When a non-native English speaker begins to first learn how to read and write and English, the experience can be either a pleasant experience or one of the most horrifying activities that the person must complete. The classroom setting is one that is so academic in nature that the student feels more intimidated rather than encouraged to learn the language in both the written and read form. Not to be discouraged, some of these crafty students have learned how to make the English language learning experience more pleasant outside of the classroom and the methods, are some of the most entertaining that can be done.

The following are some tips that any ESL can apply to daily life as part of the ongoing educational experience.

1. Read simple comic books that have drawing translations for the English words. Comic books like Archie's, Casper the Friendly Ghost, and other similar titles are easily found for free online or at local libraries. Children's books are also options for the learners. It doesn't matter what age the learner is, there is no shame in reading beginner books in English because it means the learner will be better guided in word usage and understanding word meanings.

2. Use Post It Notes across the house. Write the English equivalent of the household items from the vernacular language of the student. It is easier to memorize the English version when it can be associated with an actual item.

3. Watch English television programs. Any show from Sesame Street or The Flash will help the learner become better acquainted with the English accent and as such, help him to learn how to pronounce words in English. Talking aloud, even without a person to speak to helps train the tongue when it comes to English pronunciation. Online dictionaries also have audio pronunciation guides that can help with the spoken English practice.

4. Read English stories, newspaper articles, and magazines. Any source of English written words will help the learner become acclimatized to the spelling of English words. Syllabicate the pronunciation and use the free online audio pronunciation tools to help learn the proper enunciation of the words.

5. If the learner is capable of writing in English, then practice essay writing by writing in English. Anything from short stories, poems, or even simple explanations of previously read English articles can help the student learn how to write in English. Ask for the help of native English speakers or people who understand English to help assess the learner's English writing skills and grammar.

Finally, it is important to note that practice is very important. Speak English whenever possible and write in English whenever the chance presents itself. It is only through repetition among peers and other learners that English students can manage to advance their English skills outside of the classroom setting.

CONCEPT PAPER - GRADUATE FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT

Table of Contents
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Research Questions
Hypotheses
Definitions of Key Terms
Brief Review of the Literature
Historical Transitional Influences
Individuals with Disabilities Educational Act (IDEA)
Current Transitional Concerns
The Business of Producing Current Workforce Skills
Model of Learning: Mastery Learning
Transition
Research on Transition
Research Method
Operational Definition of Variables
Measurement
Summary
References

Introduction

Formal vocational training that enables young adults to produce or demonstrate current workforce skills presents most training programs with a great challenge. Vocational instruction is designed to address the needs of a diverse group of learners including young adults, high school dropouts, and individuals who do not attend a university after high school for a variety of reasons. Students with disabilities make up approximately 13.4% of the total public school student population in the United States (National Center for Educational Statistics). Many students with disabilities have difficulty obtaining employment after high school. The preparation of students with disabilities for employment after high school is important because these students are currently less employable than non-disabled students, and they make up a substantial portion of the population of students. If these students were better prepared for employment, they could help fill a gap in the labor market that exists for students with specialized vocational training.

As the current labor market in the United States requires youth between the ages of 19-23 to acquire more specialized training for businesses that demand higher levels of skill mastery, vocational instruction is changing to accommodate the needs of training organizations in specific career areas. As a result, Olsen (2010) stated that training organizations and traineeship or apprenticeship opportunities have increased their investment in college-aged students. The proposed quantitative study will be used to address specific issues related the effect of vocational training on the preparation of students with disabilities to achieve success in the workforce. Eggerth's (2008) theory of work adjustment is the underlying basis for this study because it focuses on the knowledge gap that exists between what students with disabilities are able to do and the requirements of the workforce.

Statement of the Problem

All American citizens have a right to a free and appropriate public education guaranteed by the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA (1975), and the Americans with Disabilities Act (Superfine). Furthermore, these Acts require that the educational services provided to students with disabilities are developed taking into account their employment after high school graduation (Sabbatino & Macrine, 2007). Given that students with disabilities have lower employment rates than non-disabled students after high school, the training given to disabled students to prepare them for the workforce requires examination.

Originally, vocational or technical training prepared learners for jobs that were based on hands-on skills which were learned and observed with the watchful eye of a certified, experienced trainer, not necessarily a professional educator. According to Blackorby and Wagner, only one-third of students with disabilities are ready to enter the workplace upon graduation. Thus, the problem to be addressed in the proposed study is that as many as three-fourths of all high school students with disabilities are inadequately prepared to contribute to the workforce.

Vocational training offers one possible mechanism to address this problem by providing students with disabilities with the skills they require to compete in the workforce. Eggerth's theory of work adjustment is used as the theoretical foundation for this study. This theory addresses the reasons for the gaps between what an individual is able to do and what is required in the workforce, such as the ability to comprehend basic instructions and the ability to get along with others and work in a social environment. Within the existing literature,; however, much of the focus has been on whether students with learning disabilities pursue higher education. In addition, other researchers have focused on the idea that students with learning disabilities need to be self-determined in order to overcome the obstacles created by having learning disabilities in order to be success after high school. In the proposed study, this theory will be extended by examining the possibility that vocational education can reduce the gap between the skills possessed by students with disabilities and the skills that are required for gainful employment after high school.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this quantitative, correlational study is to examine the relationship between of vocational training on the preparation of students with disabilities and success in the workforce. The population of interest in this study consists of students with disabilities aged 19 to 23 in the United States who have graduated from high school. The data from this study will come from the National Longitudinal Transitional Study 2 (NLTS-2), a longitudinal survey conducted by the National Center for Special Education Research (NCSER) and the Institute of Education Sciences (IES). The primary independent (predictor) variable in this study is whether or not the student attended a vocational school after high school. The control variables are the students' gender, race, family structure, and academic achievement. The dependent (outcome) variable in this study is the overall level of adaptive functioning skill possessed by the participants as assessed with the Scales of Independent Behavior (Bruininks, Woodcock, Weatherman, & Hill, 1996). This score is a composite of the individual's motor skills, social and communication skills, personal living skills, and community living skills. Adaptive functioning has been shown to correlate with employment status. Multiple regression analyses will be performed to determine whether or not attending a vocational school increases adaptive functioning while controlling for gender, race, family structure, and academic achievement.

Research Questions

These quantitative research questions once answered will indicate the success of vocational training on the adaptive functioning of students with disabilities. The first four research questions address the effects of four control variables on adaptive functioning, while the fifth research question specifically addresses the purpose of the study.

Q1. To what extent, if any, does adaptive functioning differ based on gender among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23?

Q2. To what extent, if any, does adaptive functioning differ based on race among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23?

Q3. To what extent, if any, does adaptive functioning differ based on family structure among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23?

Q4. To what extent, if any, is academic achievement correlated with adaptive functioning among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23?

Q5. To what extent, if any, does adaptive functioning differ based on whether students attended a vocational school among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23 when controlling for gender, race, family structure, and academic achievement?

Hypotheses

H1o. Adaptive functioning among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23 does not differ based on the gender of the students.

H1a. Adaptive functioning among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23 differs based on the gender of the students.

H2o. Adaptive functioning among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23 does not differ based on the race of the students.

H2a. Adaptive functioning among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23 differs based on the race of the students.

H3o. Family structure is not related to adaptive functioning among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23.

H3a. Family structure is related to adaptive functioning among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23.

H4o. Academic achievement is not correlated to adaptive functioning among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23.

H4a. Academic achievement is correlated to adaptive functioning among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23.

H5o. Attending a vocational school does not affect adaptive functioning among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23 when controlling for gender, race, family structure, and academic achievement.

H5a. Attending a vocational school affects adaptive functioning among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23 when controlling for gender, race, family structure, and academic achievement.

Definitions of Key Terms

This section contains definitions of key terms used in this study.

Career pathways training. Career pathways develops educational opportunities that provide students the skills needed to gain entry-level positions (National Research Center for Career and Technical Education).

Free and appropriate public education. A free education to all American citizens and their children guaranteed by the IDEA, and the Americans with Disabilities Act.

National Longitudinal Transitional Study 2 (NLTS-2). National study conducted with 19 to 21 year old students to examine their needs and outcomes as they move from high environment to work or tertiary education.

Standards-based education. Education designed to produce learning related to specific, Measurable criteria, in the workplace.

Transitional period. The transitional period refers to transition from the school environment to work or tertiary education.

Underprepared. In need of refresher coursework and/or close periods of observations until content mastery.

Vocational training. Training for a specific vocation in industry or agriculture or trade.

