the organization. It is clear that both Pao and Kleiner Perkins had high costs associated with this conflict, including financial and reputational costs that would not have occurred had the resolution occurred at an earlier stage. For example, had Kleiner Perkins taken Pao's complaints seriously while she was working for the company, the lawsuit and its fallout could have been avoided. However, the case also has implications for the entire IT industry, which is known to have serious issues with gender discrimination and significant underrepresentation of women in senior roles. The Pao case brought this issue into the spotlight and demonstrated that it is a clear problem for the industry. Thus, the conflict may have positive effects despite the negative resolution for Kleiner Perkins and Pao.

Bibliography

Associated Press. Ellen Pao to appeal ruling in Silicon Valley gender discrimination suit.

Bosse, D. A., & Taylor, P. L. The second glass ceiling impedes women entrepreneurs. The Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 17 (1), 52-68.

Brooks, A. W., Huang, L., Kearney, S. W., & Murray, F. E. Investors prefer entrepeneurial ventures pitched by attractive men. PNAS , 111 (12), 4427-4431.

Collins, T. Judge holds firm on Ellen Pao payment of $276,000 to Kleiner Perkins.

Corporate Ethics and Morality. Academic Research Business Study. Online. itchybrainscentral.com/example-essays/shell-oil-nigeria

Gelfand, M. J., Leslie, L. M., Keller, K., & de Dreu, C.. Conflict cultures in organizations: How leaders shape conflict cultures and their organization-level consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology , 97 (6), 1131-1147.

Inzlicht, M., Bartholow, B. D., & Hirsh, J. B. Emotional foundations of cognitive control. Trends in Cognitive Science , 19 (3), 126-132.

Kimbrough, E. O., & Sheremeta, R. M. Side-payments and the costs of conflict. International Journal of Industrial Organization , 31 (3), 278-286.

Kydd, A. H., & McManus, R. W. Threats and assurances in crisis bargaining. Journal of Conflict Resolution , Forthcoming.

Lipsky, D. B., Lamare, J., & Gupta, A. The effect of gender on awards in employment arbitration cases: The experience in the securities industry. Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society , 52 (a1), 314-342.

Neate, R. Ellen Pao gender discrimination trial grips Silicon Valley.

Ways of Doing E-Commerce Business

Introduction

This brief report outlines the relevant issues involved with adopting an e-business strategy as well as an e-commerce system which supports supply-chain management. There will first be an examination of the global impact of e-commerce. It is estimated that approximately 27 per cent of consumers shop online. There will then be a discussion on the advantages, disadvantages, and supply-chain management issues involved with e-commerce. The final section is a discussion on the impact and risks that e-commerce can have on the business.

Global impact

There are now over 6.5 billion people on earth. Many of these people shop online. Research studies have indicated that approximately 27 per cent of the consumers globally shop on the Internet. This amount increases during the holiday season to over 50 per cent in the United States. Approximately 70 per cent of the customers who shop on-line have indicated that they visit competitor websites when the site they usually shop on is out of stock for the products they wish to purchase. About 33 per cent of these on-line consumers prefer using their mobile phone for online purposes such as price checks, in-store checks, and redemption of promotions. It has also been discovered that social networking sites have a significant influence on the shopping behaviour of customers with over 35 per cent indicating that their purchases are influenced by these sites.

The widespread use of the Internet has encouraged many businesses to begin offering their products online. This e-commerce includes the selling and buying of products or services over the World Wide Web and other computer networks. This business is conducted in two basic ways. The sales can be done business to business (B2B) or from a business to the consumer (B2C). Medium, small, and large business enterprises engage in e-commerce. There are also a number of individuals who sell services or products online.

A significant number of individuals in the United Kingdom have businesses which they run on-line from their home. It is estimated that there are now roughly 8,000,000 individuals located in the UK who operate their on-line business from their home. Some of these individuals sell their items at a profit while others produce the products and sell them online. Some of the more popular private sellers on eBay have annual returns, which exceed £18,000.

There is a wide variety of reasons, which have led to Internet shopping is popular. The World Wide Web is now widely available. People are using it to both communicate and conduct business on the largest media outlet in the world. A wide range of on-line businesses offered prices, which were lower than those at traditional stores. This is possible due to the relatively low overhead of an on-line business.

Advantages, disadvantages, and supply-chain management

Like nearly any approach to business, e-commerce has both its advantages and disadvantages. One of the advantages to e-commerce is the reduced costs of doing business. The virtual storefront is nearly always less expensive than a physical store. Furthermore, the hosting of a website is much not as costly as paying for employees, utilities, and rent. An online business provides a method for customers to access products from anywhere in the world where there is an Internet connection.

A disadvantage of doing business online is that steps must be taken in order to ensure that the process is done securely without the customer's private information being put at risk. This means that there has to be a secure e-commerce Gateway. The secure e-commerce page is generally more costly than an unsecured one, but is a necessity in an age when hackers and other on-line criminals seek to illicitly secure funds from others. An example of a method for accepting secure payments on-line is PayPal. However, the service collects a fee for each transaction.

It is important to remember that doing business online can have a significant effect on an already existing organisations supply chain. One of the advantages of e-commerce is that it can be used as a method for supporting supply-chain management. Dealing with orders electronically allows for the integration of both distribution and production processes. This can enable a relatively automated supply chain replenishment process. The replenishment information can allow businesses to operate with reduced inventory levels, eliminate multiple stocking points, and increase the rate at which products are replenished through synchronisation of demand and supply information. This can be done over the entire supply chain in real time. Examples of these systems include both assemble to order manufacturing and make to order products.

Another method for supporting supply-chain management is using e-procurement. This type of procurement involves all aspects of securing products being done online. This includes payment, ordering, contracting, sourcing, and requisitioning. By doing these activities on-line, the procurement process is streamlined with regard to both cost and time. The on-line acquisition of items to be sold allows for their acquisition to be less expensive and the savings can be used to increase sales through decreased prices.

Impact and risks

The impact and risks for introducing e-commerce into a company must be carefully considered. The increasing popularity of e-commerce has been positive for many consumers as it makes shopping more convenient. It is also provided significant income for individuals, small businesses, and larger enterprises. However, an inherent problem with e-commerce is that the seller and buyer usually do not know each other. This provides unique problems for e-commerce.

One of the negative sides of e-commerce is that scams emerge from both the buyers and sellers. People who are working from a computer screen can forget that their actions affect other people. This may be the reason that Internet fraud is so rampant. Buyers can defraud merchants by using stolen or fake credit cards. They may also use bogus payment accounts. Other consumers may claim that they have not received the product or the goods were damaged in order to keep the product and have their money refunded. This means that the process becomes costly for businesses selling products on-line since they must recoup their losses from these dishonest transactions. Any business considering selling products on-line must take into account this extra cost and increase their prices accordingly.

Unfortunately, there is also a wide range of sellers who defraud merchants. They may accept money without sending a product or mail an inferior product to the consumer. These same businesses may present fraudulent testimonials and feedback from nonexistent customers. This means that any legitimate business online must often make extraordinary efforts to ensure customers are confident they are one of the lawful enterprises, which operates online.

Another risk of doing business online is that even when the seller and customer are honest, other problems may arise. For example, if a business accepts a consumer's credit card along with their personal data, this information can be stolen by hackers. This can result in both the buyer and seller being vulnerable to dishonest individuals or groups. This has resulted in many on-line businesses losing sales due to the apprehensive this of customers. Once a customer must go to extraordinary measures to ensure that there fraudulently obtained credit card is not used dishonestly, they are nearly always reticent to make other purchases on-line.

Conclusion

This report outlines the issues involved in the adoption of an e-business strategy and e-commerce system for supporting supply-chain management. There has been considerable global impact regarding e-commerce with roughly 27 per cent of consumers shopping online. While this approach to doing business offers a significant number of advantages, there are also disadvantages. However, these disadvantages can be largely mitigated through careful planning. Primarily, the personal data of consumers must be closely guarded through secure systems.

References

How many people shop online. Deal Joy.

Baldwin, J. The impact of electronic commerce in today's society.

Winch, J. 8m Britons run online businesses from home . Telegraph online.

Reeves, L. Advantages & disadvantages of doing eCommerce business in an insecure environment . Chron.

King, D., Lee, J., Liang, T., & Turban, D. Electronic commerce: a managerial and social networks perspective. Companion Website.

The dangers of e-Commerce. Inter-party.

Psychology Study

1. Explain in detail the difference between structuralism and functionalism.

Differentiating structuralism from functionalism calls for a clear understanding of the two approaches independently. According to Wundt' model, Structuralism is an approach to psychology that attempts to understand the human mind by breaking down the human consciousness into minor components of feelings, sensation as well as perceptions and how these facets respond to stimuli such as sound. Functionalism on the other hand takes a different perspective to understanding the mental experience by analyzing the purpose it serves. This school of thought explains how one's behavior can help him/her adjust to the changes in the environment s/he lives.

Wundt takes an introspective approach in analyzing the human mind by breaking down the mental experience into discrete elements and analyzes how these elements are prearranged to form a multifaceted knowledge and how they are interrelated with physical events such as stimuli. These elements organize themselves in a manner that provides room for conscious experience. It is clear that Wundt's perception of psychology through structuralism was meant to understand how the elements of sensation, feelings and thinking would correlate upon exposure to a stimulant to bring forth a conscious reaction in an individual.

However, understanding of individual's conscious reactions through such perception has proven to be inaccurate. Different people have different reactions or responses when their feelings for instance are evoked by an external stimulus. When two people are exposed to the same degree of heat for instance, their response to the stimulus will vary as reflected by their perceptions. How they sense the heat, and perceive the stimulus is different from the other person and this is what makes one unique. How about other people who are not in a position to provide a distinctive description of their feelings? This forms the technicality involved in trying to understand the human mind through structuralism.

