Visual Learning

Inextricably bound to an individual's perception, learning is a deeply personal aspect of the life experience. More saliently, professionally applying that which is learned in an academic environment is the greatest charge of the contemporary university student. The following inquiry explores learning from the personal perspective of a visual learner, using transformative learning theory to explore optimum channels for professional evolution of institutional learning and comprehensively reflecting on learning as a lifelong endeavor. In essence, there is no universally applicable definition for learning; it is a concept molded and characterized by the unique needs of the learner. However, crucial is it for the university student to be cognizant of his or her learning style as it will undoubtedly inform life long after graduation.

Learning: A Practical and Personal Definition

Ultimately, learning is bound to time. Every learner uses the past in order to afford more meaningful definitions and contexts for new information. Alternatively, every learner embraces new information as a means of anticipating the future.

Surface Learning and Deep Learning

Most traditional learning theories suggest that effective learning depends on connections made between new knowledge and existing knowledge. The most frequently used buzz phrases within academia, such as critical thinking and higher-level thinking, allude to advanced cognition as an act that elevates these connections from the level of mere memory to a new place; this implies that creativity exists within the most effective learning contexts. Quality of learning, then, depends wholly on the ability of the student to connect that which is new to that which is old; and yet, the anticipatory element in learning is just as crucial.

Transformative Learning Theory

Transformative learning theory (TLT) defines acquired knowledge as fundamentally mutable. Quality learning, by extension, creates meaningful changes in the lives of students by allowing them to personally embrace new experiences as more than academic lessons, but as life lessons to be connected to the past and applied to the future.

TLT implies an invaluable act of conversion as integral to the learning process (Christopher, Dunnegan, Duncan, & Paul 134). Students are not mere receptors of information, but the vehicles for transformation of knowledge.

Visual Learning

Visual learning, sometimes deemed visual-spatial learning, is one of Howard Gardner's intelligences. Implying much more than learning through the medium of sight, visual learning is a creative process that denies intelligence as a purely linear, cumulative element of the personality (West 12). While visual thinkers face difficulty learning from texts and lectures, they are often deeply creative individuals with mixed capabilities (West 12).

Synthesis: A Personal Definition of Learning

For me, learning is a process of creative conversion. New information that is conveyed through tactile activities, diagrams, participatory experiences, and graphic illustrations is most easily linked to my past experiences and converted into being mine. TLT in the classroom depends on the teachers' perceptions of learners as unique individuals with their own process of learning. Christopher, Dunnegan, Duncan, and Paul cite that "transformative learning can be fostered by including (a) teachers who are empathetic, caring, authentic, and sincere and who demonstrate a high degree of integrity; (b) learning conditions that promote a sense of safety, openness, and trust; and (c) instructional methods that support a learner-centered approach that promotes student autonomy, participation, reflection, and collaboration" (134); for me, these classroom experiences have always been the most meaningful.

A visual learner, I experience quality outcomes in the classroom through creative experience that involve and challenge my imagination. Because memory is so inextricably bound to learning, I need to purposefully create visual images for bits of information in order to make meaningful connections with new knowledge (McIlroy 170). Studying for me, by extension, is a process of not only reading texts or notes, but visualizing concepts in a way that strategically and intelligently integrates the new with the old (Northedge 11). In reflecting on my learning experiences throughout my life, including my most recent academic and professional experiences, I am well aware of the obstacles I have always faced.

Reflection on Classroom and Professional Experience

Personal reflection is not a passive action but a proactive means of assessing and categorizing that which has been experienced. In her text entitled Reflection in Learning and Professional Development, author J. Moon asserts that reflection, by definition, involves the act of anticipation (4-5). My experiences both prior to and within the course module will, ultimately, inform my professional future.

Before University: A Reflection

Always challenged by the lecture-and-drill methods of learning, I learned around age twelve that I could study most effectively by re-writing information using colored markers. Particularly with respect to the subjects in which I struggled, namely mathematics and science, spending extra time effectively mapping concepts on paper in a way that was visually stimulating could mean the difference between passing and failing. I would remember the color of the theorem or concept from my study guide and quickly be able to retrieve the rest of the related information; this was an invaluable discovery for me that carried me throughout my school career.

Because I was cognizant of my special needs, I believe that I was better prepared for university in that I was already self-motivating and transforming information to be personally applicable. An algebra equation, for instance, would mean nothing to me until I verbalized the ideas on paper and in color; this was not the way it was taught in the classroom. By extension, I was already changing and converting information to be my own prior to entry into university, as a more self-directed context for learning.

During the Course Module: A Reflection

One of the goals of university learning is to prepare students for a satisfying life by helping them identify elements of their academic life that resonate with their hopes for their futures (Krumboltz & Worthington 312). For me, university life- this course module included- has been an experiment in recognizing and building upon experiences that will carry me into the professional world. Specifically, I believe that the legal aspect of health and social care is so critical to the profession that political activism is an inherent charge to all who work within health and social care. Being an advocate for patients is perhaps the most salient aim of all of those who work within health and social care, and my university experience has allowed me to embrace political action as part of my future.

One of the most essential outcomes of my college career, thus far, has been to truly embrace the function of learning as an individual, lifelong endeavor. In essence, I am cognizant now more than ever that there will not always be an assignment to motivate me to learn. In her text entitled Building Communities of Learners, author S. P. McCaleb asks "how can classroom teachers recognize and understand what such students in their classrooms know and feel? How can teachers help them to look critically at what they know, where they gained this knowledge, and how they can participate in acquiring and creating new knowledge and learning that they would see as useful and relevant in their lives?" (141) More importantly, however, how can students learn to do all of this for themselves? Learning does not end after graduation, and thus a critical function of academia is to support students as lifelong learners.

In working collaboratively in the university environment, I found that every learning community is a diverse learning community. Sensitivity toward various learning styles that differ markedly from my own is thus a critical character trait within the professional environment. Though I do not, and likely will never, comprehensively understand how logical-mathematical learners process and integrate information, I am well aware that I may need to work with these types of individuals in the future. Having worked on group projects with a diverse group of learners within the university environment, I understand that conflicts arise from diverging styles.

Having worked within a clinical environment, I am well aware of how dynamic interaction between various personalities can be both beneficial and detrimental. While the act of learning is not always at the forefront of professional interaction, it does indeed inform relationships in a multiplicity of ways. Learning styles are indicative of individual personalities. Though the danger exists in stereotyping all visual learners as flighty artists and all logical learners as glasses-wearing mathematicians, sensitivity toward learning styles is paramount in a collaborative, working environment.

Summation: Visual Learning in a Learning-Diverse Environment

Prior to college, my learning experience was largely defined by my gradual embrace of visual learning as my true, optimum channel for knowledge acquisition and critical thinking. Currently, I am adapting my learning style to the self-motivated and diverse learning-style context. Within the professional world, I will not always have the benefit of time to adapt presentations to be visually applicable; thus, I am learning to process information more quickly by seeing it as it comes.

For instance, in memorizing the names and dates of legislation within health and social care, I use the colors of the rainbow as a tool for progression. The first act to memorize would be red in color, the second orange, and so on to purple if need be. While undergoing this entire process in my head is challenging, as the inclination is to physically write or draw the images, it helps me in working with others who may have an affinity for dates and memorization and not want to be temporally hindered by my excessive note-taking, chart-making, and other traditional modalities for transforming information to be visual in nature.

In the professional world, undoubtedly, I will not have the benefit of colored markers and notebooks; and yet, I will be expected to learn just as efficiently without visual tools as I do with them. While understanding how I learn was indeed a minor victory, a greater success is practically adapting my learning styles to the real world. Visual memory exercises, by extension, help me a great deal. In associating new knowledge with images of that which is already mine, I am able to integrate that which may not be visual with that which has already been transformed.

Adapting my process of creative conversion to the professional world feels neither easy nor natural. However, critical is it for me to continue to use the same techniques that work for me within the academic world after graduation. Lifelong learning depends on using methods that work and modifying them for the diverse, professional community.

In essence, everyone learns differently. In school, the goal is ascertain what kind of learner one is. In university, the goal evolves within the context of self-motivation, charging students to learn on their own time and in their own way without a clearly defined timeline or process. Beyond graduation, the goal is to be able to collaborate effectively with others who may not learn in exactly the same way as one does. A salient function of university learning, by extension, is to prepare students to work within populations of diverse learners.

The Health and Social Care module, for me, has been a transformative experience in a range of ways. I have learned how to integrate learning processes that served me when I was younger into the university environment and I have begun to adapt these processes to the collaborative, professional context. In automatically absorbing information through the filter of visualization, no piece of information seems foreign to me. Undoubtedly, the visualization process is more easily adapted to certain pieces of information than others. However, I am increasingly learning to naturally perceive things in a way that is conducive to my own learning style; it is at once visual and transformative.

Works Cited

Bowden, John, and Ference Marton. The University of Learning. London: Routledge, 2004.

Christopher, Suzanne, Tim Dunnagan, Stephen F. Duncan, and Lynn Paul. "Education for Self-support: Evaluating Outcomes Using Transformative Learning Theory." Family Relations 50.2 (2001): 134+.

Krumboltz, John D., and Roger L. Worthington. "The School-to-work Transition from a Learning Theory Perspective." The Career Development Quarterly 47.4 (1999): 312.

McCaleb, Sudia Paloma. Building Communities of Learners: A Collaboration among Teachers, Students, Families, and Community. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1994.

McIlroy, David. Studying at University: How to be a Successful Student. London: Sage, 2004.

Moon, Jennifer. Reflection in Learning and Professional Development: Theory and Practice. London, Kogan Page, 1999.

Northedge, Andrew. The Good Study Guide. Milton Keynes, Open University Press, 2005.

West, Thomas G. In the Mind's Eye Visual Thinkers, Gifted People with Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties, Computer Images, and the Ironies of Creativity. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1997.

Guns in Class - Speech Outline

I.Introduction

A. Imagine the idea of being defenseless against an individual possessing the intention of wreaking mass havoc on the students and staff inside of a school.

B. In 1999, Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado experienced a tragedy that holds historic importance to the concept of protecting those inside of a school in a worst case scenario.

C. While many feel that providing teachers with handguns may prove detrimental to safety efforts, imposing such measures would provide educators and students alike with increased security and overall safety.

II. Supporting Views

A. Lawmakers have made efforts toward equipping teachers with handguns.

B. A school in Texas approved a plan that would allow teachers to be armed during school hours.

C. If allowing teachers to carry handguns in class improves the overall level of safety present in a school setting, lawmakers and parents alike should strongly encourage schools to adopt this necessary change.

III. Opposing Views

A. In Texas, the implementation of this law was met with a fury of resistance.

B. President of the Houston Federation of Teachers, Gayle Fallon, strongly opposes this changes and refers to it is being "a disaster waiting to happen."

C. The true disaster waiting to happen is idly standing by while a student may be plotting an attack.

IV.Conclusion

A. Allowing teachers to carry handguns in class would provide educators and students alike with increased security and overall safety.

B. The amount of school violence is on the rise as demonstrated in the five school shootings which all occurred within one week in 2008.

C. Teachers should be allowed to carry handguns in class as this necessary change would provide the individuals inside of a school with a level of protection never experienced before.

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TEACHERS AND HANDGUNS - SPEECH

Imagine the idea of being defenseless against an individual possessing the intention of wreaking mass havoc on the students and staff inside of a school. In 1999, Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado experienced a tragedy that holds historic importance to the concept of protecting those inside of a school in a worst case scenario (The Columbine High School Shootings, n.d.). When thirteen students had their life taken away during a school shooting, the idea of allowing teachers to carry handguns during class received more attention than ever. The safety of the students inside of a school facility may be at risk as demonstrated in school shootings such as the ones which occurred at Columbine High School and Virginia Tech. While many feel that providing teachers with handguns may prove detrimental to safety efforts, imposing such measures would provide educators and students alike with increased security and overall safety.

First, lawmakers have made efforts toward equipping teachers with handguns. In 2006, Wisconsin State Representative Frank Lasee provided a much needed new insight into the controversial debate. Lasee stated that his ultimate goal is to "end the turkey shoots that go on in our schools." Additionally, a school in Texas agreed with Lasee's stance on the hot topic and approved a plan that would allow teachers to be armed during school hours. However, parents must rest assured that not just any educator will be provided with a handgun to protect against the random acts of violence which occurs all too frequently in the education system. Instead, the Texas school serves as an example that setting restrictions such as mandating that all teachers possess a license to carry a concealed handgun will assist in improving school safety. In the event of an unpredictable tragic school shooting, nobody is prepared to even begin to estimate the amount of lives that could be lost as a result of faculty being ill-prepared in these dire situations. Therefore, it is paramount to the safety of students that teachers are able to carry handguns in class as this change would implement a new measure of safety into schools that has not been widely experienced before. While the heartbreaking school shootings in this nation's history will go unchanged, one cannot help but to question if the outcome of the situation would have been drastically different if teachers were armed with protection to such random acts of violence. If allowing teachers to carry handguns in class improves the overall level of safety present in a school setting, lawmakers and parents alike should strongly encourage schools to adopt this necessary change.

Conversely, many feel that the presence of armed teachers would not prove beneficial. In the previously mentioned situation involving Texas, the implementation of this law was met with a fury of resistance (Texas school allows teachers to carry guns to protect against campus attacks). President of the Houston Federation of Teachers, Gayle Fallon, strongly opposes this changes and refers to it is being "a disaster waiting to happen." While many share similar opinions, the true disaster waiting to happen is idly standing by while a student may be plotting an attack. If lawmakers are able to provide educators with a weapon of defense that will only be used when absolutely required, the number of students injured or killed could be lowered tremendously.

With that said, allowing teachers to carry handguns in class would provide educators and students alike with increased security and overall safety. The amount of school violence is on the rise as demonstrated in the five school shootings which all occurred within one week in 2008. Clearly, school violence levels will not decline if the current laws are left unchanged. The current law leaves teachers and students defenseless against attacks which should be considered a crime in itself. Therefore, teachers should be allowed to carry handguns in class as this necessary change would provide the individuals inside of a school with a level of protection never experienced before.

At-Risk Students

A. "At-risk students are students who are not experiencing success in school and are potential dropouts. They are usually low academic achievers who exhibit low self-esteem" (Donnelly, 1987). The first at-risk behavior is that the student sleeps in class, destroys school property, refuses to answer questions, and has poor social skills. These combine to form one at-risk behavior because they are all examples of refusing to participate in learning, and in life. Falling asleep in class and refusing to answer questions shows that the student is not interested in enhancing his or her skills, and is not interested in learning. All four of these actions also show a lack of respect for people, particularly those of authority (the teacher), and for other people's property. Destroying textbooks is an example of vandalism, which is a serious crime. If the kid is engaging in vandalism in the classroom, it's possible that he or she is also doing so out of the classroom and could be arrested.

The second at-risk behavior that I would address is that the student reads at a sixth grade level and has poor oral skills. Having such poor reading and oral skills shows that the student is not developing at a normal pace, perhaps due to behavioral, psychological, or physiological disabilities. In high school students are supposed to be preparing themselves for college, and they need to have basic reading and writing skills in order to succeed.

The third at-risk behavior that I would address is that the student works several hours after school everyday in order to earn money for the family. Donnelly (1987) explains that at-risk students are generally "from low socioeconomic status families." It is one thing if the student was working to earn a little extra cash for personal enjoyment, but it seems as though the student is forced to work to help the family get by. The kid lives in a single-parent home which means that there is only one source of income; oftentimes single parents cannot afford to raise a family. Another problem that goes along with this is that working several hours everyday after school means that the student has less time to study and do homework, and almost no time to socialize.

B. There are a few pieces to the intervention puzzle that I would include for the first at-risk behavior. To start with, I'd assign a peer to help keep the student on track. "Many teachers use the 'ask 3 before me' approach. This is fine, however, a student at risk may have to have a specific student or two to ask" (Watson, DATE). Not only would this allow a peer to make sure that the student isn't sleeping and vandalizing property, but it would also force the student to socialize. The student would be forced to communicate with his or her peer, which could help the student to be more social.

I would definitely address the second at-risk behavior by doing an evaluation for learning and behavioral disabilities. School social workers will facilitate tests to figure out why the student is having a problem with reading and writing. If it's due to a learning or behavioral disability then the student will usually be able to create an independent education plan (IEP), which creates a plan of action to help the student achieve success in school. During this process specific needs are addressed and the student is presented with more opportunities for success. Even if an IEP is not implemented, the school would get to the bottom of the problems, and help the student in any way possible. The student will know that he or she has a plan and is on a track to success, as "young people need to establish a sense of purpose and understand how they are meeting their current and future needs" (Child Development Institute).

For the third at-risk behavior I would meet with the student and his or her guardian to discuss the student's lack of academic success, and I would share that I think it's partially due to the number of hours that the student is forced to work. I'd present the student and guardian with different options for people that are in a tough financial spot, and I'd brainstorm with them to figure out a way for the student to spend more time on schoolwork.

References

Child Development Institute. (2010). Adolescent stages of development.

Donnelly, M. (1987). At-risk students.

Watson, S. (2010). Intervention strategies for students at risk.

Improving Education Through WISC-IV

Introduction

Education stakeholders are constantly looking for ways to improve teaching methods and make learning more accommodative. Failure to carry out assessment of both teacher and student, however, can be retrogressive to this endeavor. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children fourth edition (WISC-IV) was developed to offer educators and psychologists a means of administering intelligence tests for children. This paper is divided into clearly labeled sub-sections for easy navigation into different areas of discussion. It discusses the use of WISC-IV as an assessment tool for children as well as the teaching personnel. It explores various literary pieces written about the tool to find a common ground on the best way to utilize the instrument. From the literature, some examples will be drawn to review the discussions on the use of WISC-IV. The paper will focus majorly on children with learning disabilities, ADHD and minorities, but children with other issues will be mentioned to find the usefulness of the tool for them. WISC-relevant theories, such as Cattell Horn Carrol (CHC), will also be discussed to explain its practicability. This paper analyzes the potential that lies in the utility of WISC-IV as an assessment tool for academic personnel and child psychologists.

The paper will discuss the best practices to apply in the utility of WISC-IV. Compliance with these practices can help managers to be able to assess and determine their best teachers and child-care providers. Finally, this analysis is aimed at exposing the discrepancies between intelligence and academic performance of children. Similarly, the paper will show how psychologists can use the WISC-IV to identify intellectual giftedness, learning difficulties, and cognitive strengths and weaknesses. Various interventions to address cognitive deficits and learning difficulties will also be discussed (Ward et al., 1995). At the conclusion, recommendations and suggestions are provided for various stakeholders involved in a child's intellectual development.

Literature Review

When Wechsler (2004) introduced the first Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), his intention was to produce a tool that would cater for the educational needs of all children. However, many improvements have since been done, and more changes are expected. The latest version of WISC (fourth edition) is seen to be even more sensitive to minorities, such as children with hearing or learning disabilities and females. IQ scores generated from the test can be used in the selection process because it represents students' general cognitive ability (Wechsler, 2004). Interviewees are tested on various areas including vocabulary, similarities, comprehension, information and word reasoning. Other areas of less focus being tested are matrix reasoning, picture concepts and completion, digit span, letter-number sequencing and arithmetic (Cohen, 1997). School managers can use this tool to assess instructors who utilize it effectively for the benefit of their students.