BRIEF REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Historical Transitional Influences

Young adults in this country between the ages of 19-23 who are furthering their education through a vocational and technical training program will face many rigorous challenges before graduation and transitioning into the workplace. Transition between the secondary school environment and the workplace for students enrolled in vocational and technical training programs is not new and dates back to the turn of the century. Transition between environments was a concern with company management forefathers like W. Edwards

Deming and Frederick W. Taylor, as well as an influential progressive educator pioneer like John Dewey influenced the quality of management from a scientific perspective contending that a major factor in company profit and profitability rested on the shoulders of management and not on the entry level employee. Deming (2000) is famous for this quote, "The problem is at the top; management is the problem" (p. 122). Likewise, Taylor felt that the prosperity of the employer was connected to the prosperity of the employee for monetary reward along with company growth should be available to them both. However, Taylor is noted for his harsh demeanor toward the uneducated (p. 13). Taylor did come to realize that rather than dehumanizing the work and breaking the work down into smaller units to maximize efficiency and promoted teamwork. Encouragement of work based teams in which all workers could contribute was promoted. These new contributions increased worker morale, provided a sense of ownership, and improved management-worker relations.

On the other hand, Dewey advocated for the entry level employee to come to the employer with a certain set of learned skills, relevant in the workplace and not just in the classroom. Surely, the workplace has greatly evolved since the early 1900s, for most businesses now strive to maintain positive community relations since many of their employees many come from within the surrounding communities (Olsen, 2010).

Individuals with Disabilities Educational Act (IDEA)

The historical background of special education laws demonstrated a gradual progression from isolation and barring of disabled students to a movement toward their inclusion. Currently, the education of disabled students is driven by three legal imperatives, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the IDEA (1993), and the Americans with Disabilities Act. These laws provide the framework for a free and appropriate public education for students with disabilities. However, they do not address the student's needs for transition to the workplace explicitly. One study, which was also based on NLTS-2 data, found that students with disabilities had an increased likelihood of dropping out of secondary school if they felt that they were not being prepared for transition. Because of this, a reduced level of support for students prior to the transition period is likely to have negative effects on their transitional success.

The transitional period has always been a difficult one for most high school students, and evidence suggests that schools do not prepare them well for this transitional period. An early discussion of the role of special education in the transition from secondary school to the workplace found that there was little emphasis placed on providing students with skills needed for a successful transition. Using a meta analytic approach, as well as comparison of current training activities, Okolo and Sitlington (1986) noted that there were few schools that provided any type of transitional counseling or development. This study identified six different types of training and skills that should be provided by special education services in order to prepare for students for work, including occupational awareness and work experience, career and vocational assessment, job-related instruction in academic and interpersonal skills, support services for vocational programming, and work placement and follow-up services.

Current Transitional Concerns

Most company executives have high hopes for all vocational trainees and tend to compassionately maintain high standards and follow strict guidelines for this age group until they are hired. A separate review found that the transition from school to work continued to be problematic. This study found that there were some improvements in schools that mainstreamed students, increased systemic focus on career training and transitional outcomes, and included disabled and non-disabled students. This study identified two practices that had been used with good results in a number of studies: the use of supervised work experience and the integration of specific academic skills, job-related tasks, and people skills into the curriculum.

There are still issues with appropriate secondary school training and curricula for students with as well as without disabilities. This is particularly problematic with standard-based education as enforced in most vocational and technical training programs. Stodden et al. acknowledged that students with disabilities have complex and individual needs, and may require additional support from business managers and vocational training educators.

Olsen (2010) argued that supports are often missing or not sufficient to keep up with the needs of either students or educators. Odom (1994) noted that cultural literacy factors can affect a student's ability to read, write, and make sense of what is being taught through familiarity or small units of content. Odom further shared that with a wide range of cultural references and realistic support systems, students can learn to academically thrive in any given workforce partnership.

The Business of Producing Current Workforce Skills

Embracing a 21st century focus to improve the educational outcomes of vocational and technical training programs, administrators are reassessing their academic goals especially in terms of instructional learning objectives and community relations. The pedagogical approach for setting criteria has shifted towards a more global focus to incorporate relevant rigor, business partnering, and service quality guidelines. Simpson, Stahl, and Francis recommended eight best practice principles toward 21st century learning, one of which was adopting of a programmatic model that would emphasize the cognitive development allowing students to be more responsible for their learning. Support for educators in developing helpful classes and teaching methods is important, because this has also been shown to be a factor in likelihood to drop out. However, the unfortunate fact is that the level of support given to teachers in order to promote standard-based learning is not high enough to keep up with the needs of students (Pisha & Stahl, 2005). Pisha and Stahl further suggested the solution to use standardized curricula and textbooks in order to meet the needs of students, and to reduce the burden on educators for transitional planning.

Finally, this literature review has demonstrated two factors. First, there is a lack of organized and standardized transitional programs for students with and without disabilities. Second, standards-based education has not been successful in meeting the needs of students while continuing to provide job training. Although there is some evidence of effective programs, there has been little comprehensive research conducted on what elements may provide a higher level of skill set mastery in transition than others. This is the gap that the current research is intended to fill.

Model of Learning: Mastery Learning

Pertaining to skill set mastery or mastery learning, John Carroll's model may be most commonly known for its categorizing of variables and explanations that influence training practices and classroom learning. Carroll's model is significant here because it concentrated on relating words and their meanings to cognitive concepts to aid each learner in the comprehension of assigned tasks or activities with the appropriate time allotment. This model is also important because it requires each learner to be actively engaged in class instructions to obtain skill set mastery. For Carroll, student involvement with assigned training tasks equaled or produced the students' ability to understand considering that they were given quality instruction.

Principles found in Carroll's model stem from Benjamin Bloom's mastery learning model. Bloom held that a student's aptitude for learning was a great indicator for achievement. Bloom's model stressed that each learner needed a stable learning environment with quality instruction, in addition to aptitude, in order to achieve. Developing a stable learning environment could be accomplished by providing quality instruction that: (a) organizes subject content into small manageable learning units; (b) develops specific learning objectives for each training unit; (c) develops appropriate formative and summative assessment measures; and (d) plans and implements group teaching strategies, with sufficient time allocations, practice opportunities, and corrective reinstruction for all students to reach the desired level of mastery.

Although there is no consistent model in use for the construct of learning disabilities, McKenzie (2009) indicated that a distinctive approach to measurement, rather than a lack of consensus regarding the general issue of learning disabilities, is behind this lack of consistency. This is why small units of subject content are relevant for the vocational/technical population. The recent operationalization of specific learning concerns has focused recently on differences in cognitive processing capability (Johnson, 2010). Given this generalization, it was noted that these methods have not obtained full currency, but Socratic questioning can prove to be essential, a fundamental component in the comprehension process. Considering all participants in the vocational or technical training setting, an instructor or business owner must present accommodations for all, and essential questioning techniques are relevant in both contexts of learning and employment productivity. Bloom (1968) stressed the fact that in the course of asking thoughtful questions instructors and employment managers can assess student retention.

Both vocational instructor and partnering employer can help them connect their thoughts and ideas with content concepts, and increase their awareness and critical thinking processes on the journey of exploring new levels of knowledge. Business partnering incorporates stages of transition. The journey through each stage requires them to assimilate the critical thinking processes involved as they are escorted through the vocational training. Each learner is presented with a way to show growth and preparedness for the transition.

Transition

Transition refers to the prepared learner gravitating into their actual assigned workplace, equipped with the vocational skill sets and business partnering dexterity. The young adult should be ready to now put all assimilated knowledge to work. The transitional period refers to details and time involved with each learner leaving the school environment and actually arriving into workplace or tertiary education. Transitioning from the vocational training center into the entry level position speaks to technical skill achievement, as well as academic student achievement. In this transitional period the technical and vocational training center and instructional cords are only partially severed. Lindstrom and Benz (2002) further noted that the transitional period is a dual process of assessment and coaching.

Most business owners desire that students to come to the entry level position as prepared as possible and acclimation to the workplace requires support as well. Partnering guidelines and company objectives are discussed and company standards are stressed frequently during this period of transition (Olsen, 2010). Transition is often seen as a three-stage process involving unsettled, exploratory, and focused stages of development (Lindstrom & Benz, 2002). Although the issues of a successful or unsuccessful transition are not clearly defined, the challenges presented to learners at this time are discussed in this review of literature, as well as the benefits of meeting company objectives early. Various studies have been conducted and have produced mixed outcomes, but high dropout rates reflect the students' need for more meaningful support (Dunn).

Research on Transition

A number of other studies have been performed that explore the transitional period. Dunn (2004) found that students had a higher dropout rate if they did not feel prepared for transition, indicating that a higher level of support for students prior to transition was important to transitional success. This is problematic because other studies have revealed that many schools do not offer a high level of support during this period. The introduction of transitional planning into the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) required for compliance with Section 504 has been identified as an effective approach to improving the transitional experience for students with disabilities.

The NLTS-2 was designed to follow special needs students from the ages of 13-16 (beginning in 2000) through middle high and high school and into the transition into employment or higher education. The NLTS-2 was implemented to update the findings of the initial NLTS, a study that was conducted between 1987 and 1993. The NLTS-2 contained data that were collected in waves and that were spaced 2 to 4 years apart. The collected data in the NLTS-2 were based on school records; standardized test scores, student interviews, and various other sources. However, from a business perspective this study only produced large amounts of descriptive data, and as such further analysis is required in order to focus on specific areas of concern, such as transition into the workplace or vocational training with mastery level skills.