This led to evolvement of a different approach of functionalism which interprets the mental experience through analyzing the functions of the mental processes. William James' model states that individual's behavior is dependent on the prevailing environment around him/her and that people act as per the situation they find themselves in. Individual's behavior reflects his conscious reaction upon exposure to a stimulus. For instance, if you subject an individual to high degree of heat, that person will respond by either moving away from the heat source or removing his body part that is directly exposed. His behavior has therefore helped in understanding his mind. Functionalism is therefore considered a suitable approach in understanding of the human mind.

2. Why is it necessary for psychological researchers to use the scientific method?

Think about a psychological issue of interest to you. How would you approach it from a scientific perspective?

Scientific approach to psychology is undoubtedly the best in trying to understand the human mind. According to Nevid, understanding of human mind should entail adoption of scientific study of the human behavior and not basing the arguments on the mental processes. Scientific research revolves around observable features such as response as well as reflexes. If you prick an individual's arm using a sharp object for instance, the victim will obviously react to that incident by removing his/her hand. This constitutes the reflex action. The hand will sense the danger and send a message to the brain which will in turn advise the body to move away from the source of danger. It is vivid that the victim would not choose to remain in the same position and instead ask you to remove the object. This provides a factual understanding of the human mind.

Scientific approach provides accurate results based on what can be justified upon research. For instance, a colleague who had accompanied you for a walk in the park collapses and dies on the spot. First and foremost, a hypothesis has to be developed on the possible cause of the death. Data will thereafter be collected on the scene as well as venues that might have been visited by the individual and his/her partner including people they had met before and the food they might have eaten and so on. This data will be then analyzed and interpreted by the experts and findings be availed. This approach provides reliable information as far as the cause of such death is concerned hence the necessity of scientific research.

3. State the advantages in the nervous system of having neurons fire according to the all-or-none law?

The all-or-none principle describes the behavior of neurons and other body muscles. It states that once a stimulus exceeds certain limits, a nerve impulse will occur all the way and not happen half way. This means that an impulse can only be relayed at certain thresholds and would therefore represent the object. It is an important phenomenon since the message conveyed to the brain will be a true reflection of the stimulus. Humans perceive a stimulus such as color through an electrical impulse sent to the brain. Firing of neuron happens in specificity. This means that specific neurons are tuned to respond to stimulus and convey the same message to the brain or from the brain to the specific body part. The environmental characteristics of the fire represent the same characteristics of the stimulus. Once it is fired, there is no backward movement.

4. Psychophysics: Provide original examples from your daily live of these phenomena: a. Weber's Law, b. Sensory adaptation.

Weber's law revolves around analysis of relationships between stimulus and sensation in psychological sphere. According to Weber, it is only possible for 'an individual to perceive a stimulus as greater than the other only when the greater stimulus has been increased in ratio. Weber explains that this observation is only possible when a just noticeable level of stimulus is increased. For instance, when one wants to make a difference in weight, he has to add another weight in regard to weight of the existing object. That is to say that when one has an object of 100kgs he has to add 5kgs for instance so as to make a noticeable change rather than adding 5gms.

Sensory adaptation involves the adjustments by the body organs to changes in the stimulus. For instance, when one has been occupying a dim-light room and is suddenly exposed to high levels of light the victim may close his eyes first depending on the intensity of the light and gradually open them after getting accustomed to the situation.

5. Describe one of your recent dreams (one that does not have anyobvious sexual or embarrassing content!). Use it to contrast the dream theories.

My unforgettable experience was manifested one night when I dreamt that I had just finished my evening fitness exercise when my coach came by to disclose the unbelievable news that I had been offered a football scholarship in DAAD University in Germany. From this dream I'm in a position to appreciate Freud's perception of dreams as being capable of extraordinary success in a specific area by elevating the dreamer to such level. I have been engrossed in soccer for a while now and I've been anticipating an opportunity where I would display my talent at the international football arena. The hypothesis that dreams prepare individuals for events and experience they foresee might be true in my case. I shall have fulfilled my dream! However, the other perception of compensatory function of dream that justifies the occurrence of a dream merely to offset the difference within a person is rather discouraging.

6. Analysis of Conditioning Principles in Advertisements: Describe and analyze a current T.V. or magazine advertisement.

There is this TV advertisement where a man in his thirties is seeping a bottle of Guinness while a car is driven over one of his feet. He appears to be very comfortable with the situation as cheers are heard as well as voice from the background explaining to the flabbergasted TV audiences the capability of the Guinness consumers.

This advertisement is trying to persuade those who have not made up their mind on the brand of beer they are supposed to consume to do so. It also influences the youths who view power as something positive and they would feel proud of being associated with.

The important people in the advertisement include the holder of the Guinness bottle, those cheering the fellow as well as the commentator.
The outcome for consumption of Guinness according to the advertisement is that it makes an individual stronger and more powerful than before. The advertisement associates the product with power and strength.

This Advertisement tells us how the advertisers exaggerate the capability of their product thereby deceiving consumers who might believe their statements of being powerful and strong after consumption of Guinness hence influencing their behavior in a way. It also tells us how far the advertisers can go in an attempt to sell their product.

7. What is memory per the textbook? Explain at least two kinds of memory.

Memory involves the process by which an individual stores skills and knowledge that one has learnt for future use. There are three types of memories namely; working and immediate memories for temporary storage of information as well as long-term memory that aids in the permanent storage of information. Sousa explains that the former type of memory involves storage of knowledge or skill for a short period of time such as seconds or few minutes and repeating as well as revising that information to accomplish a certain task. Long-term memory on the other hand involves the ability to permanently store information for a longer period of time such as months, years or even for a lifetime.

8. Define the difference between algorithms and heuristics.

Algorithm involves a method of solving a problem using predetermined directives as applied either in mathematics or computer science. Heuristics on the other hand is a hurried method of getting solutions to a problem. The former provides an effective means of finding a solution to a problem while the latter does not provide the exact answer to a problem but rather expected to be close to the solution. Algorithm is systematic while Heuristics is rapid.

9. What makes a good intelligence test? Explain.

Intelligence tests involve observation of an individual's personality through assessment of his/her intellectual ability. Good intelligence test should produce information that is relevant to the practitioners. These tests should also be reliable and valid. The methods that have been adopted to measure the intelligence quotient must be precise by producing results that are consistent with previous ones. On the other hand, the measurements should also be valid in that it serves the purpose it was meant for.

10. Explain Maslow's theory of self-actualization.

Maslow's model states that human beings always desire something and will always be interested in growing rather than remaining in the same position and restoring balance. He says that in a bid to fulfill his potential, an individual proceeds to meet his needs, grow and be happy. Maslow classifies needs in a hierarchical manner in which satisfaction of a need in one level opens up individual's mind to realize the importance of the needs in the next level in the hierarchy. He therefore concludes by reiterating that human beings will always attempt to fulfill their highest potential hence self-actualization.

11. Summarize the findings on gender differences in personality and cognitive abilities. Discuss the extent to which the observations in the text on these gender differences correspond to your own experiences.

According to Halpern the cognitive performance of an individual is entangled between the biological, psychological and social influences an individual has been subjected to. Halpern argues that if a process in a society for instance creates a situation in which males get a biological advantage (such as higher hormone concentrations) over females in performing a certain task, and that a society such as African society which values men more than women in terms of gender roles, prioritize male roles, then the ability of female in such circumstances is under-estimated. Generally, the psychological, societal as well as biological factors function together to greatly influence the personality and cognitive performance of an individual.

These findings are actually the true phenomena on the ground. The perception that women are weaker sex is absolutely outdated. On a leveled ground, women have proven to be psychologically equally important just like their male counterparts. It is time to judge women not by what is between their legs but what is between their ears!

REFERENCE LIST

Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.. Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior (12th Ed). Cengage Learning.

Engler, B.. Personality Theories (8th Ed). Cengage Learning.

Halpern, D.. Sex differences in cognitive abilities (3rd Ed). Routledge.

Marnat, G.. Handbook of Psychological Assessment (5th Ed).John Wiley and Sons.

Nevid, J.. Psychology: concepts and applications (2nd Ed). Cengage Learning.

Portillo, S. & Pastorino, E.. What Is Psychology? Essentials. Cengage Learning.

Sousa, D.. How the gifted brain learns. Corwin Press.

Early Childhood Education

To gain a deeper understanding of the nature of working in the field of early childhood education, I interviewed two professionals who are working in the field: the director of a licensed day care center and a kindergarten teacher. I asked questions concerning qualifications for both professions, what opportunities for growth exist in each profession, the ethical standards to which they hold themselves, and other related questions. This paper summarizes my conversations with both individuals.

Jane Doe (not her real name) runs the Happy As a Lamb daycare center. Approximately 25 children attend the center, and there are five staff people who work there (three of whom on a part-time basis). The first question I asked concerned qualifications to act as director for a daycare center. Jane told me that when she worked for her first daycare center, not as director but as a staff worker, she needed nothing more than her high school diploma. She added that she did not agree with this, and that she requires her staff people to have CDA credentials at least. This is what was required of her when she changed daycare centers, and in addition to obtaining her CDA credential, she also went back to college to get her degree in child development. That was because she planned to open her own daycare center some day, and she wanted to be as qualified as possible. Jane also noted that this was helpful to her because the path to licensure for her daycare center was long and complicated, and she believes that college helped to prepare her for it.

I asked her about the NAEYC standards, and particularly wanted to know which of the standards she found most relevant in her work with children from a variety of class and racial backgrounds. She said she found all of them to be useful in guiding her work (as well as the work of her staff people), but particularly Standard Two, which is Building Family and Community Relationships. Jane feels strongly that when parents feel involved in their children's educational processes, and empowered to be a part of them, that the children benefit immensely. She believes that schools need to be the ones to extend a hand to parents, not the other way around, particularly those parents who are from disadvantaged groups. With strong relationships, learning is possible in ways that it simply is not when those relationships are absent or antagonistic, she feels.