School heads can encourage their staff to administer the WISC-IV tool to classify children according to degrees of achievement, memory, emotional intelligence, adaptive behavior and giftedness. Schools can use the outcomes of these tests to develop curriculum that best suits each child. According to Flanagan & Kaufman (2009), children's backgrounds must be considered when conducting any assessment. Any potentially compromising factor should be noted to prevent making wrong conclusions and biases. If it is administered correctly, this instrument can promote objectivity of teachers when dealing with different kinds of children. Schools can utilize the WISC-IV not only as an IQ test but also as a clinical tool. For example, WISC-IV can be used to diagnose learning disabilities and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) through the process of pattern analysis (Watkins, Kush, & Glutting, 1997).

Cohen (1997) adds that the tool can be useful in assessing the cognitive growth of children. This assessment can be done in relation to the chronological age. The instrument, therefore, can help to provide knowledge about the psychological welfare of children when data comparison is done.

References

Cohen, M. (1997). Children's memory scale. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

Essay Ads. Comparing and Contrasting Assessment and Evaluation of a Student. Online: essayads.com/papers/assessment-evaluation

Flanagan, D.P. & Kaufman, A.S. (2009). Essentials of WISC-IV Assessment. Volume 56 of Essentials of Psychological Assessment. John Wiley & Sons. P. 257-259.

Kaplan, R.M & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2009). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications and Issues (Seventh ed.). Belmont (CA): Wadsworth.

Ward, S.B., Ward, T. J., Hatt, C.V., Young, D.L. & Mollner, N.R. (1995). The incidence and utility of the ACID, ACIDS and SCAD profiles in a referred population. Psychology in the Schools, 32(4), 267-276.

Watkins, M.W., Kush, J., & Glutting, J.J. (1997). Discriminant and predictive validity of the WISC-III ACID profile among children with learning disabilities. Psychology in the Schools, 34(4), 309-319

Wechsler, D. (2004). The Wechsler intelligence scale for children. London: Pearson Assessment.

Cost of College

OUTLINE

I. College costs are rising.

a. Statistics on the cost of college versus average income over time.

II. Why are college costs rising.

a. There is a popular impression that there is a need for a college education.

i. Chicken and egg. But the end result is that this has increased the social value of the commodity, which has enabled colleges to raise the price.

ii. Is it related to poorer quality of secondary education? (Is quality even poorer).

b. Higher education has turned toward profit-based business models in structuring their universities.

i. Rarely hear administrators include students in their lists of considerations.

c. Banks cultivated a crop of reliable borrower, which in turn enabled colleges to raise the cost.

i. Heavy debt became "typical", and people scoff at the idea of having only $20,000 in debt.

III. How to fix the rising cost of college?

a. Develop a correct evaluation of the need for college through better career counseling in the secondary schools.

i. Give more respect for manual and technical labor.

ii. Provide better pay for manual and technical labor.

iii. Improve secondary education so that colleges are not having to teach English 098, at their and student expense.

b. Curb the love affair with the profit-seeking business model.

i. Consider social services models again, governmental structures and other successful, historical models of education.

c. Change the expectation that heavy debt is acceptable.

i. What was debt at graduation previously?

1. How did that compare to annual income.

ii. Consider more legislation in relations to costs of state universities and interest rates.

1. Consider the new direct lending legislation.

2. Consider other regulations or changes at the federal level.

IV. Conclusion.

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RESEARCH PAPER

The cost of going to college is rising however you measure it, and everyone agrees that costs must be brought down. By all accounts, the degree of change in cost is extreme, but too much of the discussion relies on anecdotal information that supports the writers' specific claims. While searching for information on the subject, a search of Expanded Academic ASAP found that there were 854 articles in academic journals with the keyword pairing "college costs", reduced to peer-reviewed journals, the number dwindled to 259. Of those 259, most were letters to editor, commentary, book reviews, or were from abroad. In other words, people have a lot to say about tuition costs in the United States, but it may not be reliable or thoroughly evidence based. For that reason, it is important to lay out and examine the facts.

Some people respond to the rising cost of college by saying that people get paid more than they used to, that salaries are higher and so college being more expensive makes sense. However, the increases in the average costs for college have outstripped pay increases for individuals and families. In the last twenty-five years, college has quadrupled in cost, while family income has increased by only fifty percent (Cauthen & Orozco, 2009). That means that in order to pay for college, families have to set aside more money, for an even longer period time, Some claim that Pell and other grants help with the increased cost. However, over the same twenty-five years, the average need based federal grants went from covering 75% of the total cost of college to covering only about 33% (Cauthen & Orozco, 2009). This means that families went from paying 25 cents of every dollar, to paying 67 cents, more than two and a half times as much. All of this means that students and their parents are not just paying more, they are borrowing more in order to pay for their educations.

At the same time, we have made a B.A. seem like the minimum effort one should put forth to be a professional, degrading the value of both choices, and that devaluation is both cultural and financial. In 1960, the average salary in the U.S. was $4743, and the average teacher's salary was $5174 (Hurley, 2010). This makes sense in that teachers worked long hours than average and also had four-year degrees. Now however the average salary in the U.S. is in about $55 thousand (HHS), and the average teacher salary is somewhere between $40 and $45 thousand (Payscale.com). This is an important rubric to consider because it shows how the devaluation of education is a loop that feeds back onto itself. In any case, there are endless examples that the education that has become more expensive, has at the same time become worth less to the degree holder.

There is a popular impression that there is a need for a college education. It is axiomatic in popular culture that everyone should want to go to college, and that college is the only path to a successful life. That someone might value intelligence and hard work, yet still reject a four-year degree is anathema. Yet there are communities throughout the country where a college education has considerably less value. For them and those ill suited to or disinterested in advancing their educations, the culture in general has no common discussion about the opportunities available. Rather creating a culture that encourages education, we have created a culture that shames and hides other options. Few people fresh out of high have a clear plan, for many, continuing their educations is a socially acceptable, even admirable, way to delay difficult and confusing decisions. Research is also showing that among students under 24 who attend a community college, only about 40% receive any credentialing (Cauthen & Orozco, 2009). This could be a result of the "everyone must attend college" culture that encourages young people with few skills to accumulate large amounts of debt in the hopes of a "better" job. Of course, the social value and perceived necessity of advanced education makes it more "valuable" in a capitalist market, so the price of the item can be raised with worrying that too fewer people will buy.

Higher education has turned toward profit-based business models in structuring their universities. When one hears administrators speak of managing their institutions, they are quick to mention the boards and the parents, the truly concerned will mention teachers and staff, but rarely are students mentioned. It is not that they are willfully and personally disinterested in students, but more, it seems, that language and culture of business have taken over a model in which suppliers and consumers and shareholders are the interested parties. When overlaid on the university system, somehow parents become the consumers, though most students are paying for their own educations (through debt) to at least some degree. Lenders too are enjoying the ever-growing crop of reliable borrowers, since students are considered a good risk, and college debt cannot be forgiven in a bankruptcy.

Some may say that debt is not so bad, that it is simply how things work, and the ever popular, "Well, what would you do about it?" A question asked not to consider the answers, but to stifle debate. Heavy debt is now thought of as typical, and people scoff at those who only owe $20 thousand in loans. Some scholars even refer to the pedagogy of debt, and suggest that debt encourages the belief that higher education is a consumer service, (Williams, 2006) rather than professional training. Williams goes on to site the propensity of students to announce to their professors that they pay their salaries, or demand higher grades because they "showed up" and "did everything". More worrisome, of course, is that debt discourages certain career choices, including teachers, nurses, even general practitioners, as medical specialists make far more money that those who treat people generally. Baum (2007, 20) also talks about the need for a shift in attitude, away from aid programs that are intent on encouraging enrollment rather than education.

Some people have noticed that faith-based colleges and two-year institutions have done a good job of keeping costs low, as have other not-for-profit higher education institutions (Krigman, 2009). Some even went so far as to lower fees, and advertise the fact, and they found themselves with a noteworthy jump in enrollment, as were other public schools which were twice as likely as private schools to have higher enrollment (ibid). These models need to be taken into consideration more and more, rather than seeing administrators who look to the lending industries for a model of how to function.

Better career counseling in secondary school would go a long way to making sure that those who go to college have a real use for it. One administrator compared private education to the housing bubble, and warned of a similar fate (Krigman, 2009). To avoid this, American education needs to stop artificially inflating their enrollment with students whom they will never truly serve. Giving more respect to manual and technical careers, in both social and financial terms, is another way of encouraging young people who are interested in trades to pursue. How often have we heard some official speak as if the only career choices were barrister or barista, always in a manner that makes it clear that barista is not really a respectable choice. Not only is food service valuable work, there are countless careers besides that which can be the basis of happy, full life. There is much less of a pay gap between work that requires a bachelor's degree and that which requires a high school degree than there used to be. This is not because manual labor is more valued, but because a college degree has become devalued. Some jobs that require apprenticeships or extensive training pay very well, carpenters, plumbers, and other technical trades can offer excellent pay and benfits.

Along the same lines, it would be useful to improve the quality of secondary education. Too many students arrive at college with sub-par literacy and math skills. Colleges then provide, at students' expense, courses that teach high school level math and English skills. Add to that, these courses often cannot be applied toward graduation, and you have still more reasons why so few who enter college achieve graduation or certification.

Change the expectation that heavy debt is acceptable. Include finance courses in high school that include ways to eliminate or reduce debt. Many have pointed out the futility of trying to work your way through school, since the cost is so high and the pay for entry-level jobs is so poor. However, students can start at local colleges, stock up on AP level courses, apply for college credit, and take the time to consider trade work, technical colleges, and other jobs that may interest them. If more students start choosing the colleges that offer them the best deal, more schools will be forced to consider whether their costs are too inflated to maintain a healthy institution.

Some of the regulatory changes suggested by scholars like Sandy Baum (2007) in the past have been adopted by the Obama administration (Newswire, 2010). This includes increasing Pell Grants and direct lending from the government, rather than through banks. This allows the taxpayers to benefit from the interest paid by students, and also saves money in government subsidies to lenders. It also includes investment in community colleges, which are generally more responsive to their communities than larger institutions. Baum however went further with her suggestions, insisting that the entire system be streamlined, rather so many boutique programs, in order to make easier for students and cheaper to administer (20). Baum also recommends structuring most aid on strictly need-based criteria.

There are many things we can do to improve the cost ratio for college. There is a tendency when facing large problems to complain about how a problem is simply too large to handle. The truth, however, is that what larger problems afford are even more opportunities to make meaningful improvements. It is important though, not to mistake changes, or even growth, for improvements. As more people warn that higher education could go the way of the housing market, we would do well to act swiftly but also intelligently, and by whatever means available. We can no longer live in a nation that devalues its laborers skilled and unskilled. We need the good work of all the people of the nation to be valued. We need plumbers, doctors, teachers, cooks, chefs, entrepreneurs, and more. We cannot continue on a path that requires intellectually gifted young people from poor backgrounds to mortgage decades of their future to attain he skills we need them to have to thrive as a society and a nation.

References

Baum, Sandy. "It's Time for Serious Reform of the Student-Aid System. Change. 39.2: 14-20.

Cauthen, Nancy K. and Viany Orozco. "The High Cost of Working Hard" The American Prospect. 20.9: A20-A23. Expanded Academic ASAP.

Health and Human Servies (HHS). "Estimated Median Income for 2009." PDF

Hurley, Ed. "Teacher Pay 1940-2000: Losing Ground, Losing Status." NEA. 2010. Web.

Krigman, Eliza. "Tuition and Fees Can Be Lowered." National Journal.

Newswire. "President Obama Signs Historic Health Care and Education Legilation." States News Service.

"Median Salary by Job." Payscale. 2010. Web.

Williams, Jeffrey. "The Pedagogy of Debt." College Literature. 33.4: 155-15. Expanded Academic ASAP.

Abstract

Students in classrooms all across the world are struggling with the delicate balance of the coach-teacher conflict. Often, we find coach's in the classroom teaching students without proper knowledge, nor education. These coaches are using their fundamental coaching regulations and are being put into classrooms where they pass student-athletes when a the student is failing the course, tend to give leniency towards those on their athletic team and have never been certified to teach in the first place. There are many organizations in place to help these coach's in classroom setting. Though this may be helpful, these individuals who are out to help these classroom coach's aren't certified teachers either. Should coaches be in the classroom teaching subjects that they aren't fully knowledgeable on?

High School Coaches as Teachers

There is an ongoing argument questioning whether or not coaches should be teachers as well. Some students make it through classes on their academic ability, while others are pushed through based on their athletic ability. Today, coaches are finding themselves in teaching roles, but they are not certified to teach. One must ask themselves, why are coaches that aren't certified able to teach at the same level as Master's level educators? Unfortunately, in a lot of areas, athletic ability tends to rank higher then academic ability.

Different states in the United States have different standards for the teachers and coaches that they hire and due to this, our country is educationally handicapped because of coaches teaching classes like algebra (PhD). Essentially, the function of a coach is to educate students through participation in interscholastic competition; however, an interscholastic program should be designed to enhance academic achievement and should never interfere with opportunities for academic success (The Coaches Code of Ethics). Coaches are meant to organize, instruct and teach amateur and professional athletes the fundamentals of a sports team.

Some entry level positions for coaches are required to only experience sport as a participant. Head coaches and sports instructors at all levels usually mist have a bachelor's degree in exercise and sports science, physiology, kinesiology, nutrition and fitness, physical education and sports medicine (McKay). Some entry level positions require experience in the sport that they are going to coach, and those who are not certified teachers must meet individual state requirements for certification. In private schools, these teaching certifications are not always required. With extreme experience and knowledge of the sport, is often required. Coaches need to possess high levels of communication and leadership, while being resourceful and flexible (McKay).

Typically, a school of 800 students or more with have approximately a third of its faculty involved in coaching sports. Some of these coaches are teachers during the day program and coaches after (predominately Basketball and Football coaches). With all of this being fact, years ago, you would have found coaches in physical education classrooms, however now, coaches teach everything from science to algebra (Cotton). Since these coaches are in main teaching roles, it is difficult to hide them from school boards. Though these coaches may have some familiarity with the subjects that they are teaching, their time, commitment and reputations of their values are set on the sports and not on academics (Cotton). Unfortunately, nowadays schools are more interested in the success of their sports teams rather than the success of students' academics.

In classrooms across the United States, academic subjects only get part of an hour a day, five days a week. Athletic programs average two and a half hours a day, not including game days. With this information, it is clear to see that sports activity is getting more than three times the amount of attention than actual academic programs are getting (Cotton). Students also are able to leave school early for travel time for away games, watch games and in some states, are able to use a certain amount of time during the academic day to practice instead of putting the primary focus on education (Cotton). In this day in age, our citizens are consumed by successful professional sports games and are creating an atmosphere for a student that leads them to believe that sports are more important than academic education. Also, students view professional players that consistently get injured and return to the sport, heroic rather than focusing on the seriousness of the condition (Cotton).

Physical education is seen as a discipline where growing children learn the essential skills to become physically active adult. Though this is true, high school students who are not participating in the recommended levels of physical activity become obese adolescents and this rate continues to increase (Reed). In 2000, thirty-one percent of adults were assumed obese and sixty-four percent were simply considered overweight. If the same sixty-four percent of adults were illiterate, federal and state governments would typically aggressively move to develop programs to fix the problems (Reed). A major problem lies within the fact that our educational system and the public hold coaches responsible for this obesity and not the actual physical educators. It is very important that the teacher/coach conflict is re-evaluated so that problems can be resolved.

This conflict started in the mid-1970s where there was a shortage of coaches in the school system. At this time, more women became more active in sports, more assistant coaches were hired and there was a decrease in the availability of physical education jobs. Most high school level physical educators are also coaches (Reed). Since that time, there has been an increase in coaching programs being offered by higher education sources while also increasing the interest in the coaching profession. High schools have the ability to hire properly certified physical educators who want to teach as well as hire coaches who want to coach. Though there are several factors within this conflict, the problem is associated with physical education at the high school level and either hiring or not hiring certified physical educators (Reed).

Many of these physical educators are coaches first and that is where their primary problem lies. Our society can be considered obsessive over sports. The system that we run off of supports and rewards coaches with more assets then they do for certified teachers (this includes media exposure and enhanced professional status). However, though this is true, when the teacher/coach conflict is discussed with professionals, many coaches who are also teachers tend to overlook the conflict and instead point out that high school physical education is underfunded and lacks resources that would provide students with adequate movement opportunities (Reed). These coaches/teachers often refer to non-participating students as "lazy" or that they have too many "distractions". A lack of resources does not relieve physical educators from being responsible for diminishing activity levels of American youth (Reed).

Many studies have shown that most high schools physical education teachers admittedly provide more effort, time and attention to their coaching positions, rather than teaching physical education in the classroom. A large percentage of these individuals would rather coach and not teach (Reed). Perhaps a major reason for this is because coaches make much more money than certified teachers in certain areas of the United States. Football coaches in the state's largest high schools generally make much more money than state teachers do, including certified teachers with graduate degrees and decades of experience (Bow). Head coaches in schools with a population of 950 students or more, are making an average of $73,804 while teachers, who hold certifications and degrees average only $42,400 per year according to records obtained by the Austin American-Statesman through the Texas Public Information Act (Bow). The Associated Press reported that 5A and 4A coaches earn an average of $54,000 a year while the state's average teacher only earned around $31,000. The gap between teachers' and coaches' salaries has widened by 7.3% over the past ten years (Bow). Since this study was done in 1995, with inflation, teachers make an average of $40,207 and coaches earn an average of $69,488.

In Texas, out of approximately 461 schools, five coaches earned more than $100,000 a season. The lowest paid coach, Houston Furr's Cornell Gray, made $42,300 (Bow). Twenty-seven schools in Texas pay their football coaches more then they pay their principles. Ten years ago, the Texas Education Agency and state officials expressed their disappointment with the fact that their coaches were earning more than teachers. Facts are that education is much more important than sports; however they have misplaced the important roles in a school for the more exciting roles (Bow). Though school boards in Texas are trying to fix this misconception that a coach's role is more important role then teachers, they still believe that football is a top priority. Though sports play an important role in an adolescents life, their education should always be held to a higher authority.

Coaches in Texas believe that their salaries are justified due to the amount of days and hours they spend with each student. On average, coaches' typically work 226 days of the year when teachers only work 187 days a year (Bow). The president of the Texas State Teachers Association, Donna Haschke considers sports an important role; however she still believes that sports should come secondary to a formal education. Most superintendents will say that winning is not as important as teaching academics and good values. However, superintendents cannot deny that a team's advancement into the playoffs provides more money in the school district and also get more exposure. Coaches receive a base salary for their teaching/coordination responsibilities, but most would say that they do not do it for the money, but rather for the influence that they have on a minor's life. They all believe that they are teaching the fundamentals of sportsmanship, teamwork and the ability to take constructive criticism (Bow).

Sports are taken very seriously in certain states. Texas, for example, has decided to increase the number of credits that can be applied toward a students' graduation. Initially, high school individuals were only able to apply two credits; now they can apply four towards a student's graduation. Coaches and athletic directors were happy with the change. They were the ones that initially sought this change. With coaches in the classroom, more physical education credits increases a coach's ability to teach. This helps a coach's athlete pass classes that they ordinarily (with a certified teacher) would struggle with. Coach's fought a students' ability to only receive two credits from athletic participation along with parents of students who were athletically inclined, but academically struggling, giving the student/athlete a higher potential to pass classes without actually understanding the rubric (Benning). The new law increases the credits students can apply toward a degree in many elective subjects and in theory would allow the student to get credit for up to seven athletic courses, which in turn allows the student to take less core classes like English, Science, History, Math, etc..