From a business perspective, McGregor acknowledged that work performances must be critiqued and entry level employees must be motivated (p.117-119). Likewise, since these young adults will be paid for their performance or work on the job, Deming (2000) affirmed that quality instruction should produce quality service (p. 144). For vocational and technical training professionals interested in building a positive learning atmosphere, a systems approach can be considered. This study suggests the consideration of learner-centered plans and learning components, in concert with teaching reflective business practices and standards. To integrate relevant content faculty should consider using two or more instructional methods to accommodate both direct and differentiated needs with a systems thinking perspective (Drucker).

This method demonstrates the gradual inclusion of a few of the seven improvements in the curriculum identified by Okolo and Sitlington (1986) that were successful in improving the success of transition; however, it continued to be difficult for learning disabled students. A 2002 review of the same situation found that there continued to be limited availability of programs, and that there was some overlap in availability but that it was not significant. Although this continues to be an area of study, the issue remains undecided. Therefore, performance results and research outcomes can show a linkage for training center and business criteria collaborations, for the betterment of vocational students, as well as those forthcoming.

Research Method

The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of vocational training on the preparation of students with disabilities to achieve success in the workforce. A quantitative, correlational research design will be employed. The relationship between attending a vocational school and adaptive behavior will be examined while controlling for gender, race, family structure, and academic achievement. The population of interest in this study consists of students with disabilities aged 19 to 23 in the United States who have graduated from high school. About 2.6 million students in the United States are classified as having learning disabilities (National Center for Learning Disabilities). Of that 2.6 million students with learning disabilities, only about 40% of them graduate high school. Secondary data for this study will come from the NLTS-2 (2009) will be used in this study. The NLTS-2 is a longitudinal survey conducted by the NCSER IES that uses random sampling to collect data on students with learning disabilities. The final sample consisted of approximately 3,000 students. The independent variable in this study is whether or not the student attended a vocational school after high school, and the dependent variable is the overall level of adaptive functioning skill possessed by the participants as assessed with the SIB-R.

Operational Definition of Variables

Gender. Gender is a dichotomous variable that will serve as a control variable in this study. Gender will be coded as 0 = male and 1 = female.

Race. Race is a nominal variable that will serve as a control variable in this study. Four race categories will be used: Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and other. For the purposes of the regression analyses discussed below, three dummy variables will be constructed as indicators of African American, Hispanic, and other races, with Caucasian serving as the reference category.

Family structure. Family structure is a nominal variable that will serve as a control variable in this study. Family structure will be coded as a dichotomous variable coded as 0 = not a two-parent household and 1 = two-parent household. A two-parent household will be defined as a household in which two parents are present, and will include step-parents.

Academic achievement. Academic achievement will be used as a control variable in this study. This is a continuous variable. The NLTS-2 assessments included the administration of math, reading, vocabulary, science, and social studies tests, and a composite measure based on the average of the students' achievement in these five areas will be used as the measure of academic achievement.

Attendance at a vocational school. This is the primary independent variable in this study. This is a dichotomous variable and will be coded as 0 = no attendance at a vocational school and 1 = attendance at a vocational school.

Adaptive behavior. Adaptive behavior will be measured with the SIB-R. The SIB-R provides a variety of scores related to adaptive functioning for individuals with disabilities. The total adaptive behavior scores will be used in this study. This is a continuous variable.

Measurement

Permission to conduct this study will be obtained from the Northcentral University Institutional Review Board prior to implementation of the research procedures. Data will be extracted from the NLTS-2 database for the variables of interest in this study. The data that will be collected from the NLTS-2 via a restricted data use license issued by the NCSER IES . The NLTS-2 study has included a wide range of measurements including the use of surveys and test instruments, standardized testing scores, student, teacher, and administrator interviews, assessments, and other observational variables (NLTS-2, 2010).The data will be analyzed using the SPSS computer program. Initially, descriptive statistics will be computed for all study variables including means and standard deviations for all continuous variables and frequencies and percentages for all categorical variables.

Inferential analyses will be performed to test the null hypotheses of this study using two-tailed tests and an alpha level of .05. In order to determine if gender has an effect on adaptive behavior, an independent samples t test will be performed. A one-way ANOVA will be performed to determine if the four racial groups differ in terms of adaptive behavior. An independent samples t test will be performed to determine if students from two-parent homes and other types of homes differ in terms of academic achievement. A Pearson correlation will be used to determine if academic achievement is related to adaptive functioning.

In order to determine if attending a vocational school has an effect on adaptive functioning among students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23 when controlling for gender, race, family structure, and academic achievement, a multiple regression analysis will be preformed. Although descriptive statistics and correlational analyses can provide some insight into the general outcomes of the study, they cannot identify the complex interrelationships among the independent and dependent variables. Regression is a more useful approach that will help the researcher to identify the specific relationships and the strength of these relationships between the variables. Specifically, regression analysis will be used to determine how much of the variation in adaptive behavior can be accounted for by the attending a vocational school when controlling for gender, race, family structure, and academic achievement (Kahane, 2001). Sirkin (2006) also acknowledged that multiple regression analyses could be performed so that the relationships between the independent and dependent variables can be examined independently of the control variables.

Summary

The transition from high school to the work force for students with disabilities between the ages of 19-23 is the focus of this study. To successfully complete this transition, students require certain skills, assessed through a measure of adaptive behavior in the proposed study. According to McGregor employing a systems thinking approach such as business partnering considers student requirements, as well as employer requirements as they relate to quality service and profitability. For example, to incorporate useful and meaningful content, in concert with essential classroom instruction and vocational training practices, instructors employ a systems thinking approach by allowing familiar or relevant business professionals to assist with teaching content knowledge.

These professionals can bring in current examples or tools to clarify skill set mastery. Business professionals who are willing to enter the classroom to work with the course instructors will leave a positive or negative lasting effect on each student in that class. In this context of this setting, quality service criteria and business efficacy can come together and illuminate good business practices and perspectives for each learner.

This section, therefore, has contained a presentation of the approach that will be used in this quantitative study of collecting data. The purpose of the study is to examine the effect of vocational training on the preparation of students with disabilities to achieve success in the workforce. This proposal has included a discussion of the specific research questions and hypotheses for this study, as well as research method to be applied in order to achieve the purpose of this study. The proposal has also included information on why this research is important, in order to identify one of the main elements of experience of students with or without a learning disabilities in the American educational system.

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Everyone is Good Man

In this story Chien writes about a tense court case in which a jury is hopelessly hung over whether or not a criminal is guilty of a specific crime. The main problem is Juror Number Eleven who throws the vote every time by voting that the defendant in the case is not guilty. As Chien states " Rising the eyes from the book, glancing at me quickly, just as she had the last seven times rises her hand expressionlessly, the jury number eleven, Miss Sarah Hulsey. "

While Chien does an excellent job in terms of developing their plot setting and characters, Chien does not have a strong grasp of the mechanics of English and does not seem to have checked the paper for grammar and spelling inconsistencies. This does detract from plot and character development somewhat as it is sometimes difficult to understand what Chien meas.

I rather liked the ethics in this story. Sarah Hulsey seems to be written in such a way that she stands up for what is right rather than what is easy. She stands up to the other jurors and makes a point that the evidence does not necessarily match up with the crime, the defendant or what the witnesses are saying. Chien does an excellent in demonstrating how juries work and how the legal process occurs in the juror's room.

In general I enjoyed this story, while there are some spelling and grammatical errors in general. The plot and characters were well written and the story was interesting. I particularly enjoyed the interactions between the members of the jury because Chien depicted very realistic arguments and portrayals of people who might be part of a jury.

71 Days

This story was particularly interesting because Kristina intersperses diary entries in between dialogue and real time scenarios in this story about the military. The story begins with basic training and runs throughout the narrator's military experience including his friendship with his fellow soldier Paxton. The narrator writes about his daily experiences and we see those experiences change as he moves from the relatively sheltered world of boot camp to real life military confrontations in which people die.

One of the more interesting quotes in the story is when the narrator states "I had become numb to the sight of death. It was all around us. The island was a fluid graveyard." This quote expresses the experience of every soldier who has been involved in a military conflict who has seen death over and over again.

Kristina manages to fully capture the dehumanizing process of the military experience. We see her two main characters, the narrator and Paxton move from being new recruits who are deeply affected by their battle experiences to hardened veterans who scarcely bat an eye when one of their fellow soldiers or one of the enemies dies. Kristina also has a deep understanding of how the military experience can bond two people together as they face death on a daily basis.

This story is very well written and detailed. The dialogue and the diary entries are realistic and sound very much like the experiences of a young soldier facing his first battle. This creates the sense that what Kristina is writing about is real. In general I enjoyed this story and it is overall a good story from a unique perspective.