I asked Jane about growth in her field, and she laughed, saying that I was looking at it. In other words, the growth in this field is that people can open their own daycare centers. She said she earns about $45,000 a year, which is not bad, and that if she wanted to earn more, she could open another in a projected string of daycare centers, but that this was something to think about in the future. She did agree with me that her job was rather secure, as long as she maintained her high standards of quality; the more the bad economy required both parents to work, the more her services would be needed.

The next individual with whom I spoke was Jeremy Johnston (a pseudonym), who is a rare male kindergarten teacher. In fact, the first thing I asked him was what it was like to be a man in a predominantly female field. He said it was wonderful - that he had been welcomed with open arms by the other teachers and principal. He did say that occasionally a parent gave him a bit of trouble, but that such instances were rare and easily resolved.

I next asked him which of the NAEYC standards was his favorite, and he answered, laughingly, that he'd have to look them up first. I handed him my copy, and after a quick read-through, he said the same thing as Jane had said: that building bridges with parents was the single most important thing he did. He said that if you form a solid relationship with a parent, then you've given that child two teachers instead of one, and that is a priceless gift.

Next, I asked Jeremy what he'd had to do to become certified as a kindergarten teacher, and whether or not he'd had to take the PRAXIS as many do. He said that he got his BS in early childhood development, and that afterward he did indeed have to take the PRAXIS in order to obtain a job in his desired state. Jeremy added that he found it interesting that he had to know such advanced mathematics and other topics as the PRAXIS required, in order to teach kindergarten, but that he understood why this was the case; the more educated kindergarten teachers are, the stronger an educational base exists for the children right from the start.

Finally, I asked Jeremy about opportunities for growth as a kindergarten teacher, and specifically asked him if he ever thought about being principal one day. He merely smiled, and said that while he had no doubt he could be principal one day, due to the fact that he's a man in a female profession, it was precisely because of that reason that he wanted to remain a teacher. He feels strongly that very young children need direct care workers who are males, so that they have role models showing them that men can be caring and nurturing, just like women. He feels especially strongly that the boys need this sort of early education, and hopes he never forgets how important this is in the future.

In summary, it was quite educational to speak with both individuals, primarily because I had a chance to see the texts I've been reading be put into motion - brought to life - by educators who are committed to their professions. It was especially illuminating to hear, from two different educators, just how important it is that parents be involved in their children's educations. Finally, it was refreshing to hear just how difficult a job teaching can be, and yet how these individuals wouldn't change their jobs for anything.

References

NAEYC standards for early childhood professional preparation programs. NAEYC.

Kindergarten teacher: Requirements for teaching kindergarten. Education Portal.

The New English Language Words and Grammar

With each new form of technology, new vocabulary words are added to the dictionary and others become archaic. The Internet and now, most recently, the cell phone and text messaging, added a new element to this change in language. In addition to adding new words and expressions, texting language (SMS) whittles down words ("OMG") to their basics. It is no wonder that texters, especially the younger ones, do not use full sentences, capitals, grammar or complete words. According to a study by Experian (as cited in Cocotas) conducted last year (which means that numbers are even higher at this point), Americans between the ages of 18 to 24 send on average almost ten times as many texts as Americans over 25 to 34, or 2,022 texts every month or 67 a day and receive another 1,831. Pew found that the median number of texts teens sent was 60 per day. Such major changes in language usage has created a controversy between linguists who believe and do not believe texting is lowering the quality of the written language. Studies, such as those by Sundar and Cingel and Shazia Aziz et al. conclude with similar dichotomous results, but more recent studies are finding that texting is not as much a danger as expected by some..

Concerned about the change from full words to "techspeak," with shortcuts, homophones, omissions of nonessential letters and initials, for quickly and efficiently composing text messages, Sundar and Cingel hypothesized that such switching between techspeak and normal rules of grammar may lower written ability. In their study, 228 students completed surveys on their texting habits, such as how many texts they send and receive daily, and their opinion on the importance of texting. In addition, the participants were asked to number the adaptations in their previous three sent and received text messages. All participants took a grammar test, which was used as data of grammatical ability. According to Sundar and Cingel, not only did frequent text messages negatively predict test results, controlling for age and grade, but both sending and receiving text adaptations were associated with how poorly participants performed on the test.

Since Sundar and Cingal conducted their study, they have been criticized for not correctly defining grammar, using a slapdash grammar test and incorrectly equating the results of the grammar test on writing ability. Increasingly, more recent studies are finding that texting does not hinder English and may even enhance it. Aziz et al. studied the impact of SMS on the formal writing of university students and, if this impact did exist, its strength of impact on the spelling and punctuation students use in their writing. The authors also attempted to investigate whether text messaging is to be blamed for errors or other factors that should be considered.

The authors, Aziz et al., surveyed learners and educators and looked at samples of the their English written work for SMS features. Contrary to the expectation, they found no significant evidence for these features in the school work. Apparently, these writers are context conscious and able to switch from one form of the language to another--informal to formal. In addition, it more often seems to be the case that using the wrong punctuation marks and word usage may be lack of necessary training, carelessness and need for more feedback from instructors. Problems such as punctuation also occur without the usage of extensive texting. Aziz et al also concluded that Sundar and Cingel's study conducted with younger participants may yield different results not because of the degree of texting but lack of grammatical knowledge.

Works Cited

Aziz, Shazia, Maria Shamim, Muhammad Faisal Aziz and Priya Avais, "The Impact of Texting/SMS Language on Academic Writing of Students- What do we need to panic about? Elixir Linguistics and Translation 55(2013), 12884-12890.

Cocotas, Alex. "Chart of the Day: Kids Send a Mind-Boggling Number of Texts Every Month."

Sundar, S.S. and Cingel, D.P. "Texting, techspeak, and tweens: The relationship between text messaging and English grammar skills." New Media & Society 14.8, 1304-1320.

Literature Review

Good academic writing relies upon intention in a way that good fiction does not. They are not wholly alien worlds, of course, but good academic writing from a lack of intention is very rare. However, good fiction may result from any mix of intuitive understanding and studied comprehension of narrative. M. Kellen Williams' chief error in "'Down with the Door, Pool': Designating Deviance in Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde" is ascribing intentions to Stevenson and then drawing meaning from those ascribed intentions rather than from the contents of text.

Sometimes, because academic writers often choose areas of personal interest and affection, they are loathe to indicate shortcomings in a writer. A cycle begins where instead of saying, this writer or text has a flaw here, the writer turns the flaw into an intention and then imbues that flaw with comprehensible narrative meaning. This is made easier by the fact that few academic writers want to admit to the happy accidents that sometimes inform creative writing, one that stems from our cultural tendency to see creative people, especially creative men, as world makers, rather than world reflectors who do not have full control over their creative process.

This is particularly notable when in tway Williams investigates the text's failure to describe the physical presence of Hyde, which she places as a cultural phenomenon relevant to a cultural recoil about the sexual body and describes as silence, though Williams does not say how Hyde's body becomes a more sexual body than others, so it would seem to achieve that in Williams' mind simply by being hideous, a connection rife with implication about Williams but which says little about the text.

Returning to Stevenson's attempts to describe Hyde through the words of other characters. The conflict is first a practical one, how does Stevenson describe two men in the same body as looking credibly different from one another. There are elements of the supernatural to Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, but the world Stevenson creates is clearly intended to be one that feels entirely real to the reader. It is a world the reader can believe in and those who inhabit it have no doubts about. The contemporaneous reader of Dr Jekyll was not imagining a distant future, another planet, or even a far away land. To take a turn at assigning intentions, the story was meant in many ways for people like those who appear in it and for them to believe fully in that world. From here flows the first difficulty, how does the author describe one person in two different ways. This problem remains unsolved more than a hundred years later. Filmic versions of Dr Jekyll rely on prosthetics to a degree that effectively obscures the original text.

It is also difficult to imagine a modern text that would even dare to make the same claim, that a man could be unrecognizable to friends without prosthetics or makeup. This leads to the second problem, how to have those in the text see the same man under two circumstances, repeatedly, and not recognize him. Interestingly, it seems that Stevenson's problem is resolved by the characters' problem. If the character first fully recognizes both men and secondly is able to describe them, to put their bodies into descriptive words and narrative language, he must see them fully and therefore recognize them. It is textual credibility on the line and textual credibility is maintained by writing human error into the perceptions of the characters rather than "nameless longings" (425).

That Williams sees suppressed longing as the primary intention of Stevenson's "inability to account for Edward Hyde's body" (415) is an error of degree and framing, rather than some hopeless misunderstanding of the text. That the narrative creates longing in the reader by describing a longing for understanding and language in a character is more elemental and less academic. Williams' text seems to be a longing for the academic and for credibility, in and of itself. It is littered with quotes from other writers and other texts. In fact, the first two pages contain only two sentences that are entirely the author's own words.

Williams also follows the academic style of dismissing interpretations other than his own by diminishing their rigor, wholesale, saying that they gloss over actually matters; naturally what actually matters coincides with what interests her (413). Williams being unwilling to admit attitudes on interest, affection, and whim, on his part, or academic rigor on the part of those who see the text differently, hints at an argument of ownership over the text. Interestingly, it seems to be feminist or perhaps womanist, and queered readings of the text to which she ascribes gloss, and against which she posits herself as serious. This foundation, not surprisingly, leads to a reading of the text in which Williams' primary concern seems to be the eradication of uncertainty. This is particularly disheartening in relations to a text like Dr Jekyll, where uncertainty is so fundamental to the text's ability to have emotional realism both in text and to the reader. In this way, Williams' own text seems to be less about Dr Jekyll and more about herself and giving evidence of what she knows while indicating who she knows through extensive quoting. She asserts certainty while evincing uncertainty through heavily quoted, i.e., borrowed, text that indicates a borrowed authority.