Each semester, Kansas State athletics earn academic credit for "on field" participation. This basically means that they can receive academic credit for participating in sports, practices, games, etc.... Some athletes are able to count as many as four credit hours toward their academic degrees by playing on more school sport teams. Though this is fact, it does not change from high school to college. A Washington Post survey of physical education courses taught at the 117 schools that field Division I-A football teams, found that nearly three dozen universities award academic credit for participation on intercollegiate sports teams.

These universities only had two stipulations. The first is being a member of the sports team and the second is participation and attendance at practices and games (Schlabach). The play-for-grades classes provide truths about the challenge of reconciling academic missions with successful athletes. In April, the NCAA (National Collegiate Association) approved academic change. The changes include taking away the opportunity to earn those academic credits (for participating in school sport) if they failed any of their academic courses. Some would say that this will encourage athletes to keep up on their academic work to work toward earning a degree, while maintaining their participation in school sports.

An apparent loophole in the NCAA's eligibility regulations is leading to an increasing number of top recruits to intentionally fail to graduate from high school early which improves their chances of playing sooner in college. When athletes believe that they will not meet the minimum athletic eligibility standards, they will intentionally fail a course or withdraw from school all together. This type of behavior is encouraged to good athletes who struggle academically by their coaches in the classroom. The grades that these athletes earn after listening to their coaches/teachers, will apply toward their college eligibility requirements. Coaches that are teaching academic courses encourage this behavior from their students. The coaches want them to have a successful athletic career even if it means that they have to "cheating the system". Typically, it is the classes that coaches are not teaching that they tend to fail (Dreams).

One may be wondering what the role of a coach is. On a typical day, a coach will instruct the athlete on proper form and technique in beginning and it continues as the athlete advances in exercise. Coaches attempt to maximize the player's physical potential. Coaches oversee an athlete as they refine their individual skills in the specific sport. They also manage the team during both practices and competitions against other teams. They help an athlete to learn sportsmanship, a competitive spirit and most importantly, team work. Coaches will select, store, issue and inventory all of the equipment, supplies and materials needed. Coaches also have the ability to substitute players for high quality team chemistry and success. They will evaluate the opposing competitors and direct a team strategy while they call specific plays during competition to surprise or overpower their opponent (McKay).

Though many are opposed to coaches taking over teachers roles, The National Football Foundation's Play It Smart, helped many students get back on track. This program was launched in 1998 and it is funded by the NFF (National Football Foundation) and the College Football Hall of Fame. The NFF raises money from individual organizations and businesses, including the NFL and the NFL Players Association (Esfarjani). High schools get involved with Play It Smart by approaching the NFF with an application and this is followed by an on-site visit from the program. When a school is chosen, it is assigns an academic coach. The academic coaches are not certified teachers, but they are required to have at least a Bachelor's Degree in Education.

Academic coaches are trained during a week-long session that involves topics like strategies for taking the SAT/ACT, life skills and teaching in a diverse population. Each of the teaching coaches is required to take seminars every year. The NFF says Play It Smart has more than 11,000 participants throughout 136 high schools in 35 states. The graduation rate of students enrolled in this program has increased by 98% which is comparable to a national rate of 86%. The NFF has spent more than $15 million on the program, helping students increase their chances of graduating. Academic coaches commit a minimum of twenty hours per week and stay at the school from the beginning of the football season through till the end of the school year. Though individuals involved in this program have good intentions and so far a very good success rate, it is still questionable to how qualified these individuals actually are. The NFF spends a lot of money working with athletic students, but one must ask themselves if a one week session and a bachelor degree qualifies them to "teach". Clearly, they would most likely have an even high success rate if they were to employ actual certified teachers as opposed to what they currently employ.

The most recent and comprehensive set of standards were developed and published in 1996 by the National Association or Sport and Physical Education (NASPE). The standards set by NASPE are accepted by organizations throughout the country and are being used to determine the content of coaching education programs. As these standards increase in popularity and acceptance, there would be a "standard of care" for coaches in the eyes of the law. Coaches are now required to have the training and expertise in each of the carious areas detailed in the set of standards.

The legal and ethical issues are not mutually exclusive, like other legal responsibilities, and they are based off societal ethics (doing what is right) (Engelhorn). Coaches much prevent discrimination and harassment of athletes. When coaches are in charge of athletes, they are expected to be safe, both physically and emotionally. The following is a list of legal duties adapted from the Coach Youth Sports Web Site and represents the many codes of conduct and behaviors recommended for coaches:

1. Conducting practices and games in a safe physical environment.

2. Use of current knowledge of proper skills and methods of instruction.

3. Use of safe and appropriate equipment.

4. Proper short and long term planning.

5. Proper matching of athletes in practices and games by size, experience and ability.

6. Provision of adequate supervision of athletes.

7. Providing warnings to the parents of athletes of risks in sport participation.

8. Sensitivity to the health and well-being of athletes under their care.

9. Provision of appropriate emergency care.

10. Prevent harassment and discrimination by coaching staff and athletes.

11. Report suspected child abuse to proper authorities.

12. Respect and protect the confidentiality of student personal records.

13. Report breaches of ethical behavior by colleagues.

These regulations on coaches lead academic professionals to believe that they are capable of running classrooms. With these same principles, coaches run classrooms without exact knowledge or education in the subjects that they are teaching. By doing this, students that are not catching onto the materials, but play on an academic sport, tend to pass these classes regardless. Unfortunately, coaches attach themselves to their athletes and therefore allow them to get away with failing a course but passing anyway. If they aren't passing them, they are teaching them how to drop out of school for potential early success in their athletic career (Engelhorn). The coach's ethical responsibilities are useful responsibilities that guarantee the achievement of the educational mission of an interscholastic athletic program (Engelhorn).

The function of a coach is to educate students through participation in school athletics and competition. These programs should be designed to enhance academic achievement and should never interfere with opportunities for academic success (The Coaches Code of Ethics). Each student-athlete should be treated the same as the students that are not participating in sports. Each coach should understand that they have a huge influence, good or bad, on the education of the student-athlete. Coaches should never place the value of winning above the value of instilling the highest ideals of character. A coach should be setting examples for the student-athletes in whatever setting they are in. In addition to this, the coach should also prevent the use of tobacco, alcohol and drug free from all the students they interact with.

A coach dealing with a variety of different students and student-athletes, they should be promoting more students to get into the interscholastic program. By doing this, they are encouraging students to be more active in the everyday dealings of the school environment. Also, it may help students better their attention span by giving them something to look forward to after school. Coaches must study for the classes that they are going to be teaching so not to go into the class blind. A coach shall also never exert pressure on faculty members to give student-athletes special consideration. A coach shouldn't scout opponents by any means other than those adopted by the league and/or state high school athletic regulations (The Coaches Code of Ethics).

Works Cited

Benning, T. "Texas High School Athletes Gain Grounds in Class." The Wall Street Journal.

Bow, A. "High School Coaches Salaries: In Dollars Coaches Beat Teachers." Statesman.

Cotton, H. "Athletics vs. Academics." EdWeek.

Dreams, N. "Athletes Intentionally Fail High School." 2001. SEC Football Talk.

Engelhorn, R. "Legal and Ethical Responsibilities of a Coach." Iowa's State University.

Esfarjani, B. "Coaches Focus on Academics." 2006. USA Today.

McKay, D.R. "Athletic Coach: Career Information." 2010. Career Planning.

PhD, R.W. "Are Coaches Good Classroom Teachers?" 2009. Creaters.com: A Syndicate of Talent.

Reed, J.A. "Separating Teacher, Coach Roles Would Improve Phys Ed: South Carolina Needs to Hire Physical Educators to Teach High School Students, Not Coaches." Green Villie.

Schlabach, M. "Varsity Athletes Get Class Credit: Some College Give Grades for Playing." 2004. Washington Post.

Shipp, B. "Coach Investigated over Grade-Changing Scandal." 2009. WFAA-TV.

"The Coaches Code of Ethics." 2009. National Federation of State High School Associations.

E-Learning Course Design and Mathematics

For First-Year Pharmacy Students.

INTRODUCTION

Increasingly embraced by higher-learning institutions throughout the world, e-learning may indeed be the context of the future for university learning. E-learning, also widely referred to as distance learning, provides an alternative channel through which learning takes place asynchronously; students are able to complete work at their own convenience, ideally without sacrificing content knowledge or critical understanding. For pharmacy students, distance learning can provide an invaluable medium through which they can prepare for the calculations portion of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain (RPSGB) preregistration exam, decreasing stress levels fostered by traditional classroom contexts without diluting the needed, foundational mathematics content. This project explores the most salient elements of e-learning courses with particular cognizance for the structure of mathematics, distance learning courses in an effort to design a comprehensive class for first-year pharmacy students preparing to take the RPSGB preregistration exam.

Distance learning is not a new endeavor within the United Kingdom. British education was exported throughout the nation's colonies in the form of correspondence classes, effectively disseminating the educational system of the UK to parts of Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean (Gaudelli: 97). While the age of colonization has been replaced with one of globalization, distance learning remains a widely used, albeit much contested avenue for education. The research varies widely regarding the benefits and ills of distance learning, particularly as distance learning has now become almost entirely defined by the internet (Gaudelli: 97).

There is evidence to suggest that web-based, distance learning fosters more in-depth discussion and greater student understanding then does the traditional classroom context (Gaudelli: 97). However, this heartening evidence rarely stems specifically from mathematics courses; thus, mathematics, e-learning classes warrant their own study (Gaudelli: 97).

Well documented, however, is the ability of e-learning courses to decrease student stress due to the asynchronous nature of most e-learning courses (Canales-Gonzalez & Kranz: 139). Additionally and very pertinent to this particular project is the comparatively higher level of stress experienced by students of healthcare professions (Canales-Gonzalez & Kranz: 139). The most stressful events of healthcare students are exam preparation, transition periods between school and clinical training, and a perceived lack of supports in place within their academic institution (Canales-Gonzalez & Kranz: 139).

Student stress is associated with a multiplicity of psychological and physiological ills, many of which can severely lower quality of life (Canales-Gonzalez & Kranz: 139, Gupchup, Borrego, & Konduri: 292). In their article entitled "The Impact of Student Life Stress," authors G. V. Gupchup, M. Borrego, and N. Konduri cite "in the hope of preparing students for their future roles as pharmacists, it is important to identify stressful factors that may affect their successful development" (292). The evidence from the aforementioned authors' empirical study suggests that the crux of student stress stems from time spent within the classroom specifically.

In essence, there is evidence to suggest that e-learning courses can reduce student stress, and pharmacy students are a high-risk population for student stress, particularly at transition points from graduation to the workplace; it is precisely during this transition point that students need to begin preparation for the preregistration exam. By extension, e-learning courses that can aid in preparation for the most salient components of the exam, such as the calculations portion, can mitigate the effects of stress associated with the traditional, mathematics classroom.

The following chapter explores the relevant, recent literature on e-learning in an effort to design an e-learning, preparatory course in foundational mathematics. Using examples of existing e-learning mathematics courses and empirical studies regarding optimum, e-learning design, the most salient elements of an e-learning course are identified in conjunction with common pitfalls which will be avoided during the course design. Most saliently, structural elements that promote a healthy redefinition of teacher and student roles within the context of e-learning are explored as integral to quality, e-learning design.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

While distance learning is more than a century old, e-learning is comparatively very new. The architecture of e-learning courses, by extension, remains largely experimental (Koohang & Plessis: 38). The optimum design elements for e-learning in general as well as for mathematics e-learning courses will be explored in the following review of recent, scholarly literature as will the implications of e-learning on the social context of the learning environment, the roles of teachers and students, and the ethics of academia. In synthesizing the existing literature, the most salient ways in which to design an e-learning class for first-year pharmacy students will be ascertained.

Instructional Design Elements

The challenge of e-learning course design is how to extricate the most successful elements of traditional, classroom learning and adapt to them an electronic environment whilst highlighting the strengths of electronic learning not present within a traditional environment (Koohang & Plessis: 38). The literature suggests that such course design focuses equally on instruction, or course content, and usability, or the delivery of the content (Koohang & Plessis: 38). In their article entitled "Architecting Usability Properties," authors A. Koohang and J. Plessis contend that "instruction is the doing and usability is how the doing is facilitated and optimized. Usability in an e-learning context refers to diverse things such as the platform specifications; screen layout; the navigational system and structure; the esthetic qualities of a product or platform; and all the traits that promote user-friendliness. All these aspects then support instruction, and consequently instructional design for e-learning" (38). By extension, instructional design and usability ideally complement each other in an e-learning environment.

Usability in E-Learning

How usable an e-learning course is depends on wholly on the following factors: effectiveness, efficiency, reliability, flexibility, and aesthetic (Koohang & Plessis: 38). In essence, the course must be easily navigated and visually pleasing, lest the instructional design will be ineffective regardless of its stand-alone efficacy. Koohang and Plessis cite that "the interface design has to reflect consistency; consistency in the layout, the use of graphical features, and the use of categorization structures and fonts. The visual impression has to be clean. This avoidance of clutter implies an interface design that adheres to the principles of minimalism" (38). Additionally vital considerations in usability are high-contrast between text and screen background, soft color combinations that are not daunting to the eye, and a general level of consistency between the aesthetic of the design and the content of the course.

The bridge between usability and instructional design is the communicative component of an e-learning course, as interactive options such as video conferencing, instant messaging, threaded discussions and student-to-student or teacher-to-student discussions are paramount within an electronic classroom (Koohang & Plessis: 38); such communicative elements promote synchronous learning as opposed to a purely asynchronous course. Koohang and Plessis rightfully assert that e-learning courses "of today and the future will be judged not just by how well given technologies are implemented, but also by the choice of onboard technologies and tools to expand the possibilities of communication between all those participating in the e-learning event, as well as the communication or interactivity between learner and content" (38).

Instruction in E-Learning

Regardless of the usability of an e-learning course, however, the instructional component of the course is crucial, as it is within any learning environment. Clear delineation of course objectives at the onset of a course is vital to student success, as is continual teacher-student and student-student communication (Sadik & Reisman: 157). While e-learning is known to foster a higher level of independency in learning than the traditional classroom, critical is it for teachers to maintain control of their electronic classroom through clear-cut deadlines and frequent messaging. Perhaps most saliently, there is substantial evidence to suggest that ways in which to design an e-learning course depend wholly on the subject to be taught.

Mathematics and E-Learning

In contrast to humanities courses, mathematics and science courses have proven to have their own unique place within the context of e-learning. Several empirical studies have concluded that mathematics, e-learning courses should incorporate synchronous elements as much possible, such as video lecturing and instant messaging (Sadik & Reisman: 157, Robinson & Latchem: 152). Additionally, teachers should incorporate a multiplicity of real-world examples for the teaching of mathematic content, charging students to reframe abstract, mathematical concepts as relevant to their lives. There is evidence to suggest that a formidable ill of e-learning, mathematics courses is the failure of the teacher to intervene in student-to-student discussions when there is apparent confusion over a concept (Sadik & Reisman: 157).

While the precise content and instructional design of existing mathematics e-learning courses varies widely, most include online tutors, message boards, calculators, and, in some instances, online textbooks (Corey & Bower: 321). The electronic tutor allows students to e-mail a question to a tutor and have it answered promptly; this is in contrast to the online calculators which are fully automated.

The best practices in mathematics e-learning, however, invoke the use of audiovisual media (Robinson & Latchem: 152). The use of real-time lectures in which teachers can demonstrate abstract concepts thoroughly and answer pertinent questions are integral to mathematics e-learning. Additionally, downloadable visual media demonstrations of how theoretical or abstract concepts can be applied to everyday situations or situations which may be encountered within the professional environment are critical (Robinson & Latchem: 152). While the literature on mathematics assessment within the e-learning environment is scant, the existing research suggests that multiple-choice practice quizzes do not enhance learning, and the use of alternative assessments should be used within the e-learning context whenever possible (Harter & Harter: 507).

In essence, mathematics e-learning requires less asynchronous learning and more audiovisual demonstration of abstract concepts; this can be easily included within the instructional design of a course, however, through constant interaction between teachers, tutors, and students and the integration of practical examples (Robinson & Latchem: 195). Cultivating the social context of e-learning is then crucial to a mathematics course.

The Social Context of E-Learning

The social context of any learning environment is the place in which students interact with one another and, ideally, make sense of the course content (Amelung: 501). Discussion boards, instant messaging, and chat rooms are all integral to the social context of e-learning, and particularly salient to the mathematics, e-learning environment. The flexibility of the learning process within an e-learning environment aids in fostering genuine connections between students, even if the course is delivered in an entirely asynchronous manner (Adeoye & Wentling 2007: 119).

Redefining Roles for E-Learning

In addition to the learning environment, the roles of teacher and student are forcefully influenced by the e-learning context. In his article entitled "Distance Learning," author N. Dabbagh writes that "traditional face-to-face learning environments have long been associated with classroom instruction in which the teacher is the expert, the main deliverer of knowledge, and the sole assessor of student learning" (37). Within the e-learning environment, the teacher should remain true to their roles within the traditional classrooms, remaining the proverbial cornerstone of effective curriculum delivery. The challenge is to remain a teacher within an e-learning environment rather than merely a transmitter of information or a course coordinator (Khine: 127).

The e-learning context also redefines the role of the student. The use of embodied agents (avatars), for instance, is highly controversial. From one perspective, avatars provide a valuable vehicle for simulating actual, interpersonal interaction. However, critics of avatars contend that their use impedes genuine interaction and relegates the learning environment to a lighthearted, casual context (Mahmood & Ferneley: 143). Regardless of whether avatars are used, however, the role of the student within an e-learning context is one of self-direction, as his or her identity is entirely construed within an electronic environment.

By extension, students who are particularly successful within the e-learning environment are independent and autonomous, able to cope well without face-to-face interaction between teacher and student. Time management is then a critical element in e-learning, as students need to be motivated to complete the work on their own, outside of a classroom context (Hsu & Shiue: 143).

Ethical Issues of E-Learning

One of the most salient ethical considerations with respect to e-learning is then how to create equality within the electronic classroom when there are clearly students who are able to work well independently and others who struggle with the independence of the e-learning environment (Char-Chellman: 95). In her article entitled "Desperate Technologists," author A. Char-Chellman writes "while it may be true that online education offers anonymity, and open access which invites diversity, there is nothing inherent in the characteristics of the online media itself which forces any sense of confrontation or contact with that diversity" (95). More saliently, the nature of distance learning may be unfairly biased against socioeconomically challenged populations who have not had similar amounts of interaction with the technology to their comparatively socioeconomically fortunate counterparts (Char-Chellman 95); such populations may also not have access to the required technology for the class in the convenience of their own homes and be consequently confined by public library hours.

Other literature suggests that distance learning receptivity is also influenced by gender, with women having a slight proclivity for visual learning and thus not as adept within the distant learning classroom as their male counterparts (Zhang: 45). However, the literature concurrently suggests that this difference may be mitigated by higher levels of organization, responsibility, and independency among female learners (Zhang: 45).

Synthesis

In synthesizing the current literature in an effort to define the most salient elements of e-learning, the following key points emerge:

- Usability in conjunction with instructional design are crucial and complementary elements of any e-learning course

- The efficacy of mathematics e-learning courses is enhanced by audiovisual media, real-world examples of abstract concepts, teacher-student communication, and synchronous instruction

- Cultivation of the social component of an electronic classroom is crucial and done through chat rooms, discussion boards, and other forms of student-to-student communication

- The role of the teacher is critical, as he or she must work hard to maintain a position as the facilitator of learning

- The role of the student is altered as well, as he or she does not have the same interpersonally represented identity as he or she has within a traditional classroom

- A critical ethical issue is that delivery of electronic instruction may be unfairly biased against socioeconomically challenged populations

In designing an e-learning course that would prepare pharmacy students for the calculations component on the preregistration exam, crucial is it to consider the recent literature reviewed herein, as it provides a firm foundation for ascertaining the most effective elements of mathematics, e-learning courses.