Relationship

This is an interesting story about a road trip taken by two people who are romantically involved. The narrator appears to be the one who is driving; he is quiet contemplative and enjoys listening to music that his girlfriend wrote the girlfriend seems slightly bossy yet shy about her musical talent. James writes eloquently about a couple that truly enjoys traveling and who has been to London Paris and many other adventures together.

The story is mainly about growing up both in terms of the relationship and in terms of chronological/psychological maturity. The narrator states "It was an incredible relationship in terms of how much we both grew within ourselves." He also captures the idea that relationships change and that what is once calming and a positive influence when one is an adolescent or college student is not necessarily the type of relationship that someone needs as they mature and grow up. This is seen in how the main character changes his view of the relationship during the years between high school, and the present day when he is a young CEO/Entrepreneur starting his own business. While he is happy in the relationship when he is with his girlfriend her behavior when they are not together is rather like a stalkers with her calling and texting him every minute of the day.

I quite enjoyed the dialogue and the interplay between the characters in this story. James does an excellent job in capturing how couples interact with each other especially when the boredom of long road trips is introduced into the scenario. The narrator and his girlfriend are realistically written and the dialogue shows how the two characters see each other.

In general this was a well written and interesting story with strong dialogue, strong plot and interesting characters. James shows a strong grasp of how to write dialogue and portrays his characters very realistically.

Hamilton Park

This story is a touching story about what life is like for an elderly person living in a nursing home, Hamilton Park. As the main characters states "I had been in Hamilton Park Nursing Home for about four months at this point. After one to many glasses of champagne and some bath oil I underwent hip surgery." The characters are well written and Gabrielle makes the everyday routine of the nursing home seem interesting. She writes as if she has experience in working with the elderly and interacting with the elderly.

This story is touching and interesting and offers the reader a unique perspective on how the elderly think and act. The dialogue is strong and I particularly like the interactions between the main character/narrator and Dolores and Joe. It was especially sad that the narrator did not get much of a change to develop her relationship with Joe. The story had a strong plot and included a great deal of humor.

In general I enjoyed Gabrielle's writing. She has a strong grasp on how to write a story and manages to develop unique and interesting characters. She also has a strong grasp of grammar and the ability to write good dialogue. This makes the story seem more interesting and adds greatly to the setting of the story. The plot and characterizations of the people in the story made it clear that age does not change who we are, people are still people no matter their age and still have the same hopes dreams and fears as they did when they were young. Gabrielle's writing impressed me as well because she used vivid description and dialogue in such a way that the characters seemed to come alive on the page. This was a very good story.

America's children are entrenched in a nationwide health crisis. In a sincere effort to both research as well as propose feasible solutions to the devastating plague of American, childhood obesity, the following project asserts that to overlook the role schools play in children's health would be the grossest manifestation of political ignorance. In solving this urgent problem, effective solutions must involve students, parents, school staff, and school administrators in conjunction with other policy makers and the greater, surrounding community.

Phase I: Action Research Question

While the atrocious levels of fitness and nutrition among America's youth is certainly well disclosed, the most formidable obstacle to solving this problem is the failure to recognize how inextricably bound schools are to the problem of childhood obesity. In her text simply but appropriately entitled Our Overweight Children, author Sharron Dalton writes that "the fact is that one out of three children in the United States is either overweight or at serious risk of becoming so. The number of overweight children ages six to nineteen has tripled within three decades; the rate of overweight preschool children is nearly as great. The accelerating rate indicates that the current generation of children will grow into the most obese generation of adults in history" (p. 2). More pressingly, if these trends continue, future generations of children will be even less healthy than today's youth.

An integral component of this problem, however, is the lack of consideration for children's academic environment as a key contributor to their poor health. While some experts accuse human evolution and growth hormones of catalyzing the obesity epidemic, the true villains within this unfortunate tale are fast food, soft drinks, and lack of exercise (Dalton). Though these factors are not new to the sociocultural environment of America's children, their prevalence is increasing exponentially in parallel with children's average weight.

In the wake of the fast food restaurant and the ever-increasing emphasis on technology, both of which foster sedentary lifestyles and grossly inadequate levels of nutrition, the health of Americans, young and old, has dramatically tanked. Dalton writes that "federal surveys that rate the quality of children's food consumption give the typical diets of today's children, ages two to eighteen, scores in the 60s (100 being the best possible). Fifty years ago, children's diet scores were in the 80s." Ultimately, the causes for this detrimental decline are complex, but it remains that most children are not naturally obese; thus environmental factors must be addressed in order to save both current as well as future generations from suffering physically and psychologically from poor health.

Children spend an average of 180 days per year, and approximately eight hours a day, in school; thus, schools are the most prevalent environment in which children live aside from their homes. The key ways in which schools contribute to the obesity epidemic are as follows:

- Vending Machines
- Cafeteria Food
- Lack of Opportunities for Physical Exercise

Belying these problems are relationships with fast food, soft drink, and snack food corporations. In her article entitled "Childhood Obesity Problems and Solutions" author Tonja Van Staveren explains how schools are effectively compromising student health in order to fund their facilities:

It is easy to see why school administrators find lucrative contacts with soda companies appealing, and as a result, this practice is continuing to spread, despite a growing movement to get soda out of schools. For example, New York City has signed a $166 million, five-year deal with Snapple (makers of sweetened beverages), with part of the deal providing Snapple exclusive vending machine rights in the city's 1,200 schools. Snapple will pay the schools at least $8 million a year for five years. If we hope to reverse the troubling practice of exclusive pouring-rights contacts, concerned citizens--teachers, parents, administrators, health advocates, and even students--must publicly expose these deals and persuade the community to take strong action opposing these deals. The fear that vending machine sales will drop if junk food and sodas are replaced by healthier options has been a deterrent for many schools.

There is, however, significant evidence that vending machines and healthy cafeteria food neither pose an increase in food costs nor a decrease in student food consumption.

With regard to physical activity, or rather the lack of physical activity, schools are again a primary culprit. Recess and physical education (P.E.) have been relinquished in favor of test preparation. The No Child Left Behind Act bound school funding so completely to student performance on tests that physical activity was removed even from elementary schools, despite pedagogical evidence that such activities are necessary for children (Dalton).

While the role of schools in poor student health is undeniable, viable solutions exist. Dalton writes that "schools ready to take action and looking for a complete program do not need to reinvent the wheel" (p. 210). For this Action Research Project, the most salient question is as follows: How can schools feasibly remedy the health of their students successfully and consistently by addressing the complementary areas of fitness and nutrition?

Phase II: Analyze the Need

The needs assessment will be conducted via a comprehensive survey of major stakeholders; this includes students, parents, staff, and administrators. The surveys will be customized for each of the four, aforementioned groups. Student surveys will seek to assess their current nutrition and exercise practices and compare them with federal guidelines in order to glean which areas are the most problematic. Questions will include: How many fruits and vegetables a day do you eat per day? How often do you use the school vending machines? How many times per week do you exercise for at least 30 minutes? How many times per week do you eat fast food? Parent and staff surveys will seek to determine how receptive they are to a total overhaul of their children's/students' health in terms of eating and physical activity. Because administrators will act as the ultimate facilitators of school-based solutions, survey questions for these stakeholders will determine how best to fund the program and communicate the program to students, parents, and staff.

Phase III: Design an Action Plan

The proposed remedy to this problem is a total overhaul of school-based food consumption, school-based physical activity, and, most saliently, the perceptions of health for all involved stakeholders. In anticipating the primary obstacles to the program as stemming from staff and familial willingness to participate, the program will begin by thoroughly informing all stakeholders regarding the urgency for addressing this problem. The following is a simplified outline of the Fit Schools Initiative (FSI):

Month I Goal: Inform Staff and Parents of FSI

Objectives: Designate program leaders (two per school), set up website, conduct informational meeting for staff, send home comprehensive packet to parents which includes one permission slip per student to attend on-site, health seminars.

Month II Goal: Train Staff and Parents for FSI, Inform Students, Cultivate Partnerships with Local Farmers and Healthy Vending Companies

Objectives: Conduct, two, mandatory, paid, Saturday trainings for all teachers and staff (Topics will include integration of physical activity into the classroom, changes to cafeteria menus, and general health issues such as the importance of cardiovascular activity), Direct students to FSI's website and hand out packets regarding the program's components.

Month III Goal: Begin Program

Objectives: P. E. will be mandatory for all elementary, middle, and high school students, Recess will be mandatory for all elementary school students, Vending machines will be restocked with low-sodium, low sugar option, All soft drinks will be replaced with water and milk, Cafeterias will offer fresh foods, including fruits and vegetables as provided by local farmers, with low fat, low sodium, and low sugar content, Participating parents will track their fast-food intake as well as their meals eaten together as a family. Students will maintain a Health Journal that tracks nutrition and physical activity in conjunction with computer, television, and video game use.