Williams refers to both created and potentially incidental uncertainties in the text as persistent silence (426). This also shows that it is Williams' need for certainty and that the need is so great she cannot hear anything in the absence of certainty. That is how she reads the description of struggle and uncertainty as silence or absence rather than a meaningful presence. In this case, the meaningful presence is of uncertainty and in particular of masculine uncertainty in the narrative. Rather than embracing that masculine uncertainty in the author or in the characters who narrate their own experience, it is Williams who transfers the uncertainty onto Hyde's body referring to "Hyde's indeterminacy" (413). It is important to remember that it is not Hyde who is indeterminate, but those who see him, who describe him, and who know him yet fail to know him, in order to maintain the orderliness of their own thinking. That those who know Hyde and Jekyll are refusing to know them as a way of saving themselves is reiterated by the fact Lanyon dies upon achieving full knowledge and so does the body that Jekyll and Hyde both inhabit. Williams would do well to consider that perhaps there is life and happiness is some measure of uncertainty.

Resources

Williams, M. Kellen. "'Down with the Door, Pool': Designating Deviance in Stevenson's.

"Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde". English Literature in Transition. 412-429.

Dealing with The Problem of Student Procrastination

Although there are many behaviors that can make one less successful as a student, they range in seriousness. Skipping class or plagiarizing, for example, are behaviors that indicate a disregard for the educational process, and can hugely affect a student's educational outcomes in a class and perhaps even his or her whole future. Other behaviors, although they are not engaged in with malicious intent or disregard for education, can be damaging as well. One of these is procrastination, and this is a behavior that I myself find that I engage in again and again. Although I have the utmost respect for my professors and am even excited about writing my assignments and completing them, I find that I often do not begin in a timely fashion. I'm constantly struggling to meet a deadline, and this sometimes causes the work to not be the best I could make it.

I began the process of writing this paper by determining why this problem exists, and it seems to me to relate not to my disinterest in assignments, but to my interest in such a wide variety of other things. I am often distracted by new opportunities, whether they involve spending time with friends, trying out something new, or even learning something (which never seems to relate to what I am supposed to be doing for class!) I believe this behavior also stems from the fact that, as a child, I routinely put off my work and was able to receive very high marks regardless. This habit was ingrained partially because I was not challenged in my early years of school.

If I were able to change this behavior, I would be about to earn higher marks for my work, but perhaps even more importantly, I would be working to my full potential. I know that my work can be better if I devote more time to it, which would at least give me the option of going the extra mile and doing more than the minimum on assignments--something I often want to do, but do not have time due to my procrastination.

My program to fix this problem involves positive reinforcement: I will reward myself with eating takeout from my favorite places when I have stuck to the schedule of my assignments for the last week. I also plan to put into place a punishment aspect, which will be negative. If I have an assignment that is on the schedule, but that I have not begun (or met deadlines on), I will punish myself by taking away the opportunity to go out with friends, hopefully forcing me to complete the assignment. Between these two conditioning mechanisms, I hope that my plan will be successful in bringing procrastinatory behavior to extinction. Because my positive reinforcement aspect involves the eating of food I like, my hope is that it will function as a primary reinforcer. The secondary reinforcer of positive feedback from professors will, I hope, be helpful as well.

I will begin my program by creating a schedule for myself each week, and check on my progress daily to give myself the option of the food I want and/or to take away plans with friends as needed. My short term objective for changing the behavior will be to minimize procrastination in my current classes, and long term I hope to get through an entire term of school without rushing through a significant assignment. These changes will, I hope, lead to a better school experience both in terms of marks and in terms of how fulfilling and lasting my learning is. I want to have deep understanding of the topics I learn about, and stopping procrastination is the first step I must take.

Student Diversity and Equal Educational Opportunity

Lake points out that if education is to be developmentally appropriate it must also be responsive to linguistic and cultural diversity. The instructional methods should be adjusted to reflect, "what the teacher knows about each child, including a child's developmental level as well as the social and cultural context of the family" (p. 200). She asserts that classroom instruction must reflect the children's differences if equal educational opportunity is to be achieved.

In order to provide equal opportunity to all students, teachers should provide ample opportunities for young students to practice communicating in the classroom. Lake writes, "Early childhood teachers recognize the importance of engaging children in direct conversation to foster their oral communication and cognitive thought" (p. 201). Heisner likewise emphasizes the importance of creating classroom settings that promote the use of language during imaginative and sociodramatic play. She writes, "Through the social interaction that takes place during sociodramatic play, children develop the ability to express thoughts in a logical sequence, share ideas about events in which there is not shared context, and develop vocabulary" (p. 31). This kind of practice in authentic situations is crucial in early childhood education, because this is a time period characterized by rapid language development.

Diagnosis of Learning Disabilities

Children from minority cultural groups are often over-represented in special education programs. The implications of this fact are serious, because it suggests that cultural and linguistic barriers may be causing some students to be wrongly classified as having learning disabilities (LD). This is an especially significant concern in early childhood settings, where students are often assessed for LD. Teachers should provide students with multiple options for expressing themselves and use techniques for differentiating instruction so that students' ability to express themselves will be optimized, despite linguistic diversity.

Linguistic diversity involves not only bilingual students but also students who speak different dialects of English. For example, some African American students are accustomed to the use of a particular dialect that may cause them to interpret class material differently or express themselves differently. In 1997, African American students were over-represented in the special education programs within 39 of the 50 states (Shapiro et al). This shows that differences in dialect should be considered even when students are not necessarily English Language Learners (ELL).

Aligning Practices with Goals

Falconer and Byrnes used qualitative methods to assess the extent to which a particular school's practices were aligned with its goals pertaining to the accommodation of increasing diversity in ECE settings. Their findings indicate that "stated school goals and practices do not match" (p. 188). Specifically, the stated goal was to "help children be successful in a multicultural society, and ensure that they learn basic skills" (p. 194). One important issue for ECE professionals to consider, then, is whether or not their practices are consistent with what current research says about effective accommodations for linguistic diversity.

In some ways, the school being studied did attend to this goal; Falconer and Byrnes note that the school did establish a community outreach program and establish contact with families. However, this program was coordinated by special program teachers rather than by the ordinary classroom teachers. Moreover, the school used "at risk" and "opportunity" classes for students in grades one and two. "This practice supports the contention that the majority culture has low expectations for its minority students, and it runs counter to the call for empowerment and equity pedagogy" (Falconer & Byrnes). Hence, Falconer and Byrnes entitle their article, "When Good Intentions are Not Enough," as a reminder that we must embrace practices that are grounded in research if we are to accommodate diversity.

References:

Falconer, R. C., & Byrnes, D. A. When Good Intentions Are Not Enough: A Response to Increasing Diversity in an Early Childhood Setting. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 17(2), 188+.

Heisner, J. Telling Stories with Blocks: Encouraging Language in the Block Center. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 7(2), 31+.

Lake, V. E., & Pappamihiel, N. E. Effective Practices and Principles to Support English Language Learners in the Early Childhood Classroom. Childhood Education, 79(4), 200+.

Shapiro, J., Loeb, P., Bowermaster, D. "Special education programs have failed." The disabled. Brenda Stalcup, Ed.

Researching the Individual Achievement Tests Performed in Academic Institutions.

Peabody Individual Achievement Test

The Peabody Individual Achievement Test is an example of a widely applicable achievement test that has undergone many reviews, pilot tests, and updates. It applies over the course of many grade levels, and it is well-established among education professionals. Cross explains that the subtests - in General Information, Reading Recognition, Reading Comprehension, Mathematics, Spelling, and Written Expression - consist of multiple choice tests, all except for Written Expression. The quality of the multiple choice questions seems to be high, because they have survived scrutiny from many reviewers over the years. He asserts that the design and presentation of the test itself seems user-friendly, so it should pose few problems for parents and educators as they make use of it.

Cross notes that the test is enhanced through the use of a computer program that eliminates the need to look up scaled scores in the manual. It is called the ASSIST program, and in addition to saving time it also has potential to improve accuracy by eliminating the possibility of human error in comparing scores to scaled scores. While the test itself has remained largely the same, the significant new addition to this 1998 version is the innovation of this program for facilitating the scoring process. Cross gives a generally favorable review of this achievement test, but he cautions the publishers that examiners need to be aware of certain subtleties of computation in order to avoid misleading interpretations of the results.

This assessment is very broad and general with its strengths coming from versatility and universality, but Cross notes that it is not intended for formal diagnostic information. Cross also states that the psychometric evidence needs to be updated; the 1989 version provided a high quality summary of reliability and validity evidence from previous studies, but a review of more recent studies is now necessary in order to accommodate changing times and the changing characteristics of the assessments.

Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition

The Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition (WIAT-II) provides composite scores in four areas of achievement: reading, mathematics, written language, and oral language. It is an improvement upon the 1992 version of the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, and reviewer Beth Doll expresses the fact that it is "substantially different from its predecessor in the content and format of its subtests [. . .]. In most respects, changes reflect the incorporation of cutting-edge research in the acquisition and assessment of educational skills." The test is widely applicable, intended for the assessment of individuals ranging in age from 4 years old to 85 years old. Two manuals accompany the assessment. One manual is intended for use in the assessment of school age learners under the age of 18, while the other is intended for use with adults and college students.

Doll commends the authors and publishers of the WIAT-II for designing a modern achievement test based on the most sophisticated research data available. One limitation of the assessment seems to be the fact that its complexity makes it difficult for examiners to use if they are not already experts in the areas of research on which it is based, but this limitation is inevitable when a test is created based on insights from advanced research. Doll recommends that an "expert's guide" is necessary, because the current examiner's manual does not sufficiently prepare its reader for interpreting test results with accuracy. She also notes that scoring for the Reading Comprehension subtest is quite complex; however, the nature of reading comprehension assessments is complex by nature.