Summation

The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has cited that distance learning is the most promising technological development with respect to education, as it holds the power to substantially increase access to education in areas of the world where quality education is elusive (Perraton & Lentell: 249). While e-learning has plateaued slightly during recent years, it remains a deeply ingrained component in most major universities, delivering at least basic, prerequisite courses to working, multigenerational populations (Hogarth & Dawson: 87). For pharmacy students entrenched within the stressful transition period between graduation and taking the preregistration exam, a preparatory mathematics class could be an invaluable course offering, preparing them for not only the calculations portion of the exam but also future encounters with real-world use of mathematics. By extension, the most salient component of this course may be the inclusion of a variety of practical mathematics skills that pharmacists use within their profession.

In essence, e-learning remains a new enterprise despite its widespread delivery. In his text entitled E-Learning Strategies, author D. Morrison writes that "the challenges for e-learning lie in the short and medium term: in the short term because enterprise learning departments are being tasked with making e-learning work effectively using what are still embryonic tools; in the medium term because all e-learning practitioners are struggling to develop a clear and imaginative vision that will give direction to their current efforts and mollify those making substantial investments in e-learning's promises" (XI). This literature review will serve as the foundation for an "imaginative vision" for a workable, effective mathematics course for first-year pharmacy students.

The best practices in e-learning education are rooted in maintaining the effective strategies of the traditional classroom whilst using the available technology to increase accessibility to and delivery of quality education. This project will focus on providing a critical channel through which pharmacy students can prepare for the preregistration exam, providing an invaluable, flexible avenue for learning during one of the most stressful times in their university careers. Using the information yielded by this comprehensive search of recent, scholarly literature, the following section will discuss the methodology and evaluative procedures for course design, aiming to delineate concrete hypotheses for the outcomes of this course delivery. The literature review was successful in yielding the most salient components of e-learning, with particular emphasis afforded to instruction design, mathematics education, ethical issues, and teacher-student roles. By extension, design of the course incorporates all of the key elements birthed from the literature.

References

Adeoye, B., & Wentling, R. M. The Relationship between National Culture and the Usability of an E-learning System. International Journal on ELearning, 6(1), 119+.

Amelung, C. Using Social Context and E-learner Identity as a Framework for an E-learning Notification System. International Journal on ELearning, 6(4), 501+.

Canales-Gonzales, P. L., & Kranz, P. L. Perceived Stress by Students in a Pharmacy Curriculum. Education, 129(1), 139+.

Carr-Chellman, A. A. Desperate Technologists: Critical Issues in E-Learning and Implications for Higher Education. Journal of Thought, 41(1), 95+.

Corey, D. L., & Bower, B. L. The Experiences of an African American Male Learning Mathematics in the Traditional and the Online Classroom-a Case Study. The Journal of Negro Education, 74(4), 321+.

Dabbagh, N. Distance Learning: Emerging Pedagogical Issues and Learning Designs. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 5(1), 37+.

Gal-Ezer, J., & Zur, E. Reaching out to Cs Teachers: Certification Via Distance Learning. Mathematics and Computer Education, 41(3), 250+.

Gaudelli, W. (2006). Convergence of Technology and Diversity: Experiences of Two Beginning Teachers in Web-Based Distance Learning for Global/multicultural Education. Teacher Education Quarterly, 33(1), 97.

Gupchup, G. V., Borrego, M. E., & Konduri, N. The Impact of Student Life Stress on Health Related Quality of Life among Doctor of Pharmacy Students. College Student Journal, 38(2), 292+.

Harter, C. L., & R Harter, J. F. Teaching with Technology: Does Access to Computer Technology Increase Student Achievement?. Eastern Economic Journal, 30(4), 507+.

Hogarth, K., & Dawson, D. Implementing E-learning in Organisations: What E-learning Research Can Learn from Instructional Technology (It) and Organisational Studies (Os) Innovation Studies. International Journal on ELearning, 7(1), 87+.

Hsu, Y., & Shiue, Y. The Effect of Self-Directed Learning Readiness on Achievement Comparing Face-to-Face and Two-Way Distance Learning Instruction. International Journal of Instructional Media, 32(2), 143+.

Khine, M. S. Strategic Use of Digital Learning Resources in Designing E-Lessons. International Journal of Instructional Media, 33(2), 127+.

Kirkwood, A., & Joyner, C. Chapter 8 Selecting and Using Media in Teacher Education. In Teacher Education through Open and Distance Learning, Robinson, B. & Latchem, C. (Eds.) (pp. 149-170). New York: Routledge.

Koohang, A., & Plessis, J. D. Architecting Usability Properties in the E-learning Instructional Design Process. International Journal on ELearning, 3(3), 38+.

Mahmood, A. K., & Ferneley, E. Embodied Agents in E-Learning Environments: An Exploratory Case Study. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 17(2), 143+.

Morrison, D. E-Learning Strategies: How to Get Implementation and Delivery Right First Time. New York: Wiley.

Perraton, H. & Lentell, H. (Eds.). Policy for Open and Distance Learning. New York: RoutledgeFalmer.
Robinson, B. & Latchem, C. (Eds.). Teacher Education through Open and Distance Learning. New York: Routledge.

Sadik, A., & Reisman, S. Design and Implementation of a Web-based Learning Environment: Lessons Learned. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 5(3), 157+.

Zhang, Y. Distance Learning Receptivity: Are They Ready Yet?. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 6(1), 45+.

Do Students Really Need Harvard Education?

English Composition II

In this essay author Greg Easterbrook argues that the only major difference between the so-called prestige colleges and universities such as, Harvard, Yale and Smith, and the next lower level of private and state colleges is the prestige of the name itself. He claims that the competition to get into these schools is fierce but it does not necessarily reflect the quality of education at other schools. He argues that what college a student attends has little impact on earnings or social standing later in life. Variables such as; hard work, intelligence, grades, and personality are more effective determinants of future success than the school one attends. Easterbrook illustrates this by comparing the income of graduates from prestige colleges to graduates of lesser colleges 20 years later and finds that they make similar incomes. This article was interesting because it provided a strong example of the importance of hard work and intelligence in determining ones future rather than how prestige schools improved your chances of a better future.

Easterbrook's argument was successful in several ways. First, he used both logos arguments to support his claim that one did not need to attend a prestige college to be successful. There are several examples of this throughout the text. For instance, he compares pay rates of individuals with and without degrees from prestige colleges 20 years after graduating. Easterbrook also cites the fact that most corporate CEO's several celebrities including Steven Spielberg and several U.S Congressman attended public colleges or lower tier private colleges rather than prestige schools. These are typical examples of why it is more cost effective to attend a public school or lower tier private school depending on what you intend to major in and while Easterbrook uses similar examples throughout the essay these are the easiest for the reader to understand.

Another powerful argument put forth by Easterbrook is that emphasizing the value of prestige colleges over public colleges or lower level private colleges may cause psychological and self-esteem problems in students who are rejected from prestige schools due to pressure and disappointment from parents. This argument makes sense in light of the problems adjusting that many college freshman and sophomores experience. This was the one arguments that speaks to the use of pathos in Easterbrook's argument because he is appealing to parents that may not realize that they are harming their child by doing this.

Easterbrook's writing style is clear and easy to read and he supports the argument that one does not need a degree from a prestige college or university to succeed by using examples of successful people who did not graduate from prestige schools, and by comparing non-prestige and prestige schools to each other in order to demonstrate that prestige schools do not necessarily offer a higher quality education or a wider variety of majors and classes.

There are several negative aspects of this article as well. Easterbrook focuses far too much and details. For instance where comparing one or two prestige schools such as, Harvard or Stanford with one or two lower tier schools like Tufts, or the University of Vermont would have been simpler and more effective, Easterbrook feels the need to cite each and every single one of the prestige colleges and universities and all of the top public colleges and universities and lower tier private colleges. This detracts greatly from Easterbrook's argument as one gets to caught up in reading through nearly a half a page of college and university names. Not only does he do this once, he continues these patterns throughout the paper.

The second critical issue with this paper is that he uses too many examples. One or two examples would adequately support his argument without giving his readers several pages of data to read through. He does include critical information about choosing colleges and how schools from different tiers match up however; this important information tends to get lost in all of his examples and details. These arguments are the meat of his argument, and the details should just be used to support the argument not overwhelm the argument with too much detail and too many examples.

This article is important because it points out to students and parents that they are not necessarily getting the most for their money or their time when students are pressured to apply for or to attend prestige colleges such as, Harvard. While these schools do have a lot to offer, student's go to considerable expense to attend these schools yet, 20 years after graduation do not make significantly more money than peers who graduated from public institutions. This is valuable information not only in terms of the current economy but in terms of helping students understand it is not where you attend college but what you learn that is important.

It can be concluded that determining what college to attend is an important decision for parents and young adults. Easterbrook's article attempts to help parents and students come to that decision. However; the article is overwhelmed by the sheer number of examples and details that Easterbrook uses to support his argument. The goal of an argumentative essay is to be short and to the point which this argument fails to do. This article is well suited for anyone attempting to make a choice of which college to attend.

Bibliography

Easterbrook, Greg. "Who needs Harvard? The pressure on smart kids to get into top schools has never been higher. But the differences between these schools and the next tier down have never been smaller." The Atlantic: 128-133.

Ethnographic Research and Education

Ethnography is defined as a social science research method which is reliant on personal experience beyond mere observation (Genzuk). Ethnographic researchers commonly work in teams possessing skills in a variety of professional fields, as the objective of ethnographic studies may include language development, education in culture, and a combination of research methods. Usually, ethnographic research employs interviewing, qualitative descriptions, and documentation as a secondary data source for the purpose of collecting information. Such an approach resultantly generates multiple types of data. Generally such research will be constructed and read similar to a narrative, using various visual aids or artifacts to convey the experience (Hammersley). Models for ethnographic research can provide a foundation for new development, new variables to analyze, and the facilitating for empirical assessments. The following will consider the principles of ethnographic studies in a variety of contexts, while maintaining a primary focus on education. A case study concerning education will also be discussed and related to ethnographic approaches and principles.

Education and the Principles of Ethnographic Research

The principles of ethnographic research involve the use of loosely structured qualitative analysis while approaching a specific element of human behavior which has seen little exploration, for the purpose of obtaining new information. Often the aim is to further suggest improvements to some procedural element in addition to expanding the current knowledge base, while this is highly applicable to the language classroom.

The principles of ethnographic research are rooted in anthropology and sociology. Modern practitioners will organize this type of research in full spectrum of locations, as the practitioners seek to observe education, health, the development of infrastructure, consumerism, and many other fields which can be related to anthropology and sociology. Such approaches to this area have developed into excellent ways for exploring topics within research, while ethnography itself considers a spectrum of qualitative and quantitative approaches alike. Methods in this type of research also serve as a great way of obtaining the opinions of the locals people, while simultaneously providing a way to locate specific data related to human behavior and culture through personal face-to-face communication (Moll and Greenburg; Genzuk).

Ethnography serves to improve and expand top-down perspective, which improves the process of answering research questions and testing hypotheses. It further serves to obtain information from the bottom-up perspective and the opinions of high ranking authorities, and it also creates new viewpoints through motivating group exploration of the more subtle aspects of anthropology and sociology. Researchers gain the ability to present the results of their work while suggesting improvements in the area of policy or program development (Genzuk). Thus, the research programs are designed to facilitate innovation as the topics themselves consider areas which are more subtle in terms of documented scientific research.

Hammersley explained that the ethnography refers to specific social research based on specific elements and principles. The first is that the behavior of individuals is to be observed in terms of their normal daily life, rather than through unusual experimental conditions developed by the researcher which may alter the behavior of those observed. Secondly, information may obtained from a large variety of sources, however, direct personal observance with the possibility of informal interviews should serve as the primary sources in the typical case. Furthermore, the approach to obtaining data should not be overly structured, while a looser designed approach allows for certain useful freedoms; the lack of a thoroughly premeditated plan and specifically outlined categories designed for the purpose of interpreting the response of participants allows the researcher to implement specific measures as felt to be required for the potentially changing circumstances. Meanwhile, the emphasis is typically on a specific audience or a specific location within the environment. This is typically conducted on a smaller (or even statistically minute) scale. Lastly, the analysis of the obtained information includes the interpretation of the meaning and operations of human behavior, while this is normally found to be best considered in oral accounts and depictions. Here the emphasis is on qualitative findings, while quantitative assessments typically play little to no role.

The language classroom is particularly benefited by ethnographic research as it takes a practical approach to learning about the immediate community, which is naturally the environment that classrooms are most concerned with. The improvement of classroom activities and academic programs are the objective of some studies, and naturally there is thus potential that the effectiveness of language education can rise substantially in this. Overall, ethnographic research is less specific and technically sophisticated than other approaches to improving education, however the inherent freedom in the unstructured pursuit of specific data allows it to address key issues in the field of education; this can directly aim to improve the elements of educational structure and design through any fashion which can be detected in this research.

In terms of research methodology specifically, there are three principles further relevant to education, as supplied by Hammersley. These principles are naturalism, understanding, and discovery. According to Genzuk, these principles are commonly the foundation of criticism towards the majority of quantitative methods, while the conditions surrounding this approach commonly include the alteration of circumstances which are prevalent in the genuine functioning environment (and thus are argued to facilitate inaccuracy.) Naturalism relates the perspective that the objective of social research is to outline the natural character of individuals, while studies of this as applicable to students or faculty commonly benefits the field of education. This considers the true and natural state of the target audience, and further aims to obtain new information from the specific selected setting in this manner. Meanwhile, principle of understanding makes distinctions between the actions of people and those of objects and animals. Occasionally this principle will facilitate the rejection of causality in terms of social context, while this allows for a more through consideration of the social environment of academic audiences. Lastly, the principle of discovery is most relevant to language education, as it actively seeks to provide innovation to the educational program or structure being assessed (Genzuk). Naturally, such elements are considered the justification for results, and thus discovery is a highly respected principle in the academic world.

Case Study and Concluding Remarks

We can consider an independent case study and its implications in an informal manner with the approaches to ethnographic research. An English as a second language (ESL) course was being taught to Spanish students within a Scottish college across two separate courses taught by two different instructors. The differences between the elements of this niche group were analyzed, as well as the teaching approaches and results of performance across the courses. According to the students, one course employed the "learning by teaching method" in which students would be required to teach each other by discussing their assignments in the class lectures. Furthermore, this class was required to do a great deal more research than the other course for their assignments. Following these facts coming to light, students were interviewed in attempt to determine the grading schematics and average level of performance within the class. It was discovered that the grading difficulty was the same for each class, while this provided an excellent way to compare the results. Indeed, the students in the class employing the unique teaching performance were outperforming the students in the other class. From this observation, we can easily see that the specialized teaching methods are more effective for ESL. Meanwhile, the observance of the ethnographic principles allowed for the freedom in interviewing and investigated required to make some deduction, and the results could easily be used as the basis of future innovation.

References

Genzuk, M. A synthesis for ethnographic research. Center for Multilingual, Multicultural Research, Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California: Los Angeles.

Hammersley, M. Reading Ethnographic Research: A Critical Guide. London: Longman.

Moll, L., and Greenberg, J. Creating Zones of Possibilities: Combining Social Constructs for Instruction. In: L.C. Moll (ed.) Vygotsky and Education: Instructional Implications and Applications of Sociohistorical Psychology, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Bilingualism Paper

Introduction

One of the earliest definitions of bilingualism consisted of using the term to define the native-like use of two languages by the same individual, but later academic scholars have broadened the scope of this definition to include other aspects in order to account for the influx of immigration into various areas around the globe and the need for these immigrants to speak two languages without an expert amount of fluency. These scholars used the term 'incipient bilingualism' to describe a person who is at the beginning stages of acquiring a new language and only has a small amount of fluency in both languages. They used the term 'balanced bilingualism' to describe individuals who have an equal amount of competence in two languages, both the new language and their native tongue (Bilingualism and translanguaging). A good majority of second and third generation Americans who have different cultural backgrounds and had parents or grandparents who were immigrants from Mexico or other such countries actually can be classified as being balanced bilinguals because they are proficient in both languages and can use these in any kind of setting when the need arises. This paper intends to explore the benefits of bilingualism, the challenges of bilingualism, and also attempts to analyze research and theories pertaining to bilingualism.

Benefits of Bilingualism

There can be many benefits of having fluency in more than one language, especially if an individual finds himself outside of his normal environment and culture. Presently, in the United States, there is a large Hispanic population as well as a rising population of Chinese and other cultural groups who do not predominantly speak English as a first language. If an individual has the ability to communicate in the language of one of those cultural groups while in the presence of the groups, it makes bridging the cultural gap much easier for each individual concerned (Byram).

There is the ability to perform routine transactions at the supermarket and have daily conversations in public and private settings. There is the ability to communicate information needed that could be of importance, such as asking for directions or requesting the phone number for the nearest physician or hospital. Any individual with the ability to speak fluently in another language automatically has an advantage if ever put into that cultural environment because he is able to survive much easier simply because the communication barrier has been lowered and there is less chance of an issue arising due to problems with different meanings of phrases or different connotations of words being used to describe certain objects or people.

Challenges of Bilingualism

It has been widely reported that the majority of individuals who speak two languages with fluency have the ability to do this because it has become somewhat of a second nature to them as a result of the need to learn the second language due to family needs, employment changes, or educational demands. However, as a whole, the population has been hesitant to embrace bilingualism in the past. Much of this is simply due to fear.

The first type of fear described by the population concerns that of societal pressure. The second is fear felt strictly by the individual, but the two fears are often linked together. There is an apprehension felt by many parents who come from a unilingual background and are put into an environment where there is somewhat of a need to be bilingual. These parents feel pressure to know the language, understand the language, and ensure their children understand and can communicate effectively also. Alternately, the bilingual individuals feel isolated when they are the minority in a population of unilingual individuals because they do not wish to bring attention to themselves or their children because of the fact they know more than one language (Beardsmore). There is also a fear by some parents that the capability to speak multiple languages will cause a problem with the development of the mainly accepted language of that particular time in society. This basically consists of a fear that, if a child understands both English and French and lives in a predominantly French speaking area, the child would be linguistically lacking in his developmental ability to properly speak grammatically correct French at an upper educational level although he may be capable of carrying on a conversation with anyone in the area in the correct dialect (Beardsmore). With that being said, research has indicated that it may be truthful in the assumption that it takes a bit longer for a child who can speak multiple languages to achieve an equal level of skilled competence with both when compared to peers who can only speak one language. It is possible, though.

Another common fear that ties into the issue of bilingualism is the fear of losing one's traditional ethnicity through the course of the years. If a bilingual child is a true bilingual in the aspect that each parent has a different-type language background (i.e. one parent is Mexican and the other is Chinese), the parents may fear the children will choose to abandon one set of ethnic values for the most popular or accepted values dependent on the societal environment in which they presently live. This will cause them to lose a part of themselves over the course of several years. While this is true in a sense, we are all evolving in some way and adapt other cultural practices to some extent throughout our lifetimes. Many times we do not even realize this happens until it is called to our attention (Beardsmore).

Beardsmore believes if a bilingual individual's two ethnic cultures are mutually exclusive, it is almost impossible to join them in harmony. It is also quite difficult to determine if the stress factor of a child recently who recently emigrated from a foreign country is due to the results of immigration from the old land or the attempt at immersion into the new land. It is the strong belief of Beardsmore that, for a successful immigration and immersion process to happen, no matter the country, an individual must choose which ethnic group he or she will most identify with and adopt that set of values, beliefs, and cultures. This will make the process more 'doable' and decrease the amount of time it takes for the child to perform successfully in school.