Month IV and Beyond: Reassess

Objectives: Student Health Journals and Parent Health Journals will be evaluated in conjunction with staff and administrator perceptions of FSI's efficacy. Students physical activity and nutrition will be reevaluated via the same survey questions used for the Needs Assessment.

Phase IV: Implementing an Action Plan

In garnering support for FSI's implementation, all stakeholders will need to be fully informed as well as involved lest the program is likely to fail. In her article entitled "Assessing the Feasibility of a Multi-Program School-Based Intervention to Promote Physical Activity and Healthful Eating in Middle Schools Prior to Wide-Scale Implementation", author Mary Greaney writes that creating and sustaining community networks is highly integral to program success. In essence, if the schools are not supported by the surrounding community, FSI will not work; whole, locally grown foods need to be provided and funds lost by the corporate donations from fast-food and soft drink companies will need to be replaced from other, preferably more health-minded sources.

Phase V: Evaluation and Revisions to the Action Plan

In the fourth month of the program's implementation, which is only one month after FSI has been practically involving the students, the program will be thoroughly evaluated and assessed for efficacy. The journals of both students as well as parents will be reviewed via a random sample and interviews with staff and administrators will define the program's strengths and weaknesses. In revising the program, greater community involvement will be garnered by presenting the program's established success.

Ideally, local health clubs would offer discounts to families who participate in FSI and local restaurants may offer an FSI-friendly menu for participating families that like to eat outside of their home but want a healthy option to a fast-food restaurant. Alternatively, students could supplement their physical activity via a school-sponsored walking club and incentive programs could be established for students who turn off their televisions and video games for one week.

Summary and Conclusions

The anticipated results of this program are resoundingly positive. By ensuring parent and community involvement, FSI is likely to succeed in increasing the general health and decreasing the weight of local students. Van Staveren writes in her aforementioned article that "for nine to ten months of the year, children attend school five out of every seven days, for six to eight hours per day. The school cafeteria provides food choices, the physical education program determines the time allocated to physical activity, and the school curriculum controls opportunities to learn about the relationship between personal behaviors and health" (p. 44). By amending the levels of nutrition and physical activity that students experience during their school day, FSI aims to cultivate healthful attitudes that will resonate throughout students' lives.

Though the implications of FSI for the work environment are substantial, as teachers will be asked to participate in additional trainings as well as amend their curricula to include physical movement and accommodate physical education classes, resistance to FSI's implementation can be surmounted by conveying that the cost of not implementing the program is the health of students. Administrators will need to be mindful of perceptions of FSI and act to challenge, mediate, and remedy any sources of negative feedback. The future of FSI lies in inextricably binding the program to the community through business partnerships, enrolling as many students as possible, and spreading the program to the national level.

Appendix: Literature Review

Article I

Greaney, M., Hardwick, C. K., Mezgebu, S., Lindsay, A. C., Roover, M. L., & Peterson, K. E. Assessing the Feasibility of a Multi-Program School-Based Intervention to Promote Physical Activity and Healthful Eating in Middle Schools Prior to Wide-Scale Implementation. American Journal of Health Education, 38(5), 250+.

In fervent recognition that schools are inextricably bound to the health of America's children, this article reflects on a study that investigated probable obstacles to the imposition of health initiatives within public schools. The methods for this study were in-depth interviews of administrators, program coordinators, and staff members in order to explore perceptions that might inhibit a school-wide fitness program such as the Healthy Choices Collaborative Intervention (HCCI) that boosts the availability of healthy foods in cafeterias in conjunction with general, healthful attitudes for staff and students. The interviews afforded researches with the following conclusions: "Respondents believed sustainability would be facilitated through resources for networking and refreshers on intervention components", and that parents and community leaders would be integral to successful implementation. As a result of the study, regional coordinators were hired to assist schools in implementation of HCCI.

The crux of the article is the assertion that staff perceptions are wholly linked to the efficacy of health program implementation; this informs this action research initiative in that staff perceptions must be considered, and in some cases modified, in order for a successful remedy to be implemented. This particular study could be extended to review staff perceptions via similar methodology after the HCCI's implementation. In general, the study simply concluded that school staff believes that school-based, health initiatives need to be supported both inside as well as outside of the academic environment in order to be effective.

Article II

Judge, S., & Jahns, L. Association of Overweight with Academic Performance and Social and Behavioral Problems: An Update from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Journal of School Health, 77(10), 672+.

Though there is substantial research regarding the link between child obesity and social struggle, little research has been conducted regarding the relationship between weight and academic success. In an effort to study this relationship, this study assessed the weight of third-grade students in conjunction with standardized test scores. The findings were that there was a "significant association between being overweight and academic achievement. Overweight third grade children scored lower than their non-overweight peers on standardized test" (p. 672). The findings also concluded that overweight girls were more academically impacted by their weight issues than boys, often manifesting depressive symptoms within their school environment. This supports the aforementioned, earlier research that linked obesity with psychological and social issues.

This article informs this action research plan by both supporting the urgent need to remedy student fitness levels as well as linking the academic environment to student health. Additional research might to further this study might surround the solutions, such as self-esteem workshops for girls in conjunction with physical health initiatives. While the research concluded that this link exists, it makes few recommendations for solving the problem. However, it supports future strategies, such as the one described within this action research plan, by inextricably linking student achievement with their health.

Article III

Van Staveren, T., & Dale, D. Childhood Obesity Problems and Solutions: Food Choices and Physical Activity, at School and at Home, Underlie the Childhood-Obesity Problem. What Role Can Schools Play in Finding a Solution?. JOPERD--The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 75(7), 44+.

This article was comprehensive in delineating both the problems as well as the solutions for school-rooted health issues. The authors explain that effective remedies would need to include an overhaul of cafeteria meals in conjunction with physical education; though these are not necessarily innovative proposals, the authors emphasize that parent education is paramount to student success. Citing that "prevention of childhood obesity has to be a joint responsibility--requiring involvement and collaboration between all levels of the government, the community, the media, youth-serving organizations, schools and teachers, health professionals, businesses, child care providers, and parents", the authors recommend immediate, national solutions to the problem of childhood obesity.

Beyond relevant to this action research plan, this article recommends that school-based initiatives include parent education, as children will only behave as their mentors, that is their parents, behave. Additional, related research might include an assessment of parental attitudes toward health in conjunction with the weight of their children. The most salient conclusion of this study is the truly weighted role parents play in the health of their children, and that health initiatives in schools will only be as successful as their level of parental involvement.

Supplemental References

Our Overweight Children: What Parents, Schools, and Communities Can Do to Control the Fatness Epidemic. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Conventional wisdom may have it that women in the medieval era lived sheltered and simple lives of childbearing and traditionally female tasks. Many women did, in fact, live up-or down-to this stereotype. However, the roles of women of all classes were much more varied, as a general rule, than many have thought. The phrase "a woman's work is never done" may well have held true, but the work in question was of all sorts, from maintaining the religious life of her family or household to keeping accounts and sewing clothes. This was true to some extent for women of all different classes, from the lowest serf to a fine lady who was wife or daughter of a landowner. That being said, while many comparisons can be drawn to find similarities of women's roles across class stratification, one can also see lots of contrasts. Clearly, women's roles have some things in common regardless of class in the medieval era, but they are certainly very different in some ways as well.

Women in the Medieval Home

Women in the Middle Ages might have had very different home arrangements, depending on the class into which they were born. A serf, who was a worker all but owned by her feudal lord, might be born and die in the same tiny house and never leave her village. A wealthier lady, such as the wife of that lord, had a very different home set up: often, she might have a big house with many servants. She was responsible for running a whole household, supervising a huge kitchen as well as many of the day to day workings of the estate, from the dairy to the laundry to the still room, where ale would be brewed. The mistress of an estate in the Middle Ages acted as chatelaine, or caretaker. She would likely be seen carrying a huge ring of keys.

Both women would be responsible for the care and feeding of their households, but these households would vary in size. A peasant woman would be expected to feed and clothe her children and husband and whatever assorted family members (who might be too old or infirm to work), who would live with her. However, since villages were strong communities, she might have help watching children from a neighbor or trade some of her freshly woven cloth for something else.

Women in a higher class would certainly have the help of servants. However, she would be expected to care in a supervisory sense not only for her own family, but in some ways for all the families in her village. She would be expected to bring charity to the sick and to care for the emotional, physical, and even religious well-being of those in her household and all those on her estate, rather directly or indirectly. Since the feudal system persisted in much of Europe during the Middle Ages, these roles of women at various class and income levels would have hold true in many locations.

Religion and Women's Roles

Women in the Middle Ages could take on one of a number of religious roles. However, one point of comparison is that almost all women in England and the rest of Europe would have been Catholic. However, there are also many points of contrast.

A serf woman would more than likely be unable to read the prayerbook, and the village church would probably not bother to provide one for her. She would mouth the Latin in the prayers without understanding anything about what the words meant.