In addition to this limitation of inevitable complexity, Doll notes some limitations that may be avoidable. For example, item type changes frequently within any given subtest, and some types will not be administered after certain incorrect answers are given because of the interactive nature of the text. This will affect scoring in ways that will require careful discretion on the part of the examiner. These complexities can be mitigated through the creation of an expert's guide, as Doll recommends.

References:

Doll, B. Review of the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition. University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Lincoln, NE.

Cross, P. Professor of Educational Research and Evaluation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Blacksburg, VA.

Essay Chat. Academic Paper Research Guide. Web: essaychat.com/write-academic-paper/

Education is a serious issue in the Middle East. With the shift from an entirely oil based economy to a information technology and industry based economy nations such as; Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen have had to focus on developing educational systems that provide their citizens with advanced educations that allow them to work in growing fields. The focus on education reform in Qatar since the 1990s has led to a stronger educational system that provides an in-depth exploration of academic subjects and encourages critical thinking. Qatar has also focused on developing its higher education system in order to avoid the pitfall suffered by so many Asian, South American, African, and Middle Eastern nations, that of their youth leaving the country to attend university overseas, and never returning because their education is more valuable elsewhere.

Education in Qatar

The education system in Qatar dates back to the 19th century when the Kuttab schools were developed as a means of teaching religion, science, and Qatari culture. These schools headed by Mullah's were a direct consequence of the Islamic belief that education was a right and that it was the duty of adults to education their children. (Qatar News Agency "Stages of the development") By 1890 the Kuttab school system had spread throughout Qatar and had been expanded to include a wider variety of subjects that would better prepare children for their futures.

By 1947 the Qatari sheiks were focused on the development of a school system with a comprehensive curriculum. The first school, Al-Islah Al-Hamadiya School only had 154 students and was closed after the first group of students left. By 1954 an elementary school system would be established with separate schools for male and female students. In 1958 public education became widespread throughout Qatar and by 1967 the secondary school system would be opened with 4 career/educational tracks open to students, science, literature, religion, and vocational trades. While Qatar initially only had one public university by 2013 several universities had opened throughout the country.

One of the central questions that are being asked is why Qatar is becoming so involved in education? One aspect of this that has already been mentioned is that the government of Qatar perceives education as a responsibility that cannot be set aside. A second reason is that Qatar is trying to diversify its economy and prevent talented young people from leaving the country. The government understands that they will not always be able to rely upon the oil wells to provide for the people and that they must develop an economy based on the technology, service, and manufacturing industries in order to survive. Dr. Abdulla, President of Qatar University which hosts eight other international universities on its Education City campus states that education is the future of Qatar and that they must invest in this future if the country is to survive.

Stasz, Edie, and Martorell argue that the changes in the education system have been primarily a response to employer's demands for more educated employee. As Qatar's economy has become more diversified and has begun to transition from an oil based economy to technology based economy. This has led to the need for increased numbers of secondary and post secondary graduates with training in foreign languages, information technology, computer programming, and web design. (17) There were some critical areas in which Qatar was lacking in 2008 that have since changed. For example, post-secondary training was not set up to accommodate students with special needs at that point, nor were there many graduate degrees available. The arrival of world class international universities and a revamp of the nation's school system have however led to a wide variety of improvements including, better special education and improved education in mathematics, science, and critical thinking.

Romanowski and Nasser argue that the Sheik's "Education for a New Era" initiative has focused on teaching children the mathematics; science, computer, and critical thinking skills that they will need to find work in an increasingly diverse economy. It is also argued that Qatar has gone from a nation that offers its youth unchallenging curricula that offer them neither the advanced critical thinking skills they need to succeed in the modern world nor anything to keep them interested in continuing their education, to a nation that offers a diverse and challenging curriculum that prepares youth for the future. (121)

This is not to say that this transition has been easy either for students, parents, or teachers. Romanowski, Cherif, Al-Ammari, and Al-Attiyah have performed a study of principals, teachers, and parents in Qatar in relation to their opinions regarding the transition from a school system that was very basic to a school system that offers advanced learning in mathematics, science, and technology. A mixed methods study utilizing both survey methods and interviews was used to determine if the changes to the education system were effective. A survey of 17 principals, 413 teachers and 565 parents as well as interviews with 17 principals, 26 teachers, and 56 parents was conducted by Romanowski et al. (114)

The results of the study indicated that overall principals were satisfied with changes although they worried that the Arabic languages were being discarded in favor of English and foreign languages. They also felt that the changes had made their jobs more challenging and interesting. Something Romanowski, Cherif, Al-Ammari, and Al-Attiyah have identified as being critical in keeping Qatari educators interested in the field. Seventy-three percent of the teachers surveyed had positive feelings about the educational reforms. They had successfully changed their teaching styles and subject matter to accommodate reforms and were overall happy with the challenge. Their biggest concerns were the workload and the emphasis on English rather than Arabic. Finally, parents were divided on their opinions about education reform. Fifty four percent of parents felt that the changes to the education system had been positive while 30 % felt changes had been negative, 16% of parents felt that changes had little impact on themselves or their children. (116-122)

Prowse and Goddard have studied how teachers perceive the changes in Qatar's education system compared to how teaching is perceived by Canadian teachers. In a study of a transnational college campus with campuses in St John, Canada and Doha Qatar it was found that each education system had its own challenges for college professors. For example, professors and instructors in Doha found that chronic absenteeism and tardiness were serious issues in their classrooms and were much less accepting of this behavior than Canadian professors. Another critical issue was guidance. Students in Qatar and Canada both were perceived as needing a great deal of teacher assistance while in the classroom. This study indicates that Qatar's college campuses are very similar in comparison to other colleges and Universities throughout the world however; there are cultural factors that influence how students react in the classroom setting in Qatar.

There have also been several critical changes other than improvements in curriculum and an increase in the number of universities. For example all elementary, grammar, and secondary schools are now considered independent schools rather than public schools. This allows for schools to focus on specific areas outside the normal curricula such as; religious education, vocational education, or the arts. A second change has been the implementation of a knowledge management or learning management system in all Qatar's schools up through the university level. Nasser, Cherif, and Romanowski have found that the KMS system has been very effective in helping students with poor ICT (internet communication technology) skills learn how to use the various tools available on the internet in order to complete class assignments. However; students who areas already knowledgeable about ICT do not tend to use this system as much.

Qatar seems fully prepared to move into the second decade of the 21st century with their education reforms. They are focusing on preparing youth for a transition to a more diverse economy and ensuring their place in that economy not only by developing one of the world's top educational systems but by developing a curricula that will ensure that the youth of today become Qatar's professional workers tomorrow. While there has been some hesitance on the part of parents, teachers, and principals to accept the new system (mainly due to fearing that Qatar's unique and vibrant cultural history will be lost) overall the new system has been successful. The independent schools also allow different factions or geographical regions within Qatar the ability to shape the course of education outside the required curricula. The government of Qatar feels that this encourages innovation amongst educators and critical thinking amongst students. Technology has been a central focus of the school system since the educational reforms began. This change in focus has fostered greater knowledge of ICT as well as high levels of critical thinking amongst Qatar's youth.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is clear that Qatar's educational system is in a period of great transition. They have moved quickly from the original Kuttab school system with a primary focus on religion to an education system focused on critical thinking, mathematics, science, and technology. While there have been some questions related to abandoning the values of traditional Qatari culture the country has benefitted greatly from the improved educational system.

There are serious implications for Qatar's future based on these changes. For example, Qatar may be one of the few Middle Eastern nations to successfully transition to knowledge and technology based economy before they have to worry about the nation's oil wells running dry, a prospect many Middle Eastern nations will face in the next century. Another implication of this is that Qatar has a body of well-trained natural citizens to work in professional and vocational fields whereas; other nations may have to import workers. This is critical in determining the future success of Qatar's economy as well as their people. This also sets Qatar up as a nation focused on more secular values rather than the radical religious extremism promoted in some Middle Eastern nations. The new focus on education in critical thinking, mathematics, and science will work to stabilize relationships with other nations and ensure that Qatar is seen as neutral in conflicts between Middle Eastern nations.

References

Coughlin, Sean. Why is Qatar investing so much in education?

Nasser Ranzi, Cherif Maha, and Michael Romanowski . "Factors that Impact Student Usage of the Learning Management System in Qatari Schools." The Internatoinal Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning , 12:6: 41-66. print-journal.

Prowse Jacqueline and Goddard Tim J. . "Teaching across cultures: Qatar and Canada ." Canadian Journal of Higher Educatoin, 40:1: 31-52. print-journal.

Qatar News Agency . Stages of the development of education in Qatar.

Romanowski Michael H., and Nasser Ranzi. "Critical Thinking and Qatar's Education For a New Era: Negotiating Possibilities." International Journal of Critical Pedagogy, 4:1: 118-134. print-jpurnal.

Romanowski Michael H., Cherif Mahila Elili, Al-Ammari Badria, & Al-Attiyah Asma. "Qatar's Educational Reform: The Experiences and Perceptions of Principals, Teachers and Parents." Journal of International Education, 5:3: 108-136. print-journal.

Stasz Cathleen, Eide Eric R., and Martorell Francisco . Post-secondary education in Qatar: Employer demand, student choice, and options for policy. Santa Monica CA: Rand Corporation. print .

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Learning Styles and System Background

1.1.1 Learning Management Systems

Learning management systems (LMS) consist of software, which can be used for reporting, tracking, documentation, and administration of educational material (Graf). There are a number of elements, which are key to these types of systems. The software must be able to reuse knowledge. It must also deliver the information in different formats such as webinars or more personalized interactive learning. The learning system must include both self-guided services and content which can be delivered at a rapid pace. Effective learning systems will automate nearly all of the administration involved with online education. There now exist standards regarding the portability of the learning management systems. An important element of these systems which will be discussed further in a separate section is scalability (Kritikou et al).