Discussion and Analysis of Linguistic Research and Theories

One theory, the theory of social identity, makes the suggestion that individuals relate to others in two different ways. Those are the interpersonal and intergroup behaviors. An intergroup behavior would be shown if elements in an individual's environment presented themselves to where they were noticeable enough that it caused a specific definition of characteristics by those who were in charge of the group (Byram). Whatever elements the leaders of the group have will reflect on every person in the group and, thus, the intergroup behavior would be subject to noticeability. This is often evident in groups of bilingual speaking individuals.

Conversely, the relation on interpersonal behavior would be the behavior a person innately holds even when he or she is not part of a group or may hold if he or she is part of a different group but finds him or herself in the presence of a different kind of group. During this particular social identity display, the person normally chooses to hide or camouflage the interpersonal behavior known by them and react as he would if he was actually a part of the group in which he was placed at that moment of time (Byram).

Experts have theorized that the acquisition of a new language is innately determined by an individual's biology and the critical time for this acquisition to be implemented is from approximately age 2 through the beginning of puberty. If an individual learns a second language before puberty, he normally has very little accent compared to an adult's acquisition to learning a second language after puberty has been achieved. Upon completion of two studies, it was found that the participants' pronunciation skills after three years of learning a second language were better in those students who were much younger than in the older students and the accents were thicker in the older students (Collier).

There is a significant difference between the term 'balanced bilingual' and 'dominant bilingual'. A balanced bilingual has an equal level of competence and knowledge in both his mother tongue and the second language he has acquired at some point in the course of his life. A dominant bilingual is a person who has a very high level knowledge of the complex aspects of both the mother tongue and the second language he has acquired at some point in the course of his life. It is important to understand that the ability to use both languages effectively and equally is not going to be equal for every person; however, it will be dependent upon the cognitive abilities of an individual's learning capabilities as to how much material he has the capability to successfully master at a complex level (Dimensions and measurement of bilinguality and bilingualism).

The largest difference between early and late bilingualism in the manner in which they are acquired has to do with the age of acquisition. The native language learned by an individual, acquired as a child, will be different from every other language learned because the child will acquire this first language in more of a social context and there will be no other means to compare it with another language. This applies to any sounds, phonetics, enunciations, and other processes by which the child learns to speak. The second and other subsequent languages that are learned will be compared to this first language as far as differences in the words and how they sound as far as language patterns and other aspects (The study of bilingual children).

An individual with a superior knowledge of bilingualism will most likely have an overlap of two or even more languages to a certain degree. It is normal for children to acquire this level of bilingualism quicker than adults due to the fact many of these children are overlapping the languages because they are simultaneously learning two languages in the home or learning one language in the home at the same time as learning the other language in a day care setting or other educational setting whereas adults will have proficiently learned one language at a superior level and attempt to begin the acquisition of a second language after that. The children learning two or more languages at the same time or at a quicker pace have been determined to have a better level of phonetic and auditory abilities than adults who have attempted the acquisition of a second language (The study of bilingual children).

When a second language is concerned, the conversational level of fluency is normally acquired by two years of an individual's beginning the acquisition process. However, it normally takes at least five years in order to communicate at the level of a native speaker or on a superior academic level. It is important to understand bilingual students and support them, especially during the beginning of their academic acquisition process, in order to ensure their transition into mainstream society so they will communicate effectively (Cummins).

In studies conducted to determine how easily language acquisition is for children, it was found that children aged 7 to 9 normally performed the best of all age groups when taught a second language over the course of nine months. This is most likely evident due to the fact that younger children have not quite mastered all of the skills necessary to be superior in their enunciation and oral fluency of their native language, thus causing the acquisition of a second language to prove a bit more challenging than a group of 7 to 9 year olds who have mastered these skills already (Collier).

A study was performed on English language learners attending U.S. public schools and consisted of development workshops and teacher study groups as well as action research projects, coursework that was ESL approved, and an online discussion. The participants took part in all of the projects and then met for a focus group to share their experiences. There were four themes found to be present in the analysis of the data: a view of teaching as a nonlocal activity, the view of teaching as a neutral act, conflicting attitudes about bilingual and ESOL education, and surface level knowledge of various cultural issues.

It was found through this study that multilingual education is the best way to help future generations of students prepare for the various societies and environmental conditions in which they will ultimately take part (Hornberger). When speaking of multilingual education, it is important to understand this education is about much more than one method of teaching and one method of learning. It is about understanding and recognizing various cultural views across the globe and helping students understand how education can be used to bridge the gaps that may linger between societies.

It is important to note that for minority individuals, bilingualism acquisition through education is of utmost priority. It is necessary in most cases when these individuals immigrate to a new country and begin working and immersing themselves into the mainstream society. They must acquire some conversational level of bilingualism if they are to carry on intelligent conversations, perform currency transfers, perform daily tasks, and a plethora of other routine duties that we commonly take for granted (Linguistic human rights in education?).

Conclusion

It is important that the educational system recognize the importance of incorporating bilingualism in schools so that more intercultural exchanges are available and there is opportunity for growth inside and outside of the school system. It is also important to not forget about the native speakers of the majority population and remember they need to learn the language that is becoming more accepted during the present day as well. In the United States, the Hispanic population has been growing at an exponential rate. There are masses of individuals who speak little to no Spanish and they must be introduced to this language if there is any hope at a level of communication to help bridge a cultural gap between the Hispanics living in American (who are second and third generation Hispanics, thus are American citizens) and native born Caucasian or African American citizens who have lived in the United States for centuries. While older individuals may resist this change, younger individuals understand to a greater extent the significance of having the ability to communicate with the different groups and how important this factor is for every day operations.

References

Beardsmore, H. B. (n.d.). Who's afraid of bilingualism. In Bilingualism: Beyond Basic Principles (pp. 10-27).

(n.d.). Bilingualism and translanguaging. In Bilingualism and Education (pp. 42-72).

Byram, M. (n.d.). On being 'bicultural' and 'intercultural'. In Intercultural Experience and Education (pp. 50-66).

Collier, V. The effect of age for acquisition of a second language for school. New Focus, 2.

Cummins, J. (n.d.). BICS and CALP: Origins and rationale for the distinction.

Dantas-Whitney, M., & Waldschmidt, E. Moving toward critical culture consciousness in ESOL and bilingual teacher education. Bilingual Research Journal, 32(1), 60-76.

(n.d.). Dimensions and measurement of bilinguality and bilingualism.

Hornberger, N. Multilingual education policy and practice: Ten certainties (grounded in Indigenous experience). Language Teaching, 42(2), 197-211.

(n.d.). Linguistic human rights in education? In Multilingual Education (pp. 567-608).

(n.d.). The study of bilingual children.

The Influence of Educational Psychology on Natural Learning

Observations and research from the varied specialties of educational psychology, and cognitive studies in the educational system offer a number of clues on teaching methods. These methods can complement natural learning in human beings. It is, however, essential that one looks at the reasons as to why the educational system is failing as well as clues on the appropriate ways of fixing the issues behind the problem. However, it is quite difficult to integrate or incorporate the findings in the framework of the obsolete system that was initially aimed at catering for the industrial age.

It has, however, been imperative that there be collaboration between educational psychology and organizational psychology in analyzing how a part would fit into the system. A student refers to any individual that is undergoing through a long-term and structured process of learning. The system refers to the governing bodies charged with the responsibility of providing the necessary guidance in the learning process (Vellutino et al). Going by the definition of the student and in relation to the period that they are educated in, they are living dynamic lifestyles. It is unfortunate; however, that the student is subjected to outdated process of learning that does not sufficiently offer the guidance that is necessary to give the student the capability to excel in these times where skills are in high demand.

According to Vellutino et al, education aims at improving the quality of life. As much as the definition of the quality of life would be subjective, it is possible to come up with measures that are objective and relevant to the current age. This is, however, lacking in the education system thereby limiting the capability of the student to attain better standards of living. According to Smith& Hudgins, the education system also lacks the appropriate guidance on how students can live as well as make a living today. This has not only caused suffering in students but also in the global economy as well as the future sustainability and is likely to continue unless concrete measures are taken to assuage the situation.

Tuckman& Monetti asserts that educational psychology places emphasis on the necessity of breaking down the components making up a particular educational system. With educational psychology, it is possible to come up with ways of separating the education tools as well as the things that ease the process of learning a skill. This is because it would be easy to apply the learnt tools to the process of learning a particular skill. For instance, when one has mastered how to type, it would no longer be necessary to focus on where one's fingers go but rather on one's direction though the process in the document one is typing.

According to Vaughn et al, once an individual has learnt how to read, they would be able to process information needed to solve particular problems based on knowledge pertaining to similar problems encountered or documented in the past. However, it is ironical that most of the people who can type without looking at the keyboard would be hard pressed to recite its layout from memory. It, therefore, begs the question whether education systems just teach us the knowledge tools by memorizing the keyboard layout rather than on how to use it effectively. Tuckman & Monetti argues that educational psychology and cognitive studies outline the parts of the brain activated by differences between the attainment of muscle memory or intrinsic knowledge and the downside of teaching mastery via rote drilling.

Vellutino et al asserts that rote memorization would not only be ineffective but also unnecessary as it would be tantamount to memorizing the keyboard layout in order to know how to type or even learning all the grammar rules so as to learn how to speak in a particular language. Research has shown that incorporating the knowledge on large and specific scale would enhance retaining the necessary knowledge (Vellutino et al). This will eliminate the educational systems that totally hinder the mechanisms of teaching. These mechanisms foster not only efficient but also dynamic learning systems capable of being customized to allow for nurturing the distinctive needs of every student.

This paper delves into selected educational psychology components that have to be integrated strategically in the educational system and propose solutions on how these components may be integrated to avert a clash with bureaucracy, politics, as well as administrative policies. This way, it would be possible to by-pass the distractions that hinder us from modifying our educational system and rather put all the focus on appropriate nurturing of students to enhance their pursuit of happiness with the mentorship and guidance necessary for success.

Phases in education psychology.

Teacher Preparation

According to Byrne & Fielding, the importance of teacher preparation in enhancing the classroom-based learning environment cannot be gainsaid. In the student, centered, cooperative, direct, and explicit stages of instructing the students, there is no ideal form of instruction. All forms of learning should be strategically balanced as to maximize student learning. Conventional education systems place a lot of emphasis in direct teaching than our trends that lean on organic methodology of teaching in which teachers would be facilitating peer instruction. This system in my view would be very effective in meeting the demand for high attainment of skills. Spoon feeding students on information would allow for mental redundancy since no effort would be geared towards processing of information.

However, it does not render direct teaching as entirely inappropriate in any way. It would only be crucial if done in proper timing. In enhancing the learning process, the students may be allowed to find out on their own solutions to particular problems then learn the techniques. Alternatively, they could be guided systematic prior to allowing them to perform on their own. There is no uniformity in the appropriateness of a particular method of instructing the students. The appropriateness of a particular method would be dependent on the learning style of a particular student. This underlines the importance of teachers collectively being more sensitive to the learning styles of particular students and customizing their instructions in accordance with the student's level of dependence (Vaughn et al).

Research has shown that on discovering the level of dependence, the students may be guided in ways that enhance their learning. Initial emphasis should be on direct instruction then practicum later or passive experiential-based learning then explicit reflection. Given the impossible nature of customizing the learning process to the masses, it would be necessary that a supplemental educational system identify how an individual's characteristic traits and skill sets progresses. The findings made in the supplemental program would allow for the inquiry on how best a student learns and provide the appropriate setting accordingly (Jack et al.)

Academic Motivation

Jack et al note that the more a person does something regularly, the more they will desire to do it perfectly. This is because, with time, the individual would get along with the uneasiness that comes with a particular activity. It is crucial to note that extrinsic motivators would only work up to a certain age. Beyond a certain age, they would be ineffective in triggering innate desire from the student to perform (Jack et al). In essence, the students would only do what is necessary in which case, the gap between recognition of learning as a continuous and lifelong process would increase. To the student, it will be impossible to relate school with his or her personal life. In developing increased intrinsic motivation level necessary for enhancing long-term memory as well as high order processing of the learning experiences and material, eliciting passion would be necessary. Emotions would be elicited through arts then applied through assessment of humane characteristics that elicit passion.

According to Carol S.Dweck, Caution- Praise Can be Dangerous, every time instructors or teachers give students some feedback, they are ultimately sending messages that would affect the students and shape their opinions on their motivation, achievement, and themselves. She also states that when children are praised for their efforts or hard work, they would like to continue engaging in that particular process and would not be diverted from learning by concerns of how smart they may or may not look.

Testing & Assessment

While testing is a vital component in any education system, the shape that it has taken make it look as if it is geared more to benefiting the administration rather than the students body. Standardized tests and No Child Left Behind seem to be more aimed at using the children's standards than to enhance a particular region's scale to meet the national or state standards. In essence, these tests generate unnecessary competition instead of enhancing skill collaboration to solve universal societal problems.

John P. Papay Estimates across Outcome Measures Different Tests, Different Answers: The Stability of Teacher Value-Added.
According to John P Papay, researchers agree that value-added strategies of evaluating the students represent a substantial improvement as compared to the traditional analysis that is based on the levels of test scores. Since students sort into classes and schools selectively, a simple comparison of the test scores would provide limited information on the school or teacher performance. It would be more advisable that students be evaluated for progressive improvement.

Language and Literacy

Language and literacy are educational tools that necessary for progress not only in critical thinking of varied material but also in communication of understanding particular information. God readers are good decoders in that they can read words by sight. If, however, they do not know a particular word, they would get an idea of its meaning by looking at its context. It is noteworthy that students have a desire to go on reading and speaking through application of their linguistic and reading skills to things that they are attached to or things that must communicate (Byrne & Fielding).

It is necessary to cater for the communication style of the student when writing or reading. On acquiring reading skills in contexts from which they derive enjoyment, they may transfer the skills to reading things that they actually do not enjoy.

Journal of Educational Psychology Byrne, B., & Fielding-Barnsley, R.

The research by Byrne & Fielding shows how an easy form of phonemics assessment can be effectively taught. In teaching 4-year old children to recognize instances when similar phoneme recurred in varied words, the children were shown images of varied objects and taught to choose the ones whose names had similar first sound. In addition, the kids were taught to recognize images whose names had similar end sound. A single phoneme in a particular position was taught to minute groups every session. Letters representing target phonemes were incorporated too. A control group undertook story reading as well as meaning based activities by the use of the same pictures. It was noted that the phonemics assessment taught kids outperformed the control group in matching the written with the spoken word as well as in the initial and final tasks of identifying phonemes.

Cultural Diversity

It is imperative that eliminating socio-economic and socio-cultural barriers creates an environment where all parties concerned would be in a position to participate. This happens in situations where an individual who lives under socio-cultural status is placed in novel environments where such labels are unknown; the stereotype is eliminated leading to increased reading capability.

Journal Research - Language and Literacy for a New Mainstream Kerry Anne Enright UC Davis

In reading the Language and Literacy for a New Mainstream article, by Kerry A. Enright it was nice to see a sampling of what is happening with transitional literacy due to bilingualism. In that, the article ultimately concluded that Leesa, the bilingual Mexican-American exhibited the hybrid thought process of both her cultures. Furthermore, by avoiding a label because of her proficiency in English she was able to build the self-esteem necessarily to apply her exposure to two worlds in her everyday learning. This translated into purposeful learning that went beyond the standards of her senior assignment. I find this to be an instance of the Sapir-Whorf, although admittedly unproven, in that she was able to draw on multiple perspectives from her cultural exposure and apply them without the hindrances and encumbrances of being socially labeled as inadequate because of her form of expression. In other words, she was fully accepted by her peers because she was able to adopt the way she expressed herself to match the literacy and terminology used by her respective peers. I.e.: I would infer that to the Latin community she would use expressions that they would relate to and to the Caucasian community she would do the same respectively.

Meta-Cognition

Dunlosky & Nelson asserts that an individual should be capable of thinking about his or her own thought more so in self-monitoring as well as a comparison of potential outcomes that an individual has not personally experienced. It is my belief, however, that as far as student performance is concerned, and the student must be flexible enough to move between mindlessness, full meta-cognitive awareness as well as mindfulness and the capacity to trust his instincts on implicit ability to carry out a certain task.

According to Dunlosky & Metcalfe; Dunlosky & Nelson; Koriat & Ma'ayan, metacognition is inferential just like other Meta-cognitive judgments. This does not mean that the judgments are random or arbitrary. Rather it means that the making of accurate judgments is adaptive. Understanding the heuristics that people use in making the meta-cognitive judgments and whether there are variations over their lifespan is essential in order to understand how individuals gain and retain their sense of agency.

Supplemental Education

Mending the interworking of human resources within abstract social systems used in educating the masses is certainly a herculean task. This has necessitated the creation of private institutions where only selected students can benefit. With the numerous students confined in unproductive academic systems due to their socio-cultural and socio-economic circumstances, supplemental education would be appropriate. This would upgrade the educational system catering for any student irrespective of the educational setting (Dunlosky & Nelson).

According to Bridglall et al, studies done on high-achieving students indicate that they combine strong school and home resources, which support their personal and intellectual development. They also engage in varied supplementary educational activities, extracurricular activities, school events and even have positive links with peers and adults who have high expectations on their achievements.

Special Education

While quite a number of students have mental disabilities, few people have considered them as strengths. However, we could have a new-age mentality that emphasizes on the use of modern day metal disorders as gifts that would unlock the secrets of the society and humanity. These include conditions such as bipolar disorders, disorderly schizophrenia, autism and ADHD.

VAUGHN, S., LINAN-THOMPSON, S., & HIGKMAN, P. Response to instruction as a means of identifying students with reading / learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 69, 391-409.

Vaughn et.al proposed a standard treatment protocol in which children with disabilities would be subjected to treatment trial. In case they respond to treatment trial, they would be seen as disability-free and remediated, therefore, returned to class for instruction. In case they do not respond, they would be taken through a more intensive treatment protocol. Valentino et.al did experiments in which case first-grade teachers selected the poorest students in their classes. These students were assigned contrast and tutoring groups where they would receive a thirty-minute one-to-one intervention 5 days a week. The intervention incorporated sight-word practice decoding, comprehension strategies, phonemic awareness as well as connected text reading. After the second grade, two thirds of the students showed good growth. Velluntino state that these children were not reading-disabled but rather instruction disabled.

Comparative Education

It is crucial to understand the academic processes of different countries in order to understand where we are as well as what we can do to complement globalization in line with the new age of diversified thinking as well as empathy to other cultures for the future generations.

According to Dresden, New York and Wroclaw (the great schools revolution) Economist September, variations in culture play a vital role in the success of children in their education. Since most Asian parents are more attentive to the test results of their children than the western ones, their schools are much more successful. It is only with such comparisons that the western schools can draw lessons on success, which Dresden advances as focusing more on underachieving students, choosing different types of schools, high teacher standards, and decentralization of schools.

The Integrated Solution

Eliminating the gap between life and learning is important in upgrading the education system. Supplemental education program provides upgrades for every student whether in the private or public institutions. This is one of the key phases that collectively endear to solve the major problems pertaining to the provision of continuity between life and learning. This continuity essentially entails bridging the gap and eliminates the idea that many students have about education only being confined to institutions (Bridglall et al). It must be recognized that education as a process is continuous and the institutional setting is only a communal setting that collaborates and enhances the growth of varied skills sets that every student may intrinsically have and even develop. The aim of the solution is to assist the student to identify their passions and skills and enhance the application of the lessons learnt to grow into projects that have an impact on the society (Bridglall et al).