A lack of understanding of Latin would also be something both women would have in common, but the lady of the house was more likely to have some religious education. If she were lucky enough to have an enlightened father, she might be able to read a little, but regardless she would have been educated as to the general precepts of her religion. This was in great part because, as the head of her household and the lady of the manor, she would have been considered to have responsibility for the religious well being (and thus, the afterlives) of those who were a part of her estate. Her attempts to discourage pagan rituals like May dancing would have had less to do with her own views, perhaps, and more to do with the responsibility she-and society-would have felt was hers.

Another path open to women of the time in terms of religion was that of a nun. Women who opted not to marry or who were widowed would often seclude themselves in convents, and these women had much more religious knowledge than others. They were usually of upper-class extraction, but their knowledge would many times far outstrip that of their more secular sisters.

Women's Education

Education is one field in which women of different classes would have had almost nothing in common. While both would be considered woefully uneducated by the standards of later days, the peasant woman would be very unlikely to have any education at all. She would have been illiterate completely. While she might have a lot of practical knowledge, such as that of herbs, cooking, spinning, or weaving, she would likely never even have considered learning to read and write as an option or as something desirable.

In contrast, the history of the Middle Ages has several good examples of women of a higher social class who were quite well-educated. Christine de Pisan, for example, became an author who is still read today, and Eleanor of Aquitaine, the English queen who was well-known for advising the men in her family in complex affairs of state and became a powerful single ruler in her own right after the death of her husband-the proverbial power behind the throne.

A more typical upper-class woman would possibly be able to read the Bible, write her name, and do some simple figuring. While many nuns became quite learned, this was not considered appropriate or desirable in a woman who would be being educated with an eye toward her being able to run a household someday: practical accomplishments and traditional women's handcrafts, like embroidery, would take precedence.

Conclusion

All in all, the roles of women in the Middle Ages had some things in common no matter what the classes of the women in question were. However, most of the roles these women were expected to fill, whether with regard to their households, their religion, or their education, were different depending on their class, and can be contrasted effectively. By dint of comparing and contrasting in this fashion, one is able to learn more about the society of the Middle Ages and women's roles in it.

Ethics of School Administrations

CASE STUDY

1. If you were a former administrator to whom Gadams reported, what kind of recommendation would you give? Why do you think the administrators said nothing?

In this case, I would make it clear that parents made complaints about his conduct during his time as an administrator. The complaints made about his behavior involved complaints of a sexual nature. By rights the school could have and should have filed sexual molestation complains against Gadams on behalf of the students that he harassed. The administrators may have said nothing in this case because they feared legal action from parents because they did not do anything about a man who had problems, if he was not in fact, an active pedophile, or feared Gadams suing them for giving him a poor recommendation.

Ultimately, by failing to make other schools aware of Gadams issues this administrator may have exposed the school district to the exact type of legal prosecution that they feared would occur if they chose to pursue criminal charges against Gadams. Their fears were proven true by failing to act when they should have.

2. Do administrators owe their loyalty to employees? To students? To the school district? To the parents?

The primary loyalty of a schools administrator should be to parents and students first. Since school funding comes from public taxes, parents and students are their employers. While the school district is important, the members of the school board in most states are officials elected by parents. Therefore, it is the moral obligation of administrators to protect the best interests of students and their parents before protecting the best interest of the school, the school district or the schools employees. By failing to give, the type of recommendation that Gadams truly deserved the administrator put students at risk even if they were not students who attended their school. Had this administrator put the parents and students first than they would have disclosed the reason for Gadams resignation to his new employers.

Putting students and parents first is something that every administrator should practice. It does not speak well to this administrators ethics or morals that he put the needs of the district and Gadams. His failure to pursue action against Gadams (other than asking him to resign) and his giving the type of recommendation that got Gadams another job caused direct harm to the students and parents that it is his responsibility to protect.

3. Is this type of recommendation commonly given to get rid of employees? In addition, should friendship have a higher value than honesty?

This type of recommendation is not normally given to unsuitable employees. Unsuitable employees may receive a recommendation letter with a bare minimum of information (dates worked, starting and ending salary). In some cases the employer may have a legal obligation to disclose complaints such as, the one's received about Gadams behavior towards the students.

Honesty should have a higher value than friendship. If Gadams was truly molesting those girls than the administrator at this original school that gave him a glowing recommendation was not doing any favors to their friendship by lying for him since Gadams clearly needed psychiatric help. Honesty is also critical when you are an educator because whether you are an active teacher or an administrator you provide an example to your students. If this administrator lied to another school about something as critical as the fact that an alleged child molester was applying at their school and he gave him a good recommendation, than he was saying he valued friendships outside of his job more than he valued honesty and ethical behavior.

Reference

Jennings, M. M. (2012). Business ethics: Case studies selected readings (7th ed). Ohio: Thomson/Southwest.

ESSAY ON TEACHING MATH

Introduction

Teaching math and science to middle school students can be challenging. The main thing to remember in terms of strategies in this report's opinion is conditioning. Classical conditioning states that a certain kind of stimulus acquires value when it is repeated and it is also paired with a sort of positive response. From this view, students learn by sorting out their responses to different stimuli in general ways and in specific ways. Operant conditioning states that individuals will determine their own actions and then learn from the response that comes from these actions, whether it is positive or negative. Reinforcement is about keeping that action viable while punishment is about stopping the action or behavior. Making a cue for a student or prompting them involves getting them to respond in the right way to a situation. Understanding by design can improve student outcomes. "According to Schoenfeld (1989), the way people engage in mathematical activities is shaped by their conceptions of mathematics. There have been many studies that confirm that effective factors shape how students behave" (Tsao).

Many students have short attention spans, especially these days, and there are also common problems of lack of organization, poor sociality, and poor skills. In the current model, the affective model of participation suggests that participation leads to attainment of student higher order needs which in turn leads to more productive learning of important negotiation and problem solving skills. Students should learn from the centered approach that there is a danger of a situation where there is more concern with maintaining group relations than there is with making high quality decisions and learning the lesson. Students should be able to take various roles with this method as well. For example, students could be given a situation in which competing groups have the same goal, and must somehow work together to focus on the goal. Actively fostering a connection between the students' goals and the teacher's objectives through systems of participation is called upon in the centered approach to help the students work in teams to solve problems as well as negotiate solutions between competing goals. Teachers can also use the centered approach to teach content application, and improve mathematics scores for middle school students. There are many ways of teaching students mathematics knowledge.

Article Review

The article shows a comparison of American and Taiwanese students in mathematics skills, with the Americans losing. "Poor performance by American students on tests of mathematics and science has reached the level of a national crisis. Why is this? Study after study has reported on one or another facet of the low standing of Americans in international competition. For example, in a recent cross-national study of mathematics achievement, Americans scored low" (Tsao, 2007). Math classroom communities can help by bringing students into contact with each other in groups and having them work as teams to solve relevant problems over distance. This type of problem solving instruction can also be used for individual students. Cooperative learning assesses students on their success in mixed groups functioning as teams There are many different types of assessment that are available for the teacher, from standardized testing to other more alternative types of assessment. Teachers need to choose as thinking individuals to find the right assessment measure that reflects their own classroom philosophy and their ability to react as a teacher who is able to give student assessment total priority. But this assessment must focus on the higher level. Assessment needs to consider verbal input as well as mathematical awareness, but some standardized testing measures or assessments have less well rounded input. In other words, in standardized assessment measures, there might not be as many variables being measured by the teachers, and the students might be choosing in a multiple choice format. In a more dynamic assessment, children might be graded on how they are able to interpret information from a problem to create a presentation or show the teacher processes of proof writing. "American students in the eighth and twelfth grades were below the international average in problem solving, geometry, algebra, calculus, and other areas of mathematics. In contrast, Japanese eighth graders received the highest average scores of children from 20 countries, and, at the twelfth-grade level, Japanese students were second only to Chinese students in Hong Kong" (Tsao). Diagnostic and non standardized tests have a lot of relevance in the educational environment for reading lessons of students. The main question addressed in Tsao is how we can use assessment to help the teacher better address the instructional needs of children. Generally the current educational platform is a performance-based system that relies primarily on high-stakes tests for its program. But there is a lot of uneven argument in the environment of education, and some people think that these high stakes test are less effective than more holistic methods. The article showed how far behind American students are often falling, for various reasons.

Topic: Understanding by Design

Understanding by design has understanding at its impetus, but the school has to watch out in the long term not to cripple what power of standardization it may have been advocating immediately, which is essentially a way of misleading the public. Another short term objective would be to get the school to align state standards with behavior problems in students who are bored in class, or too busy to do their class work. The state standards don't really go into accommodating different learners and understanding by design in this way. From a long term perspective, standards however are becoming more and more important with new programs and initiatives, so it is disturbing that the performance of students in lower socio-economic level urban areas are still showing low scores on these tests. The issue must be addressed in the short as well as the long term. In many cases poor performance on these standards and poor academic achievement is labeled as being a cause of socio-economic conditions. "The Singapore Math curriculum is sequential in nature and builds on students' prior knowledge. The MCPS revised curriculum uses the same principle and techniques. Concepts of fact families are integral to Singapore Math, and one will find those same concepts in the MCPS math curriculum as well" (Miracle, 2007). Many different curricula can light the way for the free thinking teacher.