An entire industry has developed around LMS technology. There is a wide variety of education applications, which are provided by commercial vendors. Some of these vendors have been around since the 1990s when the Internet first developed for public use, while others are relatively new additions. One of the leaders regarding the LMS technology is Blackboard. This company has more than 50% of the market. Other important providers are Desire2Learn and Moodle.

There are several online universities and colleges, which use the eCollege system. The system is a "software as a service" provider who caters to both post-secondary and secondary institutions of learning. Prior to being purchased by Pearson during 2007, eCollege was traded on the New York Stock Exchange beginning in 2002. Other large providers in this realm are Sumtotal Systems and SuccessFactors.

Nearly all the learning management systems are web-based in order to allow access of content and the administration in remote locations (Kritikou et al). These systems can be used by industries such as pharmaceutical research and financial services in order to ensure that professionals can keep apprised of any changes, which occur in regulations. These systems are widely used by educational institutions in order to support and enhance the more traditional courses offered in a classroom. Frequently, students in remote locations would otherwise be unable to access education offered by institutions in other countries. The systems make the learning available anywhere there is an Internet connection.

The majority of institutions which make use of learning management systems also take advantage of an authoring tool which allows educators to prepare e-learning content, which can be hosted on the system (Graf). This is generally in the form of authoring tools, which allow for content manipulation. If there is a need for more advanced levels of content creation, authoring software must be used, which integrates well with the LMS. Both the Shareable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM), as well as the Aviation Industry Computer-Based Training Committee (AICC) has standards related to authoring tools for LMSs (Graf).

It is important that learning management systems not be confused with learning content management systems (LCMS) (Kritikou et al). The LMS is used to deliver courses online and allow students to track their progress as well as performance. In these instances, the LMS also usually reports the progress of students to the instructors, carrying out administrative tasks, and performing a wide variety of content delivery services. The LCMS software is used to organize the digital information, so they can be used by the LMS (Kritikou et al.).

1.1.2 Learning Styles

Individuals learn in different ways (Kritikou et al.). These are due to the variance in how people process information and habitually acquire necessary knowledge. Learning styles became a popular topic of educational research beginning in the 1970s. Scholars who support the idea of learning styles explained that is necessary for teachers to determine the learning style of students in order to maximize their learning ability. Once the learning style has been determined, the information and manner of its presentation can be adjusted in order to help the student learn more rapidly and in depth.

A wide variety of models has been developed to represent learning styles. Nearly all people have a mix of styles which they use to learn. However, most people have certain types of learning, which are dominant in their approach. Some people use the different learning styles according to the circumstances or task.

One common model for understanding learning styles is to split them into the types of information, which are most efficiently processed by an individual. Using this scheme of understanding learning generally leads to seven styles. The styles are logical, solitary, social, physical, verbal, visual, and auditory.

Logical learning is sometimes referred to as a mathematical style. These people will generally be skilled at establishing connections and recognizing patterns (Moenikia). There are also efficient at grouping and classifying information in order to make it more easily understood. Individuals using a logical learning style are often able to do relatively complex calculations without the use of a calculator, computer, or even paper.

The solitary learning style is also known as an interpersonal style. These people learn best on their own. They tend to be independent and introspective. Most can concentrate well and are adept at analyzing their own feelings and thoughts regarding a topic. They are nearly always good at self-analysis. Many will take considerable time in order to assess situations and develop an opinion or solution.

A social learning style is often referred to as an interpersonal approach. These people learn best when they are able to communicate with others. This includes both nonverbal and verbal interactions. These individuals are generally good at evaluating the feelings and motivations of others. A common learning approach among these people is forming a study group.

The physical learning style involves making use of kinesthetic information. These learners will acquire information most efficiently when it is provided in the form of bodily senses. Touch is frequently an important part of how these people learn. A popular method of solving problems for these individuals is the taking of a long walk to ponder an issue.

Verbal learning makes use of both the spoken and written word. These people can express themselves well in both spoken and written forms (Moenikia). Learners who prefer this approach will have a large vocabulary and always be attempting to improve. Most authors and poets make extensive use of this linguistic approach to learning. Individuals who are fond of verbal learning will generally acquire new words or language is rapidly.

People who prefer a visual learning style will make use of spatial information. This type of information can include maps, colors, pictures, or images. They can visualize objects, as well as plans and possible outcomes mentally. They are usually good at maps and will not generally become lost.

The auditory learning style makes use of rhythm and music. These people will generally have a considerable skill at both rhythm and pitch. They are often quite good at playing a number of musical instruments. They may be subject to strong emotions when particular music is played.

When the seven learning styles discussed are used, they are usually understood as consisting of two dimensions. The first dimension is social or solitary. The second dimension includes verbal, physical, auditory, visual, and logical. This means that there are 10 dimensions of learning including combinations such as solitary verbal or social physical.

It should be noted that no single style of learning is superior to another (Graf, 2008). Skilled learners might use any of these styles or a combination of them.

1.1.3 Cognitive Traits

As part of a PhD in Information Systems, a study. was done to establish a cognitive trait model (CTM) which is both persistent and domain transcending. This means a student can use their individual cognitive traits as explained by the model for learning in a wide variety of situations. The CTM allows for learning systems to be finely tuned with regard to their system-wide adaptivity in the support of a student's cognitive traits.

The CTM is not a replacement for the performance-based models which are presently being used in LMSs. Instead, it is meant to complement performance-based systems, which are already being used in many LMSs. The performance-based models are used to record domain specific and student specific data. They also maintain a record of the adaptivity of the system. The CTM makes use of data regarding cognitive traits of the students and helps the system adapt to these individual cognitive traits. In other words, the performance-based models and the CTM can be used independently for a given LMS. However, it is likely that the best approach will be to combine the performance-based models with CTM.

The CTM conceptualizes cognitive traits as falling into the three general categories of working memory capacity, inductive reasoning ability, and divergent associative learning. The working memory capacity of a learner is also known as the short-term memory. This is the ability of the student to store information in a transient fashion. The working memory is different from memory, which stores information in a more permanent manner. This type of learning is referred to as long-term memory. An analogy for the human memory with regard to computers would reveal that the random-access memory (RAM) corresponds to the short-term memory. To continue the analogy the long-term memory would be the storage capacity of the computer on the hard drive.

Inductive reasoning ability is the process of using inductive logic to process information. With this approach, general propositions are evaluated, which have been formulated from specific examples. Induction allows the discovery of new aspects of knowledge based on those which already exist. This type of reasoning has led to numerous scientific discoveries.

Divergent associative learning occurs when a student establishes links between existing and new concepts. This approach to learning involves both divergent thinking and learning in an associative fashion. Associative learning involves making an Association between various stimuli or stimuli and behavior. This includes both operant and classical conditioning. A stimulus which was previously neutral is presented with another stimulus, and the two are later associated with each other. Divergent thinking occurs when an individual explores multiple solutions and compares these in order to arrive at a solution.

1.1.4 Scalability

Scalability refers to the ability of the process, network, for system to deal with an increasing amount of use (Gilmore & Tribastone). With regard to learning management systems, this would mean a growing number of teachers, students, or most likely both. It could also include adding additional courses and learning material. The system is understood to be scalable when it is relatively easy for it to adjust to higher levels of information processing and storage.

Scalability of a learning system involves a number of dimensions (Rapuano & Zoino). These dimensions include load, geographic, functional, and administrative. A learning management system which has load scalability will be able to contract or expand to handle the appropriate load. When there are more teachers and students on the site, this might involve additional processing capabilities. The learning system is said to have geographic scalability when it is useful and performs well in a variety of locations. The Internet is excellent for this type of scalability. The learning system has functional scalability when new courses, and the learning material can be added without excessive effort. The system is scalable regarding administrative functions when an additional number of organizations can make use of it.

The learning management system must be capable of scaling both vertically and horizontally. Vertical scaling will add resources to the system generally in the form of increased processing power. This is done at a single node within the system. This often will involve adding processing units to an individual computer. In the case of a learning management system, vertical scaling would be necessary if the system has varying demands regarding processing.

Scaling horizontally is sometimes known as scale out. This is the process of adding nodes within a system. If the learning system is using a distributed computing application, additional computers would be added. This we usually involve using a multitude of small computers rather than a single supercomputer. It can now be less expensive to use 20 PCs working together rather than a lone Cray supercomputer. Horizontal scaling involves adding another computer to the distributed system).

There are advantages and disadvantages with regard to using a single supercomputer to handle the learning management system versus multiple PCs (Rapuano & Zoino). Using several small computers increases the complexity of managing them is a solitary unit. There must also be complex programming models, which ensure that the latency and throughput between the nodes is appropriate. Historically, it was cheaper to purchase the single supercomputer rather than a multitude of small computers. However, the second decade of the 21st century has seen substantial decreases in the price of personal computers. This means it is frequently less expensive to purchase a multitude of small computers rather than a supercomputer.

1.2 Goals and Objectives

The goal of this dissertation is to propose a model for a scalable learning management system which makes use of the learner's cognitive traits and learning styles. The system will be scalable so that it can handle both an increased number of users and increased processing demands. There will be a comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of using a single supercomputer versus distributed computing among personal computers. There will also be a description of how the system can be evaluated when it is complete.

1.3 Methodology

This dissertation will use a systematic review of the literature (Pawson, Greenhalgh, Harvey, & Walshe) to achieve the goal of developing a system for evaluating the success of a scalable learning system in a large network. This type of review involves an exhaustive summary of the recent literature addressing the topic. Due to the progressive nature of the topic, only articles and books which have been published since 2009 will be used. The articles will primarily come from peer-reviewed journals. However, white papers and other technical publications will be used when appropriate. Information from websites will be used if there is evidence of proper references and due diligence regarding the accuracy of the information provided (Pawson et al).