As concerning the appropriate learning environment, studies show the efficiency of generating camaraderie through having one goal. All the members who are vulnerable to that goal would develop camaraderie due to their interdependence in accomplishing their call to action. In this case, they would be tied to the project by their emotions, and they have an innate motivation to come up with solutions to the problems on which they have a common compassion for (Hastings). The innate motivation to succeed in achieving a common goal would make any hurdle or obligation encountered to be worthwhile. This includes undertaking tough class assignments. Members of a team would not be deterred from pursuing their goals by the hurdles, the discomfort in handling these hurdles not withstanding. Contextualized in the education system, students must have a call to action rather than the common call to attention. This common goal generates a call to action in which case the students realize that the hurdles encountered in reaching their goals are actually necessary steps unlike calling to attention (Horn).

Hastings argues that the student would not be reading in order to satisfy extrinsic motivators such as grades; but rather to gain knowledge or apply the material to enhance the achievement of the common goal. This leads to the creation of a natural desire to generate a flow in that classroom that is creating continuity between the instructions or physical stimulus that is actually taking place and the things that are processed mentally. In essence, the students will have a genuine desire to pay attention and concentrate in class. They will show signs of inquiry while in class as they search for the material that they will be applying in achieving the common goal in their projects.

In addition, there are variations as to the levels of talents and skills that every student would exhibit. In this case, we aim at enhancing collaboration among the intrinsically growing skill sets that students may be acquiring. Rather than the usual trends incorporated in the many schools where the students would be competing for talents and skills, the aim would be to allow them to work together and foster collaboration by using their talents and skills. The students would also be helped to attain new skills through their interactions with their peers in the respective projects. Initially, we aim at gauging their innate skill and talents through identifying the things that they like doing in such a way that they would not notice time go by. It is only when we determine what they love doing that we would be sure that they are genuinely interested in a particular project and the learning process would be promoted (Hastings).

Jigsaw Education System

For every child, the establishment of relationships with his or her peers is important for his or her development more so in education. In this case, the education system through which the student goes must be capable of fostering relationships between the student and others. Jigsaw education system has been shown to have a positive effect on social interactions between disabled students and non-disabled ones in physical educational settings. This system basically involves giving students a topic on which they should gain expertise as a group or as individuals. Having gained the expertise, the individual students or even group of students would take the rest of the class through the topic. More often than not, the students would be reorganized into new groups which are comprised of experts from the varied topics. These experts would take turns taking others through their respective areas of expertise. In addition, the instructor would use the group to provide demonstration and facilitate information.

The basic idea behind jigsaw educational system is fostering communication through group work. Social interaction has always been very important more so in physical education when combined with making a student more physically educated.

Inclusion classrooms have always been battling with lack of cooperation pertaining to social interaction levels between disabled students and the non disabled ones devoid of teacher prompts or classroom aids (Apache). Positive social traits are at the core of the social goals and aim. Instructors should be able to teach in such a way that the all students whether disabled or not derive the benefits. This is the kind of capacity advanced by jigsaw education system. Studies show that there is actually a connection between jigsaw education system and social skills.

Studies have shown Jigsaw cooperative Learning as the most effective style of teaching more so in inclusive education settings. It positively affects self-esteem, academic achievement, development o social skill, equity achievement and active learning (Dyson). Its most engaging characteristic is its focus on academic as well as social outcomes.

By having the students relying on one another, more social interaction was fostered. Studies showed that students in such settings had considerably lower levels of negative stereotyping and prejudicial attitudes. The group participants showed lower absenteeism, excellent academic achievement as well as higher self-confidence compared to students in competitive classrooms (Signh).

The benefits of jigsaw style of teaching rests on its attributes which include individual accountability, positive interdependence, enhancing face-to-face interaction, processing and interpersonal and small groups skills.

Individual accountability is the answerability in which case the teacher finds out whether students completed particular tasks. It entails recognition, tests, monitoring of student behavior, verbal praise and monitoring the behavior of students (Grineski). In Jigsaw education system, students are under an obligation to learn their own parts before teaching other members of the group that particular portion.

In positive interdependence, the group members learn to rely on one another even as they work together to finish a task. Research shows that when students work together towards attaining a common goal, they are more willing to put more effort to safeguard the success of the group (Dyson). Low achievers would also feel more comfortable when they are working with the group mates who are more capable. Through interdependence, the individual efforts would be embraced and encouraged by all since every members contribution is viewed as success and not frustration.

At the heart of Jigsaw method is enhanced face-to-face interaction. This enhances the social reasoning and brings in peer tutoring in which case students would assist one another on lesson objectives that compromise cognitive, social as well as psychomotor goals.

Group processing refers to time allocated to looking into how well members of a group achieve their objectives and even maintain good working relationships. The students are given opportunities to communicate effectively, work together and be responsible for their own learning. At the end of the lesson, the debriefing period allows students to talk about the challenges they face in which case the teacher gains information and insights helpful in future learning (Hind).

Small group skills and interpersonal skills would be developed via tasks or activities in which the students take part including taking responsibility, shared decision-making, listening, learning to encourage one another and even give or receive feedback. Jigsaw education system aims at teaching social cooperation as well as the capacity to understand how an individual is affected by another person's behavior. It is important that students are taught not only to consider but also accept others through abiding by the common rules.

Note on Student Tutoring

I have always been an advocate for one-on-one tutoring. As a student, it particularly helped me when studying calculus; in fact, I would say my entire understanding of calculus was thanks to my sessions with the tutors and not the class itself. These experiences brought the idea of instructional distances between teacher and student, especially at the collegiate level with large lecture halls. It can be overwhelming for students to take in so much information from a tenured professional, especially when they are not engaged in conversation (Horn). This is a violation of Grecian Maxims and it constituents internal restlessness, or lack of mental- physical flow. In other words, the minds are occupied elsewhere while their bodies are physicallypresent in class. The solution I propose to this dilemma is to have different generations of students teach one another while professors mediate the education. The professor's act as the highway lanes and students are the information highways; the students are free to switch lanes as they want. A new topic of information is analogous to getting off an exit and switching to a new highway.

In Can Tutors Be Supported in Giving Effective Explanations? By Wittwer et al. the authors discuss how effective tutors can be with their explanations of their knowledge to students. The conclusion of the question was to have the tutors tailor their session to the base knowledge of their pupils. This was discussed in the practicum; to my recollection, the agreement was that students should be able to explain how well they know what they are inquiring about. The session should be conversational so that the tutor can gauge how engaged the student is and if he or she is actually gaining knowledge in the subject. To add to the diagnosis approach, I would ponder the effect of having multiple tutors or utilizing one tutor that can "grow" with their students' progression in the subject.

Family Pods Model Structure

In summary, the Family POD model is based on the jigsaw method of education and aims to incorporate concepts behind tutoring, mentorship; project based learning, portfolio assessment and progress reports, individual learning plans, and family camaraderie. The students are screened for placement based on skills and passions to find identified intrinsic motivators, and are monitored as they grow with their project. All students are not merely subject to call to attention based learning, as lecture halls and cramming for exams provide, but have a call to action. All their work is longitudinal and aims to be societally impactful. Furthermore, the in-school program will be organized in such a way that it will allow them to dynamically apply what they are learning their respective classes as they are learning it on a top-down approach to their education.

The Family POD system has two phases for participants, the Skill Phase, which adheres to students in secondary schooling, and works identify innate skills and develop new skills. The Career Phase applies to those in post-secondary education, college, and aims to help the students hone their skills for application to a career path or if they chose to turn their projects into small businesses.

Conclusion

In enhancing the capacity of students to inculcate lessons in their education, a comprehensive framework that bridges, the gap between school environment, and their lives would be important. This gives them the capability to own the learning process since they would be genuinely interested in the lessons knowing well that they will be applying them and not only for the test purposes.

References

Byrne, B., & Fielding-Barnsley, R.. Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children: A 2- and 3-year follow-up and a new preschool trial. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 488-503.

Vaughn, S., Linan, Thompson, S., & Higkman, P. Response to instruction as a means of identifying students with reading/learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 69, 391-409.

Vellutino, F.R., Sganlon, D.M., Sipay, E.R., Small, S., Ghen, R., Pratt, A., & Dengkla, M.B. Cognitive profiles of difficult-to-remediate and readily remediated poor readers: Early intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between cognitive and experiential deficits as basic causes of specific reading disability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 601-638.

Janet Metcalfe a,*, Teal S. Eich a,b, Alan D. Castel, B.A. Metacognition of agency across the lifespan: Department of Psychology, 401B Schermerhorn Hall, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, United States b Department of Psychology, 1285 Franz Hall, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1563, United States.

Dunlosky, J., & Nelson, T. O. Importance of kind of cue for judgments of learning (JOL) and the delayed-JOL effect. Memory & Cognition, 20, 374-380.

Bridglall, Beatrice L., & Gordon, Edmund, W. The idea of supplementary education, Columbia University, New York, NY Institute for Urban Minority Education; College Board.

Dresden, New York and Wroclaw (the great schools revolution) Economist September.

Tuckman, B.W., & Monetti, D.M. Educational Psychology. Cengage Learning.

Jack, S, Rick, M., & Robert, B. Psychology Applied to Teaching. Cengage Learning.

Smith, L.S., & Hudgins, B.B. Educational psychology: an application of social and behavioral theory. Knopf publishers.

Horn, R.A. The Praeger handbook of education and psychology, Volume 3. Greenwood Publishing Group.

Hastings, N. New Directions in Educational Psychology: Behavior & Motivation. Taylor & Francis Publishers.

Hind, Emma and Palma, Clive. A Critical Evaluation of the Roles and responsibilities of the Physical Education Teacher. Journal o qualitative Sports Studies.

Barrett, Tim. Effects of Cooperative Learning on the Performance of 6th Grade Physical Education Students, Journal of teaching in Physical education.

Grineski, Steve. Effects of Cooperative Games on the Pro-Social Behavior Interactions of Young children with or without impairments. Journal of Physical education, recreation and dance.

Dyson, Ben. Cooperative learning in an elementary physical education program. A journal of teaching in physical education.

Apache, Goyakla. Using cooperative learning to teach Empathy towards peers with disabilities. Teaching elementary education.

Signh, B.R. Teaching methods for reducing prejudice and enhancing academic achievement for all children. Educational studies.

The Methods of Teaching English Grammar

Introduction

Grammar is the building block of any language. It follows, then, that second language learners must be taught the grammar of their new language in order to attain fluency, to be able to self-correct, and to be able to compose and express complex ideas correctly. Without knowledge of grammar, students' knowledge of their second language (also called 'L2' language) is likely to remain limited to the memorization and imitation of specific phrases and structures. In many cases that is not enough to attain true fluency, so the teaching of grammar is a component of most second language education programs.

Ellis's definition of grammar teaching is as follows:

Grammar teaching involves any instructional technique that draws learners' attention to some specific grammatical form in such a way that it helps them either to understand it metalinguistically and/or process it in comprehension and/or production so that they can internalize it (p. 84).

Despite pointing out the benefits of explicit grammar teaching in other writing, Ellis here states that there is considerable controversy regarding the issue, pointing to the need for further research. The fact is that opinions about explicit or implicit grammar teaching have changed over the decades, and the superiority of one over the other has still not been resolved.

Background of the Study

Opinions vary with regard to how grammar should be taught. Do second language learners truly benefit from learning grammatical structures and rules by rote? Or does knowledge of grammar evolve intuitively once L2 learners are exposed to the language and begin to understand and use multiple phrases and structures? Every teacher of English as a second language will have an opinion in this regard, based on his or her anecdotal experience. It is evident, though, that anecdotal knowledge is not enough to decide on the question. All teachers have experienced the fact that there are some students who attain verbal fluency easily despite small mistakes in grammar and usage, and as such, seem to gloss over those technical challenges. Meticulously learning the rules of grammar may even slow those students down, as they seem to leap ahead into functional fluency. On the other hand, there are other students who prefer to repeatedly refer to the rules of grammar in order to guarantee their correctness. These students seem to gain much more from a systematic study. Knowing the rules of grammar gives them a solid reference point toward which to orient.

Grammar and Grammar Instruction in a Foreign Language

If school programs had the time and liberty to design individual programs for each student who entered them seeking to learn or perfect a second language, educators would no doubt find that a unique combination of a 'whole language' approach with implicit grammar instruction and an explicit approach in which rules of grammar are taught would be appropriate for every student. In fact it is the experience of most L2 learners that such a combined approach is most effective- the difficulty of course lies in translating these impressions into a solid curriculum that fits the needs of the majority of students. Educators are seldom at liberty to redesign or tailor programs to fit the needs of individual students. What, then, is the most beneficial and efficient way for students to learn the fundamentals of a language and to become fluent? Should learning grammar be considered an 'implicit' process, where the student's understanding evolves naturally over the course of his or her exposure to the language? Or must the teaching of grammar be 'explicit', where rules are introduced, memorized and practiced?

Reasons for grammar Instruction in an ESL classroom

The need to teach grammar to L2 learners exists for a number of reasons. Taking as our example English grammar, it is evident that this underlying structure of a language is a complex and unique system. This may indeed by particularly the case in English, given the history of that language and its multiple antecedents. English structures (like word sources and spellings) have elements in common with both Germanic and French, demonstrating that mixed heritage. For students learning English as a foreign language, certain elements of the language are consistently puzzling. These include the multiple English verb tenses and their usage (this is particularly the case for Asian students, whose first languages usually are devoid of verb tenses) and the use of articles in English, which is often confusing for ALL new learners of English, regardless of their first language. It seems clear that at least some rules of grammar must be taught explicitly, to help students master these 'problem areas', or their own particular individual difficulties. Otherwise, problems may persist for a lengthy period of time, impairing fluency.

However, grammar lessons in practice have sometimes been experienced as difficult or needlessly convoluted. Bill Bryson in The Mother Tongue relates a humorous account of an English lesson: "Some of us managed to learn what we were taught. We accepted and memorized the statements of teachers who told us that "English has eight parts of speech," or "English has nine [or was it eight?] ...Then there were some of us who despairingly went along with what we had to do, but never quite caught on" (p. 137).

The fact that elements of explicit grammar instruction, however puzzling they may seem to some students, must be included for most L2 learners does not adequately answer the primary question: Must teaching of students in general involve explicit instruction in grammar? Or will most students be able to learn grammar through exposure to correct speech and written texts, or 'implicit' teaching?

Explicit v. Implicit Instruction

Explicit grammar instruction is described as that which: "... supplies the declarative knowledge of grammar whereas implicit grammar instruction supplies procedural knowledge of grammar" (Tutunis 121). As stated previously, there is no consensus in the pedagogical literature regarding whether such instruction is helpful or necessary. For example, Lewis argues that teachers should not feel that one of their key functions is "explaining grammar". He states instead that you should provide answers to students' questions. Students should discover patterns for themselves and then ask about them. Pooley states that standard English usage is not in fact consistently 'standard', but that different interpretations may apply. This can be seen as an argument against explicit grammar instruction which formalizes and de-contextualizes rules.

It is important to note that implicit teaching of grammar still may require a high degree of proficiency and knowledge among teachers. In a classroom setting teachers are often called upon to explain "why' a sentence structure is a certain way. Some students routinely ask for such information as it increases their own understanding. Moreover, there are cases in which, even when the aim is not to teach grammar explicitly, the teaching of a specific rule may be beneficial to the class as a whole as it will clarify usage in a simple, understandable way. However, the course itself is more likely to emphasize usage and will probably be structured around themes, scenarios or abstract ideas.

Which approach has the best results for students?

Truscott argued strongly against the use of explicit grammar instruction in the form of grammar correction in L2 writing classes, citing empirical research that shows it to be ineffective and having possibly harmful effects. Students do not commonly retain or benefit from grammar correction. According to Ferris, Truscott's article led to a great deal of controversy. Ferris argues in favour of grammar correction in writing classes as a useful, in-context means of instruction. Almost a decade later, Ferris again addresses the debate over the efficacy of grammar correction in second language writing classes. The author points out that the research base is inconsistent and incomplete, and not a sufficient basis for practice.

In a sense, the question of whether implicit or explicit instruction is better for students is difficult to answer, as the answer itself may be highly variable. Part of the reason is that individual students themselves differ, as previously stated, with regard to what is most effective for them. Moreover, students' objectives differ. While for many students the objective is simple fluency, so that they might be able to participate in social, professional and academic life using their new language, today, increasingly, students have to pass specific tests in order to do so. Often educational programs are specifically geared at preparing the students for these tests, which include the TOEFL and IELTS. The student may enter an educational program specifically geared at passing and scoring well on such tests. The TOEFL, for example, is written by many thousands of international students worldwide. This may require more directed teaching specifically targeting some points of English grammar. It should be noted, however, that texting is changing to reflect a less explicit approach. Up until 2005, the TOEFL exam had a grammar component which many students considered the most challenging part of the exam, and which certainly required, for most students, a course of explicit instruction in English grammar. In 2005, however, the test was changed to focus much more on usage than on grammar. A Speaking section was added and the writing section expanded. The concern is now whether students can function well in verbal and written English, not whether they know the 'rules'. Teaching in preparation for this test has also shifted, although preparation materials do continue to include a grammar section (TOEFL IBT, TOEFL Strategies Course Book). The justification is that studying and practicing grammar will improve performance on the writing and speaking sections of the exam.

Noonan (n.d.) considers explicit grammar knowledge to be helpful in the acquisition of knowledge through 'noticing' grammar. Teachers can use explicit grammar instruction in order to draw attention to features of language in order to augment learning.

Scott (1990) also finds that explicit grammar teaching yields higher scores in some testing.

Students who are exposed to explicit grammar instruction tend to achieve a higher level of language proficiency and accuracy than those who receive only implicit instruction (Ellis, p19). Presson and MacWhinney (n.d) likewise find that explicit grammar instruction yields better results among students in the long term. The authors note that during post-tests immediately after teaching, results were equal for both styles of instruction. However, in a delayed test, those who received explicit instruction had better results.

Macaro and Masterman investigate the efficacy of explicit grammar instruction in first year French students at an English university. In a comparative study, some students were given directed, intensive explicit grammar instruction for a short period of time. Over the course of five months, students in both groups were tested and it was demonstrated that the addition of the short explicit lessons did improve scores in some areas. However, interestingly enough, grammatical accuracy in composition and translation did not improve in the group who received explicit grammar instruction. As in the study by Green and Hecht, therefore, these findings reinforce the impression that explicit grammar instruction may not improve fluency and independent usage of L2 despite the fact that it may improve text scores.

Gremmo and Riley discuss the current importance of autonomy and self-direction in language teaching, noting that these are important ideas in current educational philosophy. Autonomy and self-direction may be considered inconsistent with formalized, explicit grammar teaching. In a self-directed approach, students' knowledge of grammar emerges from usage and from questions that the students themselves have. The teacher becomes a resource through which the student can access explanations and clarifications.

Gill discusses the utility of an alternate system of grammatical categorization, the 'natural language corpora', for teachers. This approach prioritizes actual usage in context over adherence to traditional rules of grammar. Gill notes that the natural language corpus contains ample evidence of patterns that are commonly used but would traditionally be identified as incorrect. Nevertheless, insofar as the goal for students is fluency, natural language learning may be preferable to an emphasis on the formal rules. This is coherent with an implicit learning approach, although, with awareness of the natural language corpora, teachers may introduce and correct standard word patterns. On the other hand, knowledge of the natural language corpora may also lead to the use of new explicit teaching methods. McEneryal, Wilson and Barker also address the natural language corpora and its utility in teaching grammar to students at the pre-tertiary. The authors suggest that an emphasis on the natural language corpora may make it possible to introduce a technological ('machine-aided') and date-driven method of scholarship and learning.