Understanding by design can facilitate progress in math and science because it focuses on regulating the type of learning style that the student will have and relating it to their self-esteem and self-concept, or their self-efficacy within a social group, or how much they feel they are going to succeed at a given task or at solving a given problem. Students may use different strategies such as taking notes or using flash-cards before finding the one that is right for them, so the teacher needs to realize that cooperative learning is not just about their directives, but also about listening to the students' input. The effective teacher will have a master plan going but at the same time they will not be so absolutely dedicated to this plan that they will not consider straying from it when the opportunity presents itself, which it often does, and they will not be afraid of changing the plan to fit the situation, and giving more responsibility to the students for problem-solving as well as cooperative learning. The independent teacher knows how to adapt to his/her situation.

Teachers can plan in many different ways and can provide their students with many different types of work, and these should be based on creating a warm and supportive atmosphere in which students can feel that their work is valued. This perspective seeks to categorize the problem without solving it or reaching a resolution, and therefore it is not a perspective that works very well in the short or long term, because it does not really address any of the root problems inherent to the situation.

Understanding by design is a less teacher oriented and more student oriented instructional method. "It would fall midpoint in the classroom inquiry continuum. In this approach, students are guided in exploration of materials. They observe phenomena, gather data, make comparisons, and arrive at conclusions" (Peters, 2008). When thinking of organizing strategies in creating and timing lessons, the chief tenets observed throughout my experience stress the importance encouraging all aspects of growth and development in the student. The completeness of a teaching philosophy must be reflected in the evenness and completeness which is encouraged in the children whom the teacher is instructing. It is a symbiotic and organic process of organization that stems from both the teacher's effective leadership and their ability to communicate with their fellow professionals. The children in an effective math classroom should develop socially through sharing and interacting, emotionally by learning to respect everyone equally, physically by playing active games and getting exercise, and cognitively by learning key assessment requirements on a corporate level. "This welcome support from AT&T will help create a new generation of math and science teachers in the United States," said Dr. Mary Ann Rankin, president and CEO of NMSI. "Our nation needs an additional 280,000 math and science teachers by 2015, and the UTeach program is playing a key role in providing those teachers." (AT&T, 2012). Understanding by design can take many different forms.

One teaching strategy used in teaching mathematics by design is encouraging inference. This means that the students concentrate on process over product and therefore can enhance observational and logical problem solving skills. "The usual meaning of inference is to interpret or explain what we observe. If Wallie smiles when she greets us, we may infer that she is pleased to see us. The accuracy of our inferences usually improves with more chances to observe" (Peters, 2008). Direct instruction is a more traditional choice which may be used when students present problems with authority. Teaching mathematics also involves integrating concepts of cooperative learning. This cooperative type of student-directed model matches many teachers' patterns most closely, because I think that this model has the balance of respect and activity that is necessary and allows students to really own the concepts. This process of growth and development is framed by teacher ideals in that it is their goal to provide an atmosphere where everyone benefits through education, where the children can learn socially and cognitively in an environment that encourages their curiosity and creativity as well as their problem solving and logic skills. "The system's new math curriculum is aligned with state, national, and world standards and has led to unprecedented student achievement. Singapore Math's strategies, called "bar modeling," as an ideal way to solve math word problems. MCPS agrees and has incorporated bar modeling into the revised curriculum" (Miracle, 2007). Understanding by design can also be used in kinesthetic ways.

Manipulative materials is also an important strategy to use to get students really engaged with the material. Still the teacher must have their teaching philosophy in mind, trying their best to provide a relaxed, calm, and comfortable environment in which the children can grow, because too much control in a classroom can be a bad thing to encouraging student cooperation. "In short we want to use the learning cycle to develop students' scientific knowledge and understanding and skills. The learning cycle is generated as a do talk do cycle. In the do parts of the cycle, sills are being used. What specifically are the scientific skills? Which skills are appropriate?" (Peters, 2008). Basically the same thing can be said for mathematics skills, in terms of learning when they are used. It may seem like it is just problem solving strategies that fit with mathematics work, but there are other strategies that can go across different disciplines as well. I would say personally that a mixture of problem solving and cooperative learning strategies leads to "It is also important for children to have access to the right kind of materials.

To address these concerns, teachers need to think more and more about how they can make applied behavior analysis to see what works best in a given situation in a way that is creative and kinetic rather than rigid and unmoving. For example, teaching social skills to a student who lacks them should not be used as an end of itself: it should be accompanied with an explanation of what the student is doing creatively so that they learn from the experience and it becomes useful. Students who have problems such as those mentioned above can also be encouraged by a group system. In general, "the most effective contexts leading to optimum student achievement are classrooms where all students feel valued, respected, and capable of succeeding despite their differences" (Peters, 2008). This reflects a substantive view as well, in terms of students getting together and forming a creative solution to the problem or conflict rather than displaying personal conflict, which, as demonstrated by the negative behaviors above, also exists in the classroom environment. "Classroom environments that work require personal reflection about teachers' roles, an understanding of what works in classroom organizations, a view of the relationship between management and instructional decisions, and the ability to use multiple methods" (Making, 2008). This understanding of what works in the classroom environment must also include creativity awareness in the children, and also must make the teacher think about how to be more creative as a teacher in their expression within the classroom. Understanding by design is all about getting the student involved.

I have observed the value of a solid teaching strategy many times throughout experiencing lessons. My school has a very strong mathematics program that involves the children in integrative learning. Creativity is encouraged among students and we have sent several students to the Math Olympics competition for the last three years. The school also has a special gifted and talented mathematics program which caters to students who have more advanced skills and would be bored and unchallenged in a normal class. "The National Math and Science Initiative (NMSI) announced Thursday that AT&T has contributed $500,000 to support the highly regarded UTeach program to train math and science teachers on five university campuses: the University of California at Berkeley, the University of California at Irvine, University of Northern Arizona, the University of Florida, and Florida State University" (AT&T, 2012). There are many different teacher strategies.

Generally by operating without secrecy and with a high level of accountability, the classroom will be looked upon as possessing integrity and fairness in its operations, and will gain the trust of the student and increase the level of responsibility required of its own employees and society as a whole. Theoretically, it all seems rather simple for codes of ethics to promote this sort of behavior through problem centered learning. "Problem centered learning moves us even further from teacher control to learner control lesion models. Now students become more involve4d in the planning and implementation of lessons. Following the development of an initial question, students continue their investigation until the problem is solved" (Peters, 2008). In reality, the situation is much more complex, since a school is by nature made up of many different individuals. A school is a large organizational structure, and within this structure, there may be many individuals, both teachers and students. There has to be open communication between everyone.

REFERENCES

AT&T Contributes $500,000 for UTeach Program to Train Math and Science Teachers (2012). Business Wire

Peters, J. Math and Science in Education. New York: Pearson.

Tsao, Y (2007). A comparison of American and Taiwanese students: their math perception. Journal of Instructional Psychology. Making math meaningful.

Miracle Math. Education Next.

Literature Review Contribution

Reflecting upon your experiences within the module and academic theory, critically evaluate the contribution of a literature review to a research project and discuss how qualitative and quantitative methodologies could impact upon research findings within that project.

Introduction

The literature review is an important component of every research project. To begin with, before a study is carried out, it is important to explore what other authors have written about the topic which the researcher is about to study. This gives researchers a better understanding about the topic and helps readers to better understand the context of the study that is reported or about to be carried out. The literature review section gives researchers the opportunity to provide a justification for the study which they are about to undertake. By writing about previously published material and studies conducted about the topic under analysis, it becomes easier for the researchers to help establish a rationale for the study in the minds of readers. Smart individuals can read what has been written about the topic in the literature review and discern what still has to be done to add to the existing body of knowledge on that topic. The literature review also gives the researcher an opportunity to state his/her case as to why the study is necessary based on the literature review. This essay will critically analyse the role of a literature review in academic research projects. It will also analyse the correlation between qualitative and quantitative data collection methods in research projects and they affect the findings of a study.

The Importance of Literature Review In Research Projects

The initial role of a literature review in research projects is to review that which has been researched in the past and published about the topic to be studied. Prior to the commencement of every study, it is important for researchers to start by analysing what other researchers have done. This includes previous studies on the topic and material which has been published about the topic. This acts as a guide to the researchers, who are able to avoid the mistakes made by previous teams that conducted similar studies. This allows the researchers the opportunity to identify and analyse relevant theories that can help to facilitate the understanding of the topic and concepts to be studied by the research project. After conducting the literature review, it becomes relatively easier for the researcher to adopt an appropriate research methodology that would take into account the strengths and weaknesses of previous studies in an attempt to ensure that the study leads to accurate findings. All the steps included in the research process should be aimed at helping the researcher to arrive at the right answers to the research questions so as to meet up with the objectives of the study as outlined in the introduction.