In order to ensure that all the necessary information is used, information provided in gray literature will be used as well. The term "gray literature" is used by information science to refer to written material which cannot be obtained through more traditional channels such as monographs and published journals. This is usually because it is not easily accessed by the general public. However, this type of literature often contains valuable information. Examples of documents which would be considered as gray literature include white papers, working papers of research groups, government agency reports, technical reports, and patents. This information is sometimes not included in reports due to the difficulty of obtaining the material. At the same time, the Internet has made the gray literature substantially easier to obtain.

The systematic literature review will make use of Master's theses and doctoral dissertations These are sometimes included as gray literature, especially when they are unpublished works. These are also more readily available due to the Internet.

Multiple Internet search engines will be used to locate the data, including Google, Yahoo!, and Google scholar. Meta-search engines will also be used such as Dog pile and Ixquick.

1.4 Dissertation Organization

The remainder of this dissertation is divided into chapters. Chapter 2 is the longest section and will consist of the systematic review of the literature. Chapter 3 presents the findings and a discussion of them with regard to how the literature relates to the goals and objectives of this dissertation. Chapter 4 is the final chapter and presents the conclusion which can be drawn from the findings and discussion of the literature review. This last chapter includes suggestions of additional research which may prove beneficial.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 3

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSION

References

Lin, T. Cognitive trait model for adaptive learning environments (Doctoral dissertation, PhD thesis, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand).

Graf, S. Adaptivity in learning management systems focusing on learning styles (Doctoral dissertation, Vienna University of Technology).

Graf, S., & Liu, T. C. Identifying Learning Styles in Learning Management Systems by Using Indications from Students' Behaviour. In Advanced Learning Technologies. ICALT'08. Eighth IEEE International Conference on (pp. 482-486). IEEE.

Kritikou, Y., Demestichas, P., Adamopoulou, E., Demestichas, K., Theologou, M., & Paradia, M. User Profile Modeling in the context of web-based learning management systems. Journal of Network and Computer Applications,31(4), 603-627.

Moenikia, M. The role of learning styles in second language learning among distance education students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,2(2), 1169-1173.

Gilmore, S., & Tribastone, M. Evaluating the scalability of a web service-based distributed e-learning and course management system. Web Services and Formal Methods, 214-226.

Rapuano, S., & Zoino, F. A learning management system including laboratory experiments on measurement instrumentation. Instrumentation and Measurement, IEEE Transactions on, 55(5), 1757-1766.

Pawson, R., Greenhalgh, T., Harvey, G., & Walshe, K. Realist review-a new method of systematic review designed for complex policy interventions. Journal of health services research & policy, 10(suppl 1), 21-34.

AML Questionnaire

Your name:
Your email:
Your phone:
Your location/department:

1. How would you characterize your approach to AML?

a. risk based
b. compliance based
c. a balance of risk and compliance based
d. scenario based
e. none of the above

2. Do you generate SARs/STRs?

a. if YES go to question 3
b. if NO go to question 7

3. Which of the following do you take in to consider when generating a SAR/STR? (mark all that apply)

a. customer/client knowledge
b. activity resembles a past activity that was/is known to be suspicious
c. activity resembles an example of suspicious activity
d. I was directed to do so by senior management
e. use of external databases (e.g., World-Check)
f. my professional intuition
g. consultation with a colleague (including an MLRO)

4. Think back on feedback you have received on SARs/STRs you have generated (mark all that apply)

a. no feedback received
b. positive feedback received
c. negative feedback received
d. neutral feedback received

5. Think about what you know about the practices of others you know who generate SARs/STRs. Would you say that...(mark all that apply)

a. my approach is consistent with that of others
b. my approach is inconsistent with that of others, but with good reason
c. my approach is inconsistent with that of others, but I'm not sure why
d. of people I know who generate SARs/STRs, there is little, if any consistency in how they are generated
e. I set the standards for generating SARs/STRs, so there is substantial consistency
f. I follow the guidance of one or more co-workers, so there is substantial consistency, at least with respect to those co-workers
g. I follow a set of standards, and others are supposed to as well, but I don't know how much consistency there is

6. How many SARs/STRs do you generate, or oversee the generation of, per year?

a. 0-10
b. 10-50
c. 50-100
d. >100

7. In conducting your own work, do you distinguish between money laundering and (mark all that apply)...

a. terrorist finance
b. tax evasion (not just income tax, but also customs duties, VAT, etc.)
c. sanctions evasion
d. hawala and other "alternative remittance systems"

Research Approach

The questionnaire will be designed to capture data through both open and closed format questions. There will therefore be a trade-off between open questions that will provide a greater depth of insight and closed questions that will be easier to analyse and compare.

(new text goes here)

(if some of the countries are NON FATF countries, additional decision point questions should be added, as it is not accurate to compare FATF with NON FATF countries).

(note that some of these questions could be expanded into a Likert scale; instead of asking which items from a list are important, the person could be asked to rate each item on the list for its importance on a scale from 1-5; this makes for a longer questionnaire, and there is then a methodological issue to be resolved. If something is rated 1, it is clear that it IS important, 5 means NOT important, but what, if any, "shades of meaning" are attached to values 2-4, and are these "shades of meaning" context sensitive-e.g., do they vary by country, city, or job function?)

The [draft] questionnaire consists of seven questions, in addition to requesting the coordinates of the respondent. These are gathered in order to facilitate checking the character of responses across both types of departments (e.g., loans vs. new accounts) and countries (e.g., The United Kingdom vs. the UAE). It is assumed that all countries surveyed have an AML regime in place that is more or less compliant with the FATF Recommendations, specifically, requiring the generation of a SAR/STR in cases where a transaction is believed to be suspicious. It is also assumed that the countries' FIUs operate in a mode where some measure of feedback is provided on SARs/STRs. The important exception to these assumptions is the United States. In the United States, reporting is also required for cash transactions exceeding US$10,000. In addition, the distributed nature of AML within the U.S. government appears to preclude the systematic evaluation of SARs/STRs and the provision of feedback to issuing institutions, despite the presence of a robust FIU in the form of the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (Cassara 2006, pp. 221-226).

The value of this questionnaire is diminished if a country has made no pretence of compliance with the FATF Recommendations. It is, however, useful in all cases as a gauge of the baselines in place for AML risk assessment and compliance. Diligent use of the questionnaire's results will, inevitably, serve to focus the application of business process re-engineering on an institution's AML programme.

Question #1 of the questionnaire calibrates the respondent's understanding of AML "best practices." It is one of the few questions with a correct answer, and that answer is (c) (Financial Action Task Force 2011, p. 18).

Question #2 is a decision point; individuals involved in the generation of SARs/STRs have questions to answer that those who not generate them do not have to answer.

Question #3 tests the resources used in SAR/STR generation. A "good" response has more selections than a "poor" response.

Question #4 is particularly applicable in jurisdictions such as the U.K.where every SAR/STR is subject to some form of review. The mere presence of feedback (which can include official action) is not the sole metric of SAR/STR quality, but feedback on SARs/STRs does indicate that they are the type of thing that the the FIU wants to see.

Question #5 is very important; there is no right answer, but, obviously the more consistency, the better. A lack of consistency is almost certainly a clear indication that something is wrong with the institution's ALM training program, and some form of corrective action-ranging from the selection of a new training vendor to the application of business process re-engineering is needed.

Question #6 was designed with a view towards statistics; it might be well to compare activities using # of SARs/STRs generated as a unifying factor. It will also show which functions within an institution generate the most SARs/STRs.

Question #7, like question #1, has a right answer. All three options should be selected. This is because even though terrorist finance, tax evasion, and sanctions evasion are financial crimes, they are not the same as money laundering. Poor answers to this question, as with questions #1 and #5, points to systematic problems in the implementation of the institution's AML regime. Hawala is something of a special case. In jurisdictions such as the US, hawala is viewed as a regulatory problem, many of its practitioners are businesses such as ethnic shops, and are, as such, operating outside the regulatory framework for financial institutions. In jurisdictions such as India, hawala is viewed as a foreign exchange/capital flight problem.

NEW REFERENCES

Cassara, John 2006, Hide And Seek: Intelligence, Law Enforcement and the Stalled War on Terrorist Finance. Potomac Books, Bethesda, MD USA

Financial Action Task Force, 2011, Anti-Money Laundering and Terrorist Finance Measures and Financial Inclusion. OECD, Paris, France.

Success of a Continuous Improvement Programme

Abstract

Thisdocument discusses the continuous improvement programme , defines critical success factors, and reviews Six Sigma, ISO, EFQM, TQM, and Kaizan.Mini-case studies are presented illustrating the use of continuous improvement, and key lessons learned are summarized for the reader.

Keywords: Continuous improvement programme, CIP, continuous programme of improvement (CPI), total quality management (TQM), continuous quality improvement (CQI), just in time (JIT)

1 What is a continuous improvement programme?

Continuous improvement is philosophy of operation and management that deals with the challenges of improving products and processes as a never ending, ever changing process. Continuous improvement programs, or (CIPs) address all phases of planning, development, implementation, review, improvement, and evaluation of a program. The continuous improvement program is sometimes referred to as Continuous Program Improvement (CPI) and may be referenced as the continuous quality improvement plan (CQI). Lynch and Cross refer to continuous improvement as a "dynamic measurement system that motivates continuous improvement in customer satisfaction, flexibility, and productivity - simultaneously." Performance measures serve as yardsticks intended to continuously measure whether "functions, departments and teams" are doing the right things, and whether or not they are doing them well. By implementing a process of continuous review, the organization is able to motivate behaviours that lead to continuous improvement. The process of continuous improvement is designed to progress in a regular and steady fashion; dramatic breakthroughs are neither planned nor expected, though they would be welcomed. Rather, the continuous improvement program can be likened to the fable of the Tortoise and the Hare: every school child learns that slow but steady wins the race. Continuous improvement is no different; steady improvement over the life cycle of a business will win over dramatic but erratic and unsustained measures of change.