Green and Hecht found that when L2 learners are taught explicit rules of grammar, as commonly occurs, they may fail to apply those rules in casual communication. This illustrates the point that there may be a disconnection between the academic learning of grammar rules and actual fluent communication. Again, this highlights the point that the individual aspirations of the student are the key factors in choosing the most favorable method of teaching.

Teacher's Beliefs about Grammar Teaching

In a study of 48 teachers' attitudes toward teaching grammar, Burgess and Etherington (n.d.) find that most teachers "appreciate the value of grammar for their students and possess a sophisticated understanding of the problems and issues involved" (p. 433). The teachers also commonly cited the importance of individual student characteristics, their specific needs and their personal wishes as factors influencing the style of teaching that teachers will select.

On the teacher's blog "My English Pages", a teacher expresses the opinion that "habit formation through drilling and repetition cannot lead to language mastery". This 'habit formation' is associated with learning by rote, which is sometimes a feature of explicit grammar instruction and testing. Instead, this teacher emphasizes the use of "authentic" as opposed to "artificial" language. "Authentic" language involves structures and styles that occur in natural conversation. According to this teacher, the process of being exposed to authentic language leads students to "discover grammar for themselves instead of being told". Students become conscious of the structures of language, and the role of teachers may be to answer questions. Students autonomously become aware of how languages are structures - their own L1 language as well as the new language being acquired.

Horwitz suggests that ascertaining student beliefs about language learning would be helpful to the teachers and the learning process. The author suggests tools used for doing so. Horwitz also comments that teachers' own preconceived ideas can prevent them from understanding the expectations of their students. Farrell investigates the belief systems of English teachers with regard to grammar teaching practice and finds that their pre-existing beliefs are not easily changed. Richards, Gallo, and Renandya reached a similar conclusion, noting that many teachers favour explicit and direct grammar teaching regardless of what they are taught during their pre-service training. In a study, Farrell finds that teachers' beliefs are sometimes not reflected in their classroom practice for complex reasons. If the teacher's beliefs are not consistent with practice, the resulting dissonance may cause a lack of satisfaction or a disbelief in their own efficacy as educators. Tutunis notes that "...in practice, teachers keep their beliefs on the benefits of explicit grammar teaching as opposed to implicitness".

Students' Preference

Schulz examines the underlying student and teacher beliefs about the benefits of explicit and implicit grammar instruction. The study discovered some discrepancies between teachers' and students' attitudes. In this study of over 800 students, the common attitude expressed was that an emphasis on form in language learning can be helpful in the classroom. The study also shows that teachers may not be aware of this preference, and recommends closer communication between teachers and students so that teachers may be attuned to their students' expectations. Later, in a study of 607 Columbian foreign language students and their teachers, Schulz found a number of discrepancies between student and teacher attitudes about explicit grammar instruction, which, the author states, can be detrimental to learning. Shulz ascribes these differences to cultural expectations.

Awareness of students' preferences can, of course, influence the teacher's experience and the techniques ultimately used. One ESL teacher working in Hungary relates the following:

I went about my teaching without sweeping grammar under the carpet, however. I just taught it implicitly until I came up against some critics telling me that I should keep the fact in mind that Hungary is an explicit grammar heaven and not all the students are necessarily conditioned for total implicitness. As I have been told, Central Europeans need grammatical consciousness. For this reason I have recently reconsidered my approach and have curled back to giving explicit explanation after I involve my students in implicit grammar games; thus I have blended the two approaches (Thekes).

This anecdotal account illustrates two important things about the real-lie application of grammar instruction. First, students' expectations must be taken into account, and may sometimes contradict research, or what the teacher has been taught. Students who have been conditioned to expect explicit instruction may not respond well to lessons that do not include it. To complicate matters, students in ESL programs often participate in instruction for relatively short periods of time - sometimes as brief as three to six weeks. There may not be time to 'convert' the students to a new and unfamiliar approach. Second, this passage points out the efficacy of a combined approach - in this case, explicit explanations after implicit lessons. Research on these combined approaches is scant, but given the controversy, this is a compromise many teachers have found effective in their own classrooms.

Previous Research

Theory regarding grammar instruction began in the eighteenth century with the work of grammarians Franz Boaz and Otto Jespersen (Lynch n.d.). Interestingly, Boaz and Jespersen were of the opinion that sentence structures should be studied contextually, using contemporary documents and verbal usage (Lynch n.d.). This contradicts the common impression that an older or more traditional approach is inevitably more explicit and rules-based. In fact, an emphasis on explicit teaching of grammatical rules came about in the late nineteenth century. A pedagogical approach which involved 'parsing' sentences persisted in some educational programs well into the twentieth century. Nassaji and Fotos reflect upon the recent history of language instruction, noting that, since the late 1970s, the role of grammar instruction was "downplayed". The authors suggest that explicit teaching of grammar was viewed as detrimental, and idea that several other authors cited here support. However, Nassagi and Fotos note that more recent research has led to a renewed interest in explicit grammar teaching, having shown that it is necessary in order for students to gain a high degree of accuracy.

In contrast to Nassaji and Fotos' assertion that explicit grammar teaching went out of style in the late 1970s, Hudson and Walmsley situate the shift away from grammar teaching earlier, in the first half of the twentieth century. Moreover, the authors state that there was a reinstatement of grammar teaching since the 1960s. Perhaps the difference in these accounts is due to the fact that Hudson and Walmsley are basing their observations on British school curriculum rather than North American schools. It is possible that similar trends occurred somewhat earlier in England.

The theoretical approach which, arguably, had the greatest impact on grammar teaching is commonly known as 'Universal Grammar'. This was an influential theory that came about in the 1970s and gained much ground through the next several decades. It coincides with and may be causally related to the shift away from a reliance on explicit grammar teaching, although, according to some scholars, Universal Grammar requires its own specific form of explicit instruction. The relationship of Universal Grammar to explicit v. implicit grammar teaching is clear. If we suppose that the objective of every student of English as a second language is to achieve perfect fluency, explicit teaching is unnecessary or superfluous only if it is believed that students can achieve perfect proficiency in grammar without such teaching. Universal Grammar theory offers an explanation for how this can occur. If grammatical rules are 'universal', everyone implicitly already knows them, or a version of them. This can explain why children 'pick up' the rules of their L1 language often without explicit instruction, and why some people are able to do so with an L2 language. Linguist Noam Chomsky was the first to propose Universal Grammar as a reason behind this phenomenon. Later, discussions of Universal Grammar seem to center around the differences and similarities between L1 and L2 language learners. More recent scholarship casts some doubt on the Universal Grammar explanation.

Schachter points out the error in the previously-held assumption that L2 acquisition (particularly among adults) is analogous to L1 acquisition in children. The author argues that there are clear and demonstrable differences between these processes, but that for a period of twenty years (late 60s to late 80s) it was assumed that the two processes were comparable. Thus, as children gain fluency in their L1 language and a familiarity with its structures without explicit instruction in grammar, it was assumed that L2 learners could do the same. Schachter implies that while the Universal Grammar theory has been used to support this notion, to do so amounts to a misunderstanding of Universal Grammar. It is easy to understand how such a belief may have come about; if there is a structural universality among all languages, then the awareness of these deep structures will be activated as the student is exposed to the L2 language. The universal grammar itself will already be known to the student, 'intuitively' if not explicitly. Just as the majority of children easily learn to speak their mother tongue, the majority of adult learners can develop a 'sense' of how to speak their new language. Montague states that it is possible to understand the syntax of most languages, natural or artificial, with a single unified theory; in this, he is in agreement with Chomsky's theory.

Clahsen and Muysken also illustrate the difference between L1 and L2 learners using the example of grasping the verb-final order of sentences in German. The authors state that children learning German as a first language grasp the word order from the beginning, without any confusion. L2 learners of German tend to attempt to impose the subject-verb word order, but may learn to gradually modify it in response to instruction. Clahsen and Muysken argue that adult learners can only access general learning strategies and are, of course, influenced by word order in their L1 language. Children learning a language can absorb and internalize abstract hypotheses. Schachter points out that there are four major differences between L1 and L2 acquisition: "completeness", "equipotentiality", "previous knowledge", and "fossilization". The role of Universal Grammar in L2 acquisition is "much more modest" than might be assumed, because the particular rules of the L1 language have a lasting influence on the learner's processing and coding of language. Therefore, despite the fact that L1 learners may require no explicit grammar teaching, this is very likely not the case with regard to L2 learners. In contrast, the Kraschen-Terrell hypothesis indicates that adult L2 learners fall into two distinct categories - those who "pick it up" intuitively or 'naturally', and those who require a set of coherent rules in order to learn. The learning style of the first category of learners may be more similar to L1 learners. The diversity of learning styles among L2 learners may indeed explain inconsistent or ambiguous research results.

Cook, in an interpretation of Chomsky's work on Universal Grammar, explores reasons behind the perceived differences between L1 and L2 learners. It can be observed anecdotally that L2 learners, particularly adults, have a more difficult time and generally require additional support in learning the rules of their L2 language, whereas for many children the process does appear to be intuitive, natural and easy, not necessitating explicit teaching. Cook observes that direct accessibility to Universal Grammar 'rules' may or may not be available to L2 learners. If it is accessible, the learner would only need the proper 'triggers' to internalize the syntax of his or her new language. However, if Universal Grammar is not directly accessible, the learner's L1 language forms a sort of frame through which any further language acquisition is viewed. He can therefore approach the new language only with reference to the parameters of the first language. Cook introduces a third possibility, based on Chomsky's work and Lenneberg's Critical Period Hypothesis (Lenneberg; Chomsky, p. 206, cited by Cook). According to this hypothesis, the age of the learner is the critical factor. Universal Grammar may be accessible to the language learner only during a specific age period, approximately from age 2 to age 12. After the age of 12, the brain is too "inflexible" to internalize new language structures based on access to Universal Grammar. Therefore, after that age, L2 learners must learn through the framework of the L1 or through a non-language faculty of the brain, necessitating more explicit instruction. This theory has considerable merit, given that anecdotal evidence tells us that language learning is 'easier' for children than for adults. Children learning a second language typically do so easily, and learn to speak without an accent and with a full grasp of syntax and usage, often making them indistinguishable from native speakers of that language. The younger the child, the more likely it is that full fluency will be achieved. This theory provides a resolution to the question of inherent difference between L1 and L2 learners and the teaching approaches they require, as well as providing room for variation between individual L2 learners.

Finally, Crain and Pietroski illustrate the continued relevance of Universal Grammar theory by addressing the conundrum of why and how children routinely achieve a high level of linguistic competence in their L1 language without specific instruction, summarizing the "nativist' argument that children are able to gain knowledge beyond their experience as a result of a Universal Grammar. If a universal system of linguistic ordering exists to which we are 'naturally' attuned, mere exposure to language will be enough to trigger an innate knowledge of patterns. However, Crain and Pietroski note that this is not the only possible explanation for the relative ease of first language acquisition, and that recent developments in psycholinguistics cast doubt on the key role of a Universal Grammar in language learning.

Grammar Teaching and Classroom Practice

Explicit grammar instruction involves classes and lessons built around features of grammar. Because English grammar is complex, the instruction may be split up into a curriculum of lessons, encompassing a variety of topics. Typically, a grammar Curriculum may be as follows: Introduction to different types of sentences (simple compound complex), parts of speech, verb tenses, phrases, dependent clauses, prepositions, and articles. Depending on the complexity and the ultimate aim of the specific educational program, students may spend several days or even longer learning about these grammatical features and practicing their application. Exercises may include sentence completion (where the student is asked to select the correct phrase to finish a grammatically correct sentence, either from multiple choice or by writing in the missing words); and sentence correction (where a student is asked to assess whether sentences are correct or incorrect, to identify errors and correct them) (TOEFL Practice Drills Course Book). Other forms of questions may be used to test specific skills. For example, students may be asked to add punctuation to sentences or paragraphs; to match fragmented parts of sentences; to choose the correct article or preposition; or to convert a subordinate clause to a phrase, or vice versa (Dornan and Dawe). Many other possibilities exist, but these are all examples of tools that are commonly used by teachers, examiners and curriculum writers to teach and assess competence in grammar in an explicit manner.

Implicit grammar instruction does not necessarily exclude some aspects of explicit teaching or information sharing. However, the focus of the teaching is on actively using the language in a naturalistic way rather than on teaching and memorizing grammar rules. Thus, lessons will center around activities and readings rather than grammar points. Students will read for comprehension, practice writing, and engage in oral experiences and activities such as role play. During the latter, they may be taught specific (grammatically correct) phrases to use and encouraged to use and expand upon them. In the readings, activities and class conversation, correct English grammar usage is modeled, giving students ample chance to learn by example and to 'absorb' correct usage. Depending on the teaching style and the format and purpose of the class, teachers may also correct students when they make mistakes in grammar, usage, word choice or punctuation. Over time, through practice and imitation, the student gets to know the correct forms even if he or she has not specifically been taught the grammatical rule.

Conclusions

There is often a considerable gap between theory and grammar teaching in the classroom. However, research continually attempts to close the gap, offering evidence for best practice and philosophical bases for teachers' mandate and action. For example, Ellis states:

. . . we don't actually try to influence the construction of the complex network [implicit knowledge] . . . because really learners can only do it themselves. We cannot implant rules into that network. Learners extract from the available information around them the regularities that form into their knowledge system...all that we can do is make them aware of some of these patterns. . .

The question of how teachers can best 'make students aware' still remains. Cross summarizes factors and techniques that teachers can use in research-based classroom practice:

Explicit instruction -- instruction explaining and drawing attention to a particular form.

Frequency -- the regular occurrence of a certain structure in input.

Perceptual Salience -- highlighting or underlining to draw attention to a certain structure.

Task Demands -- constructing a task that requires learners to notice a structure in order to complete it. (Cross)

In accordance with this general stance, Ellis suggests a set of teaching activities that may help develop knowledge of L2 grammar in language learners:

- 1. Listening to Comprehend: Students listen to comprehend a text that has been structured to contain several examples of the target form.

- 2. Listening to notice: Students listen to the same text again, but are given a gap-fill exercise. The target form is missing and the students simply fill it in exactly as they hear it to help them notice the form.

- 3. Understanding the grammar point: With help from the teacher, the students analyze the data and "discover" the rule.

- 4. Checking: Students are given a written text containing errors and are asked to correct them.

- 5. Trying it: Students apply their knowledge in a production activity.

(Source: Ellis pp. 30-31.)

The above set of activities represents a compromise in the 'battle' between proponents of implicit and explicit grammar instruction. That is, it contains both - it might be said that it contains the best of both. Students listen and form their own impressions of a text based on their own observation. Later, they are helped to discover the grammar rule, and to learn and apply it. Although actual approaches in classroom teaching vary, it seems that many teachers incorporate both implicit and explicit teaching in their grammar instruction. While empirical research continues to point to a division between the two approaches, application to practice reflects an awareness of the importance and efficacy of both. This compromise position is provides a basis for both practice and for future directions in research.

References:

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Education and Technology

We have talked about the two distinct characteristics of the Web - visuals and connections. Drawing on your knowledge about the principles of visual literacy and theories behind concept mapping, discuss the principles and theories in terms of how these two Web characteristics support teaching and learning.

While visual literacy has always been paramount to education, the advent of the World Wide Web has reframed visual resources, manifesting visual connections as instantly accessible and applicable to a range of subject areas. Young children learn to read pictures long before they learn to read words, rendering visual literacy a precedent to textual literacy. Additionally, theories of concept mapping support the relationship between visual literacy and connections, with this relationship being integral to contemporary, web-based education.

There are a myriad of advantages to employing concept mapping within an academic context. In short, concept maps emphasise the links between concepts, or a perceived regularity inherent to an object, person, or event and designated by a definable label. Critical thinking theories highlight links between concepts as one of the most important elements of learning, with cross-linking of concepts making it possible for students to internalise multiple meanings of concepts.

Concept maps are grounded firmly in psychological theories of the learning process. Reception learning theory, for instance, posits that the learner must discern patterns and relationships between new and existing knowledge in order to learn. In order for meaningful learning to take place, by extension, the material presented must be conceptually clear so that the learner can readily make connections with prior knowledge; the World Wide Web undoubtedly facilitates this clarity and promotes visual literacy by concisely and cohesively presenting students with new domains of knowledge.

Visual literacy has become integral to the digital age, expanding the scope of education in the twenty-first century. The use of the internet in the academic realm has made the cross-links integral to concept mapping more easily identified, concurrently supporting the learning process by making information clearer, accessible both visually and textually. Visual literacy is essentially the ability to assess and apply visual representations, drawing upon connections made previously, and the information age has rendered it easier for educators and students alike to support visual literacy through the use of diverse tools. The future of education, undoubtedly, is inextricably bound to technology that will facilitate learning, broadening the scope of literacy well beyond its twentieth-century definitions.

During the course we were presented with 6 different teaching and learning theories and the role technology plays in each of them. Choose 2 theories out of the 6 and discuss their salient features and the role that technology plays in each. Within the framework of these 2 theories, discuss your own teaching philosophy and how your own beliefs share similar values and how they differ.

The role played by technology in modern education is undoubtedly paramount, concurrently framing technology as integral to many learning theories. Essentially asserting the salient aspects of how knowledge is constructed during the learning process, learning theories highlight technology as an invaluable tool for both the learner and the educator. The following inquiry explores two theories of learning, constructionism and connectivism, affording particular respect to the role played by technology within contemporary applications of each theory.

Constructionism posits that learners internalise knowledge more meaningfully if they are able to use that knowledge to create something personally valuable. Through planning, creating, and processing, knowledge is effectively constructed and applied during the learning process. The role played by technology in constructionism theory is critical, by extension, as it facilitates all three stages of learning. Because the construction of new knowledge depends on the incorporation of new information with existing information, technology can make both the new and old information more clearly presented via a website, online activity, or other application of information technology. Supporting visual literacy, the available technology allows connections to be made more quickly and easily than previous, non-technological methods.

Aligned closely with constructionism in several ways is connectivism, or the theory of learning that emphasises the importance of networks to the construction of knowledge. Connectivism posits that all knowledge already exists in the world and individuals learn by creating connections and developing a network of knowledge. The learner connects various sources of information and cultivates the strengths of connections made in order to prompt future learning. By extension, the ability of the learner to recognize possible connections is paramount to the educational environment, as is the accuracy and currency of new information. The role played by technology in connectivism is a weighted one, with technology facilitating clear connections, such as through links on a website, threaded discussions, or simple visuals.

Both constructionism and connectivism support this writer's teaching philosophy in several ways. Primarily, the role of the educator is to facilitate, rather than dictate, learning to students, and creating connections between existing and new knowledge as well as between sources of knowledge is most meaningfully done by the student and not the teacher. By employing technology in teaching strategies, however, the educator allows students to make connections more readily without reducing their meaningfulness or personal value to the student.

During the semester we have read and discussed the different aspects of change - how to define paradigm shifts and change - what is the process of change and what are the forces- what are the reasons people resist - what are the common reasons teachers resist. In a well organized essay, present what you know of these concepts and processes thoroughly. Discuss what these concepts and processes mean for you personally and professionally and lastly, what implications there may be for Oman.