The literature review also gives researchers the opportunity to critique previously published literature on the topic to be analysed. This can be done by identifying the various arguments brought forward by the identified theories and then bringing out the weaknesses of the various arguments from other authors. The literature review also provides the opportunity to assess the value of research claims and design for the study to be conducted. The identification of weaknesses in previous research design helps to overcome these weaknesses in order to arrive at more accurate results. It is important to note that the methodology adopted by a particular study can affect the outcome of that study. It is therefore the role of the literature review to explain how previous studies conducted in the past were designed, and whether the research design actually affected the outcome of other studies that are analysed by the literature review. Once this critique is carried out by the researchers, it becomes relatively easier for them to avoid making similar mistakes that can lead to erroneous findings. Instead, the researcher now has the opportunity to identify the mistakes made by his predecessors who carried out similar studies in the past.

After analysing the previously published material by respectable sources in the literature review, researchers can identify literature gaps and determine where the gap lies. Literature gaps can guide a study and even help to modify the objectives of the study. If, for instance, a study was aimed at establishing the reasons why Chinese students perform poorly in business schools across the UK; the literature review would start by seeking to see what other authors have written about the performance of Chinese students here in the UK. Perhaps, in the course of carrying out a literature review, the researcher might find out that nothing has been written about Chinese students studying in the UK. It means there is a knowledge gap in this area. The researcher might then find it justifiable to carry out this study so as to ensure that it publishes some literature on the subject. This can be described as filling the knowledge gap. This function of the literature review might either identify areas that have not been written about, or those that have very sketchy material and hence find the need to research extensively in order to provide significant material on the literature. In such circumstances, the literature review helps to provide a justification for the study which the researcher is about to undertake.

To sum it up, the above functions of the literature review would help to guide the researchers to establish a rationale for the study. For instance, the rational for a study on the performance of Chinese students in business schools could be that there no material on the topic. This implies that researchers have not done enough on this topic. This is good justification to carry out the study in order to fill the knowledge gap that exists on this issue.

How Quantitative & Qualitative Data Collection Methods Affect Research Findings

There is a correlation between data collection methods and research findings. The manner in which data used for a study is collected can affect the nature of the data and subsequently the findings of the study. When data is collected in face-to-face interviews in quantitative studies, respondents might answer to the questions differently compared to what they would have done if they were allowed to answer in private. For instance, in 2006, the Virginia Commonwealth University medical school in the US was conducting a study on the average length of penis of some 150 male participants who took part in the study. They asked the men to measure their erected penis in private and report the length on a list that was circulated amongst the participants. At the end of the study, the researchers found out that the average length of erected penis was 18cm. A few weeks later, the researchers decided to change the data collection method. Instead of asking participants to measure their erected penis and give the results, the same participants were expected to measure their erected penis in front of a medical doctor. Some of the respondents declined to participate in the study and they were replaced by twenty three new volunteer participants. At the end of the study, the average erected penis of the 150 men was 13.8cm. This is a clear example of how data collection methods can influence the outcome of a study. Considering the above example, researchers ought to be able to decipher which data collection methods would enable them to collect accurate information.

In order to ensure that the data collected from a study is accurate; researchers need to be able to choose what data collection method is appropriate for the study. Otherwise, an inappropriate methodology can affect the findings of the research. In quantitative studies, researchers need to ensure that respondents understand the topic under study. If for instance, the aim of the study is to analyse the effects of the global credit crunch on financial markets. The questionnaires have to be designed in such a way that it ensures that respondents understand the questions as well as the topic they are writing about. The only way this can be achieved is by including test questions that would test the respondent's knowledge on the topic that is discussed. For example, a questionnaire for this topic should include test questions such as, "what is a credit crunch?" If the respondent defines a credit crunch correctly, then the researcher can be assured that the respondent knows what he or she is talking about. On the other hand, if the answer to this question is wrong, then the researcher can be able to tell that the respondent does not know what he or she is talking about. It is needless to include data gathered from such a respondent in the outcome of the study, otherwise the findings would be a misrepresentation of the reality. Data collection procedure is therefore an important component of quantitative and qualitative studies.

Some studies can be best carried out through qualitative studies; meanwhile others can be best done through quantitative studies. It is therefore important for the researchers to make the right choice of data collection method for the study. This is because the approach used by the researcher to collect data used for the study can affect the findings. For example, a study to establish the difficulties faced by Chinese students studying in British business schools can be easily carried out through a quantitative study. This is because it is easy to identify Chinese students on campus and administer questionnaires to these students. On the other hand, a study which aims to establish the reasons why the British government has chosen to increase tuition fees for international students could be best carried out through a qualitative study. The decision to increase school fees is made by policy makers, many of whom would be unwilling to participate in surveys. It is unlikely for a student to approach David Cameron with a questionnaire. This is not to say that no one has access to the Prime Minister. Instead of printing questionnaires to start tracking down government ministers, who are busy and very difficult to have access to, such a study could best be carried out using a qualitative study. The qualitative study will make use of secondary sources such a text books, media interviews and the government websites that have talked about this policy before. If the researcher insists on using questionnaires administered to sources other than the policy makers, chances are high that most of the answers they provide would be based on speculations since they are not in authority.

A simple choice of data collection medium can affect the outcome of the study. Data can be collected through telephone interviews, questionnaires mailed out to respondents or administered by the researcher face to face. Many respondents who are interviewed on telephone are eager to drop the line and continue with their private business. Some of them just respond without verifying what exactly they are saying. If interviewed on a later date, such respondents might provide different answers to the same questions. On the other hand, mailing out questionnaires to respondents would give them more time to answer the questions. The danger of using this data collection method is that some respondents might not post their questionnaires back to the researcher. This could affect the response rate and off course the findings of the study as the researcher might be unable to get as much responses as planned at the beginning of the study. Tracking down respondents to answer questionnaires at a busy street or garden is sometimes not easy because individuals are reluctant to participate in such exercises. It is therefore important to consider these factors before designing a study. These choices can affect the outcome of a study and for this reason; the researchers have to be smart enough to make the right choices.

We currently live in a world that is characterised by new information and communication technologies that have also provided a variety of options for social science researchers. Today, questionnaires can be administered through websites online. In order to choose whether it is appropriate to use an online questionnaire, the researchers must consider the population under study and their access and capability to complete online questionnaires. Meanwhile online questionnaires might work pretty well with the younger generation; many older people prefer to deal with papers instead of the internet. These are things that researchers need to consider before deciding on what data collection method to use. In spite of the guidelines outlined above and in the numerous publications that provide guides on how to conduct social science research, it is important to note that social science is different from pure science. There is no clear cut formula on how to conduct social science research. Instead, researchers are expected to make rational judgments with regards to what methodology to use. Even after selecting the data collection methods, other important decisions, such as what sources to use in qualitative research and which people to interview in quantitative research are up to the researcher to make. The underlying principle that should guide the decision of the researcher is the effect of his choice on the outcome of the study.

In conclusion, it is important to note that research design is an important part of any research project. The methodology adopted for a study must be designed to provide the most accurate findings. If a study cannot provide accurate findings, then it makes no sense to conduct the study in the first place. That is why it is important for researchers to carefully consider their choice of methodology in any study they conduct. The choice of a quantitative or qualitative study must be carefully considered by the researcher based on the nature of the study to be carried out. The population under study must be one that is knowledgeable about the topic and capable of providing accurate information in order to ensure that the findings of the study are trustworthy. The literature review is an important part of any research project as discussed above because it seeks to identify the errors made by previous studies so as to ensure that such mistakes are avoided. In addition to that, it identifies knowledge gaps and seeks to fill them. In this respect, the literature review creates an avenue to develop a rationale for the study. In research reports, the literature review helps to situate readers within the context of the study as readers who are not well informed about the topic under study might find it difficult to understand the methodology, findings and conclusions of a study without reading the literature review which gives a background snapshot of the topic to be studied.

References

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Dawson, C. Practical Research Methods, New Delhi, UBS Publishers' Distributors

Denzin, Norman K. & Lincoln, Y. S. The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

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Given, L. M. The Sage encyclopaedia of qualitative research methods, London: Sage Publications

Holliday, A. R. Doing and Writing Qualitative Research, 2nd Edition. London: Sage Publications

Hunter, L. and Leahey, E. "Collaborative Research in Sociology: Trends and Contributing Factors" American Sociologist 39:290-306

Iman, J. Real Science: what it is, and what it means. Cambridge, Uk: Cambridge University Press

Kothari, C.R. Research Methodology-Methods and Techniques, New Delhi, Wiley Eastern Limited

Kumar, R. Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners, Singapore, Pearson Education

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