Watson points out that continuous quality improvement is not time limited; it is an ongoing process by which an agency or organization makes and implements decisions and evaluates the process it is making. CIP or CQI represents a complete departure from previous operating procedures for most agencies. Under a total quality and continuous improvement process, with decisions being made in a completely different fashion, changes in leadership approach will be necessary and sustained, and committed leadership will be necessary. Organizational leaders must work to establish a culture that supports learning and values knowledge, and is proactive about reinforcing change mechanisms.

2 Why should organizations embark on continuous improvement programmes?

Charles Darwin may be best well known for his contributions to the fields of biology and science, but he made one significant contribution to the business field, perhaps without ever realizing it. As McCallum points out, Darwin's Origin of the Species revolutionized how we came to think about change and about various forms of organization. With Darwin's observations from the HMS Beagle came conclusions that would revolutionize religion and point medicine in new avenues (McCallum, quoting Darwin 2001). With Darwin's remarks that it was not the smartest nor strongest species that survives, but rather the ones that adapt to change, we see the shadowy beginnings of the concept of the continuous improvement programme.

Organizations that have been slow to implement continuous improvement programmes or total quality initiatives have failed to be competitive with organizations that have integrated continuous improvement into the culture of the organization. As we will see in the case studies, implementation of continuous improvement endows employees with a sense of ownership that is frequently lacking in large organizations. This ownership can make the difference between being an organization that fails, and one that survives. Taken to greater levels of implementation, it can signify the difference between and organization that succeeds, and one that excels.

3 What are the benefits of continuous improvement?

As we will see demonstrated in the following cases, the benefits of continuous improvement extend into every facet of a business, and specific benefits will depend upon the genre of the organization. While benefits to day care organizations will differ from benefits to car dealerships, some things are stable across organizational lines: employees will exhibit a greater sense of ownership. With ownership comes responsibility. In a good programme, costs are reduced and performance is improved. The workplace process is continually improved, and waste is elimated. A 'can-do' culture is established, and human errors are forgiven, but processing errors are not. We will see the application of this concept in the case of Toyota.

3.1 Toyota

Toyota is one of the most sought after, and most reliable, vehicles in the world now, and Toyota executives state that their success is due to running lean as part of a programme of continuous improvement. Toyota can produce better cars faster, from the first inkling of a design idea to the final drivable product, than any other automotive company in the market today. Toyota boasts that it can take a car from conception to pruchase in 18 months, far surpassing the industry average.

It may appear to the reader that the issues that will be discussed are unrelated to continuous improvement, but they are not. Toyota's whole system of production is built around the process of continuous improvement, and two of those facets are total quality management and kaisan. Though, as we will see, Just in Time (JIT) may be the mode of delivery, Toyota's entire system dovetails to improve output, keep backlogs, low or non existent, end waste, decrease costs and materials costs, and increase overall product quality exponentially (Donnelly et at 2006), through the process of continuous improvement. The JIT system, or lean system, produces an order just in time; suppliers receive their orders just in time; products are delivered just in time, and the cars get to consumers just in time (Lean Resources). There is no fat, no waste; and Toyota plans on keeping it that way.

In order to understand Toyota's system of continuous improvement, it is important to understand how the just in time system works. The general idea behind JIT is to get the right part to the right place, at the right time. JIT is also referred to as 'lean' production, which is a method of production that minimizes waste of time, materials, and resources. JIT production is considered 'stockless' production because the operation endeavors to run without any extra stock or backstock. By putting all the appropriate pieces and stock in place at just the right time, production is maximized and costs are minimized. When implemented correctly, the turnover rate increases while the stock decreases; overall inventory is kept low, and product quality improves because variations in the product are reduced. Production times are reduced; lead time is cut. Cost cuts result. Excess line capacity can be utilized at any point, so there is no need to keep or produce excess inventory. In a JIT system, needed items are produced on a regular basis and each assembly station is preprogrammed with a pre-determined number of stock production items, designed to produce the product with little waste and no excess inventory.

Steady, regular production is one of the keys to a successful JIT system. Scheduled production times and practiced production results in reduced or eliminated set up times on the line. Lot sizes are reduced due to the decreased setup times. Lead time is cut as the team gets practiced in setup. Through the use of scheduled preventative maintenance and a flexable and trained group of personnel, combined with a quality raw goods supplier, the line aims for a zero defect rate (Chase et al.). A JIT production system thrives on the concept that practice makes perfect, and it reflects the concept of continuous improvement. Toyota technicians do not hesitate to stop the production line to work on problems. It is repeated practice that allows the production team to work together as a team and it is practice that enables the team to allow enough down time in the schedule for preventive maintenance. It is practice that allows the team to knock the line down and retool as necessary for different phases of the production process. The JIT team strives for the perfect product, and Toyota believes that JIT is a process that will enable them to continually improve and to become as perfect as possible.

It is striving for perfection that allows any member of the Toyota production line to stop the line by pulling the emergency cord if they believe there is a quality problem with the vehicle under production. Toyota personnel on the linepull the cord and stop the production line to fix quality problems an average of 2000 times a week (Schifferes 2007). Ford production lines are stopped only an average of two times a week to check quality issues. It doesn't seem logical that Ford would have only two quality issues a week, so the conclusion can be made that Ford lets them go through on the line. It is, perhaps, no wonder consumers joke that Ford is Found On Road Dead. Fords undoubtedly have the same quality problems as Toyotas while on the production line, but Toyota employees stop the line and fixes the problem, while Ford passes the problem on to the consumer.

Toyota takes far less hourly time than does Ford or GM to produce a vehichle, and the quality is far higher. In 1998, it took 50% longer to produce a Ford or GM (on an hourly basis) than it did a Toyota; today, GM is striving to catch up to Toyota's quality and production records. They credit their quality improvments to massive retooling in the factories and to revised process on the production lines. GM is steadily heading toward a JIT system and is attempting to implement a process of continuous improvement. GM, however, is still well behind Toyota, whose motto is "Think globally, act locally."

How will GM implement a JIT or lean production system when they are used to the standard assembly line program that was pioneered by Henry Ford? The first step is to evaluate supply chain engineering strategies. In the next step, the company will change stock levels by reducing on-hand stock. They will develop additional sourcing options for suppliers, and slowly improve the overall logistical performance of the assembly process. The entire manufacturing and operations strategies must be reconsidered. Supplier response times must be improved, perhaps in concert with integrating a computer system that reads GM's needs and transmits them to the supplier. GM's response times and manufacturing and assembly times will be improved, and modularization implemented. In the final stage of the revamp, a new and aggressive information technology strategy will be implemented. New information technology source applications will be used to improve corporate planning at all levels, to anticipate staffing needs, and interface with supply partners. Toyota excels in just such a system, and GM has begun to institute the program. Thus far, GM believes they have saved $9 billion dollars by beginning the conversion process. It is clear that GM's conversion process will be long term, a continuous improvement program..

3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10

Reduced costs and improved performance are made possible by the workplace process framework. It is the step by step process that is continually improved upon. Rather than a repeat performance of errors, wasteful things are eliminated. Examples include:

An abstract of approximately 100 words should be provided, the text of which should be italic 10 point Times New Roman. The abstract should be indented by 1cm from the margins and fully justified. A space of 6pt should follow the abstract.

4 Headings

Headings should be numbered as illustrated, and presented in bold Times New Roman at 14pt. They should be proceeded by a 12pt space and followed by a 6pt space without any hanging indent.

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Second level section headings should be 12pt bold Times New Roman numbered as shown. Spacing of 6pt before the heading and 6pt after should be employed. Further levelling of sections should be avoided.

5 Normal text

The main text of the paper should be presented in 10pt Times New Roman single line spaced with full justification. A 12pt space should be inserted after each paragraph.

The language of the conference is United Kingdom (Oxford) English. The paper should be presented in single column, one side format. Any images or tables should be included in the document at the position the author wishes them to appear. They should be centred with respect to the text and provided with a numbered caption. Images should be monochrome for paper bound proceedings. Color images may be submitted for proceedings in CD format. Caption text should be below the image or table in Times New Roman 10pt, with a space of 12 pt following.

Figure 1 Some shapes.

6. References

References in the text of the paper should be made in the Harvard style, which is (author date) e.g. (Francis & Wonham), (strm & Wittenmark), (Doyle et al.). More than two authors should be referenced using et al. The entry in the reference list should however list all contributors' names. A hanging indent of 1 cm should be used. The references list should be alphabetically arranged by author, not numbered. Authors surnames should be given first, followed by initials, in capital letters. Following the authors name, the date of publication should be entered. The title of the work follows the date in italics. Journal volumes should be given in bold followed by the part number. Edition, place of publication and publisher follow in standard text. Some examples are given below. When referencing web based documents both the date of publication and accessed date should be included. The URL should be within angle brackets.

Acknowledgement

This document is mainly based on the Mechatronics 2002 template.

References:

Chase, R., Jacobs, F., Aquilano, N. Operations Management for Competitive Advantage. 11th edition. Irwin/McGraw Hill.

Donnelly, T., Morris D., and Donnelly T. Modularisation and Supplier Parks in the Automative Industry. 2006.

Lean Resources (ND). Inventory and Lean Manufacturing: Why All the Fuss?

Lynch, R., and Cross, K. Measure up! How to measure corporate performance. USA:

McCallum, J. Adapt or die. Ivey Business Journal.

Schifferes, S. The triumph of lean production BBC News Online.

Watson, P. Using continuous quality improvement to improve child welfare practice: a framework for implementation. National Child Welfare Resource Center for Organizational Improvement.

strm , K. & Wittenmark, B, Computer-Controlled Systems - Theory and Design, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA.

Doyle, J., Francis, B. & Tannenbaum, A, Feedback Control Theory, McMillan, New York.

Francis, B. & Wonham, W., The Internal model principle of control theory, Automatica 12: 457-465.

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  Figure 1 Some shapes.