The learning process is inherently linked to the process of change. The very acts of acquiring new knowledge, making connections between existing domains of knowledge and unfamiliar information, and meaningfully internalising new information involves a change; this change is from the old or existing body of knowledge to the new and altered body of knowledge. On a broader scale, paradigm shifts are profound changes from one way of thinking toward another in a way that is both revolutionary and evolutionary. The advent of the information age has birthed a significant, paradigm shift in the academic realm, with teachers resisting the change for the same reasons human beings have countered change since the dawn of humanking.

Paradigm shifts, like all changes, do not occur without the influence of a change agent. For example, a shift from subsistence foraging to a complex, agricultural society occurred in several parts of the world due to increasingly limited resources and climatic changes; this shift in the way societies garnered and perceived their food supply significantly informed a wide range of social aspects, including family life and kinship practices, architecture, and religion. Similarly, the World Wide Web is reframing a range of core, social elements, education included.

Change resistance occurs primarily because of fear. Those who are accustomed to an existing paradigm are uncertain how a change will affect their world. Consequently, they are also anxious regarding their own role in that new world, asking themselves whether they are truly capable of supporting the new paradigm. Underlying the fear of change is the idea that, once the change occurs, there will be no going back. If the change births undesirable consequences, then the element of irrevocability is a substantial burden.

Case in point, educators fear the influence of technology because of uncertainty. They are resistant to the advent of the internet and new teaching software because they do not fully understand how the technology will affect their world. They might be worried that they will not be capable of learning how to work the new tools and, in short, be rendered obsolete under the new paradigm.

Undoubtedly, the influence of technology is considerable, and it is overhauling the world of education in more ways than one. In most instances, however, these changes are positive ones. Resisting the ability of technology to facilitate learning is, by extension, a manifestation of ignorance and closed-mindedness. Monks that used to hand-make books likely resisted the invention of the printing press as well, as it would forever change their world in a way they could not predict. However, the printing press brought unprecedented masses of people in contact with knowledge, birthing a significant paradigm shift in the way knowledge was framed in Europe and around the world.

The paradigm shift occurring now is just as critical learning as the dawn of the printing press. For this writer, the influence of technology has been both personally and professionally relevant, with mobile phones and the internet affecting every facet of his world. For Oman, technology has facilitated connections that would have been impossible only a decade ago, making education more accessible and channeling interaction with the global marketplace. Change is, in short, a challenge; it demands learning in order to become accustomed to the new paradigm. In the end, however, change is a mainstay of the human world, and society depends on it for its very survival. As technology becomes increasingly integral to education, there will be more learners with access to information, greater personal freedom, and visible movement toward a global society defined by education, equality, and connection.

Psychology of Female Spouses of International Students

Research Proposal: The high degree of psychological anxiety experienced by the female spouses of international students (with a focus upon Melbourne, Australia)

Abstract

The ensuing paper looks at anxiety and stress levels in the spouses of international students working and living in Melbourne, Australia. The paper shall outline the problem issue, provide some context, and delineate the general aims of the study, the major questions to be answered, and the overarching interview methodology that will be pursued. Rationale, methods and a succinct literature review will follow. The major objectives of this study are to provide some information and insight into the experiences of the spouses of international students in Australia insofar as most of the studies conducted to date have dealt with the experiences of such individuals in the context of the United States. The candidate expects to build upon existing literature by taking what has been revealed in American and Canadian studies and seeing if such conclusions are relevant in the Australian context. The final paper shall involve a close review of the attitudes and experiences of 20 women and this sample group will be chosen randomly from the local Melbourne community. All of the individuals who are contacted will be given a chance to offer their informed consent and their identity and confidentiality will be protected.

Introduction

Much attention has been paid to the plight of international students who move to a foreign land to study. There are challenges surrounding the language; there are challenges surrounding being in a world in which the student is an outsider; and there are the inevitable challenges that accompany trying to learn new at an advanced level in an educational milieu characterized by different pedagogical practices. The plight of spouses, however, is far less frequently addressed by the scholarly literature; in fact, it is rarely addressed at all. What can be said, though, is that there is a great deal of psychological anxiety that accompanies being the spouse or partner of an international student and this paper endeavours to illuminate the stress levels of international students' spouses residing in Melbourne, Australia.

Chiefly, a study emanating from the United States reports that entering the country on a dependent visa means that female spouses are placed in an auxiliary position whereby they must privilege their husbands' dreams and aspirations and place their own in the background. Pressures that build over time and which create psychic distress are the following: English fluency (particularly how quickly one picks up the language); financial concerns arising from living in a new land where the cost of living is often higher than the land of origin; overall acculturative stress; and the stress that accompanies reversals in the male spouse's academic progress. The reality is that many of these women do feel alone and do feel stress - and that the best way of moderating this stress is for the receiving educational institution to offer spousal support programs.

However, the reason why this problem is so pressing is not that spousal psychic stress occurs - we know that it does - but that so much of the literature is devoted to the experiences of spouses residing in the United States: there is no question that "cultural misfit" is a prime predictor of depression and of psychological stress in spouses accompanying partners to the United States for their studies; yet, because the matter is looked at solely within the US context, we have little means of knowing if the problems encountered in this country by the spouses of international students (chiefly, the female spouses of international students) are problems that can be generalized or extended to other lands, as well. Understanding the problem as it exists within the community of Melbourne, Australia, allows us to tackle the issue much closer to home.

Problem Background

The background of this problem presumably dates back many decades; after all, talented graduate students have been flocking to western universities for many years and Australia is certainly no exception to this phenomenon. However, the study how the spouses of international students respond psychologically to a new world, a new culture, and a new regimen is a fairly recent one: the oldest study this writer uncovered vis-a-vis the psychological anxiety endured by the female spouses of international students dates back to 1987 - but it deals with international students studying at the University of Pittsburgh and much of the study looked at the psychic stressors confronting the students themselves and not just their spouses.

Studies which look at the levels of psychological anxiety or stress amongst female spouses of international students in the Australian context are quite rare and much of the research data looks at the American experience or, in rare instances, at the experiences of spouses accompanying their male spouse to Canadian universities. What emerges from the existing American literature, however, is a general sense that strong social networks must be in place so that the spouses of international students feel they have an auxiliary system that will protect them from the struggles that can accompany being in a new milieu which places a great deal of stress upon their marriage and which can force a modification of spousal roles as well as parenting roles and practices.

The problem of psychological stress and cultural adaptation, though, is not confined to North America and it extends back quite some time; we may even argue that a country like Australia, which does have a relatively high immigration level and that is a magnet for talented foreign-born students, has a greater incentive than most to explore the issues confronting the spouses of international students so that the country can continue to attract the best and the brightest from all around the globe.

Rationale or Purpose of the Study (main objective, in short)

The purpose of this study is to illuminate the levels of stress and psychological anxiety existing within 20 spouses of international students currently enrolled at the University of Melbourne and at the Royal Melbourne Institution of Technology; this research paper, for all intents and purposes, is an effort at seeing how things are at the local level.

Research Questions

The key research question is as follows: do the female spouses of international students studying in Melbourne experience high levels of stress and anxiety? A corollary to this question shall also be explored: if they do experience high levels of anxiety, why do they experience such high levels of anxiety? What factors, in short, cause their discomfiture?

Limitations and Delimitations

There are certain limitations to this research study. For one thing, although it is a quantitative study, the sample size is admittedly small: 20 people. Additionally, a simple Likert scale will be utilized to compare the relative impact of various factors influencing the psychic state of the female spouses of international students. However, the study is redeemed by virtue of the fact that it does look at the lived experiences and struggles of international spouses in the Melbourne area - which is a first in the literature.

Review of the Current Literature

As discussed previously, much of the research on the challenges and barriers confronting the female spouses of international students focuses upon the experiences of those residing in the United States (Biggler; Fonseca; Ruetrakul). Similarly, research into what must be done to assist the spouses of international students is research penned in America which deals with counselling methods explicitly geared for the American context. Nonetheless, some of the best advice appears to be that those arriving in a new land and thrust into a new setting should not retreat from their indigenous culture but should strive to connect with their fellow countrymen or countrywomen; additionally, they should embrace counselling that offers strategies for cross-cultural communication. Regrettably, though, such research does not offer the sort of explicit, detailed and prescriptive advice that might aid either international students or their spouses in these situations; rather than giving clear guidelines, the literature confines itself to mostly offering bland generalizations about what individuals - primarily international students, not their spouses - should do to combat the challenges of acculturation.

The available literature consistently overlooks the burdens shouldered by the spouses of international students. While it is duly noted that international students attending educational institutions in Australia are relatively more likely to endure depression and anxiety than their native-born colleagues, and whilst it is acknowledged that younger international students suffer from relatively greater depressive symptoms - with the additional finding that worries about academic difficulties tend to exacerbate psychological distress - there is no mention of what happens to the spouses of international students uprooted from home. One may argue that observing the struggles of one's spouse inevitably creates mental anguish and psychological anxiety for the spouses of such international students - but this hypothesis is largely untested by the extant scholarship. As one American-based study has pointed out at length, there is a paucity of literature detailing appropriate counselling interventions for international students - and there is even less concern, or literature, about how best to treat the needs of the spouses of international students. A closer look at the literature manifests that a lot of the scholarship looks at how the family of international students, in general, cope (or do not cope) with life in an alien environment.

In any case, this study clearly aims to build upon the existing literature and shall do so by asking questions that will either corroborate or disprove previous research. For one thing, studies have argued that life stage and personality are an even greater factor in the adaptation of an international graduate student's spouse to a new culture than is the culture of origin of that spouse. Other, earlier, studies suggest that language acquisition is the principle confounding factor in whether or not international student wives adjust to the new land of which they are now a part. Via in-depth interviewing, it shall be possible to see if this is really the case for the women with spouses studying in the Melbourne area.

Research Design (Methods)

The research design of this study involves in-depth interviewing with 20 female spouses of international students enrolled at the University of Melbourne and at the Royal Melbourne Institution of Technology. I shall build up rapport with my interviewees, ascertain their chief concerns and areas of interest, and then gradually begin to probe what concerns or fears they may have as their spouses pursue their studies. I am interested in, and will pursue, this approach chiefly because it is more direct and efficient than merely observing people from a distance and my interview subjects are individuals chosen at random (for a detailed exploration of the in-depth interviewing process I will follow, please see Taylor & Bogdan, pp.88-93).

I should add that my interviewing approach will involve the avoidance of rigid interview questions - at least at the start. Instead, in keeping with the imperatives of feminist interviewing methodologies, I will embrace allowing my subjects the luxury of wide-ranging and free-ranging conversations and dialogues that will allow them to reveal their own stories at their own incremental pace; I seek to give these women a comfort level so that they can converse freely on their concerns and preoccupations as strangers in a strange land.

At this time, I am not looking at contacting women from a specific cultural or ethnic or racial group; this may change, however, as I further work on formulating my research methodology. In any case, the subjects will be women chosen randomly from a larger group of international student spouses with whom I am well-acquainted.

Assumptions

I assume that, by employing a careful in-depth interviewing approach, I will be able to elicit truthful responses from these women. I also assume that the women will be more willing to confide in a female confidante than in a male researcher. Finally, my own belief is that certain factors - chiefly, concerns about learning the language and culture, fears about the scholastic progress of spouses, concerns about social isolation, and the difficulty in balancing one's indigenous identity with the assimilative pressures of the host society - will be the chief causes of psychic strain amongst these women.

Procedures

My procedures are not intended to be complicated. I will commence by identifying particular individuals with whom I wish to work - using the broad criteria already detailed above. From there, I will proceed to gain their trust and support by assuring them of confidentiality and by gradually eliciting more and more open responses from them courtesy the use of in-depth questioning. I will, as befits an interviewer employing feminist sensibilities, also empathize with them and make plain to them my own challenges as the female spouse of an international student from abroad. As per Yin, I will offer open-ended questions, at least to start, that are non-threatening and that make it possible for my line of inquiry to be addressed satisfactorily (p.107). After a sufficient period of time, perhaps 2 or 3 conversations, I will engage with the formal interview. Although I noted earlier that I was leaning heavily towards the usage of a Likert scale model, I may eschew this in favour of simply recording and transcribing interviewee responses and then later interpreting these transcriptions without formally requesting the subjects to rank which factors appear to be the ones that give them the greatest psychological anxiety or distress.

Ethical Considerations

Clearly, there are some tricky cultural issues at work in any study of this sort. Principally, it is possible that some interviewees may not be eager to speak to another woman about their problems without their spouse present - or they may feel ill-suited to discuss such matters at all. At the same time, confidentiality is very important because the women in question may end up discussing stressors within their own relationships that could be embarrassing if these revelations were made public. Therefore, it is vital that names be changed and that the interviewer exercise extreme judiciousness in terms of evaluating what information should appear in the final paper and what material should be cut out. I shall closely adhere to the values of beneficence and justice - as well as to the imperative of informed consent - when I conduct my interviews.

References

Biggler, M, Exploratory Study of Distress among spouses of international students, Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B, The Sciences and Engineering, vol.69, no.2(B), p.1316.

Chen, LK, Negotiating identity between career and family roles: a study of international graduate students' wives in the US, International Journal of Lifelong Education, vol.28, no.2, pp.211-226.

Chittooran, MM and Sankar-Gomes A, 'The families of international students in US universities: Adjustment issues and implications for counsellors,' In HD Singaravelu and M Pope (eds.), A Handbook for counselling international students in the United States, American Counselling Association, Alexandria, VA.

Fonseca, Maria Eugenia, Factors related to parenting stress and satisfaction among international students with accompanying families and their spouses, Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, vol.56, no.9(A), p.3756.

Martens, VP and Grant, PR, A Needs Assessment of International Students' Wives, Journal of Studies in International Education, vol.12, no.1, pp.56-75.

Mori, S, Addressing the mental health concerns of international students, Journal of Counselling and Development, vol.78, pp.137-144.

National Health and Medical Research Council, National Statement in Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans, AusInfo, Canberra.

Ostler, S, An English language program for wives of international students, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green.

Pedersen, P, Counselling International Students, The Counselling Psychologist, vol.19, no.1, pp.10-58.

Reinharz, S and Davidman, L, Feminist Methods in Social Research, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Ruetrakul, P, 'A study of problems and stress of Southeast Asian students with accompanying families at the University of Pittsburgh,' paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society, Washington, DC.

Taylor, S and Bogdan R, "In-depth interviewing," in Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: A Guidebook and a Resource, 3rd edition, Wiley, New York.

Tian, PSO and Notowidjojo F, Depression and loneliness in overseas students, International Journal of Social Psychiatry, vol.36, no.2, pp.121-130.

Yellig, A, The experiences of married international graduate students and their accompanying non-student spouses in the US culture: A qualitative study, Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, vol.71, no.8(B), pp.5167.

Yin, R, Applications of Case Study Research, 2nd edition, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, California.

About Multiple Intelligences

Abstract

Howard Gardner's multiple intelligence theory (MIT) has been controversial since its 1983 inception; and yet, educators continue to embrace MIT fervently within the twenty-first century classroom. This review of literature suggests that MIT is deeply, methodologically flawed, with the very criteria through which Gardner evaluates an intelligence being outdated by neurobiological innovation. In short, while the field of neurobiology has made significant strides in recent decades, MIT has only modestly evolved during the same timeframe. MIT's popularity with teachers stems, however, from the success of the theory's practical application. Likely is it that the success of MIT, however, is birthed from the provision of diverse learning experiences to an equally diverse student population.

Table of Contents
Abstract
Introduction
Review of Literature
Birthing the Theory
The Original Seven Intelligences and Classroom Application
Initial Success of MIT
Initial Criticism of MIT
Synthesis: MIT during the 1980s and 1990s
Amending the Theory
Outcomes of MIT in the Twenty-First Century Classroom
Current Criticism of MIT
Criticism of Classroom Application of MIT
Neurological and Biological Criticism of MIT
Ongoing Popularity of MIT with Educators
Conclusions
References

Introduction

Nearly three decades since its inception, Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences continues to be significantly popular in American schools. While there is, consequently, a wealth of literature regarding the theory, there is a converse dearth of empirical evidence that supports Gardner's assertions. This inquiry delves into the evolution of multiple intelligence theory (MIT), affording particular respect to the disparity between the theory's empirical validity and its popularity.

Though the theory has changed somewhat over time, MIT remains largely similar to its original state (Gardner). In his text entitled Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century, Gardner writes that "over the past few centuries, particularly in Western societies, a certain ideal has become pervasive: that of the intelligent person. The exact dimensions of that ideal evolve over time and setting.... At the beginning of the twentieth century, the intelligent person was one who could be dispatched to the far corners of an empire and who could then execute orders competently." Gardner's earlier text in which he first articulated MIT sought to define intelligence as variable and cognition as diverse (Allix; Gardner).

The principle argument of MIT was and continues to be that general intelligence theories are far too narrow to accurately measure human potential. Gardner argued that higher forms of intelligence, such as creativity, are impossible to measure via traditional methods. MIT asserts that conventional IQ perceptions of intelligences are one-dimensional and not conducive to the classroom. In recognizing a broader set of competencies, Gardner acknowledges the existence of intelligences to which most intelligence assessments do not cater, such as musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, existential, and naturalist intelligences. However, MIT continues to recognize the traditional forms of intelligences as well; those being logical-mathematical and verbal-linguistic. The pluralistic view of intelligence offers an alternative to the comparatively narrow profiles of human cognition and mental competence that predated Gardner's work.

MIT revolutionized curriculum by charging teachers to recognize that students could not be rank-ordered according to some predetermined view of mind and intellect (Allix). By recognizing that each student has various strengths and weaknesses, teaching strategies must then be varied considerably to suit the diverse needs of the student population. Undoubtedly, MIT would seem to have placed greater burden on educators by construing most forms of traditional assessment outdated or not conducive to most students, but academic circles have been the ones most supportive of Gardner's work.

Much of the criticism of MIT stems from the psychology profession. Cognitive science research literature is inconclusive and mixed when it comes to MIT, and empirical validation of the theory has proved impossible. In his article entitled "The Theory of Multiple Intelligences," Allix writes that "assessing the virtues of a conceptual framework such as MI theory requires more than hard evidence, or mere empirical adequacy alone, for recent developments in the philosophy of science have shown that the epistemological basis for theoretical virtue in any domain requires considerably more than this." The author argues that while a dearth of empirical evidence surrounding MIT is problematic, there are few instruments that exist which could validate or disconfirm the theory.

In 2011, over a decade since Allix asserted the need for a manner in which to measure the validity of MIT, the theory remains controversial and no concrete methodology has been developed through which to measure the validity of MIT. It remains, however, that the theory is significantly popular among Western academia and has raised important questions regarding learner diversity. While Gardner recognized the merit in a single dimension of intelligence, he has cited that students are marginalized by narrow teaching strategies. More saliently, Gardner contended that while a single form of intelligence is convenient, it is grossly inaccurate.

Review of Literature

Gardner contended in his Frames of Mind text that his works extends that of the ancient philosophers who shared his belief that the intellect can be parceled. He recognized that his work was and would continue to be controversial, as he cited theories of the mind have always been: "I doubt that topics like free will or the conflict between faith and reason will ever be resolved to everyone's satisfaction. But, in other cases, there may be hope for progress.... The time may be at hand for some clarification about the structure of human intellectual competence." Gardner begins his text by citing that previous theories regarding independent intelligences, such as those asserted by Piaget and other pedagogical psychologists and those asserted by IQ test creators, have been unconvincing because they are narrowly drawn. MIT is different, by extension, because of the methodology employed whilst originating the theory.

Birthing the Theory

Gardner birthed his theory by synthesizing a myriad of data, much of which was neurological in nature. He critically investigated evidence regarding brain development, affording particular attention to autistic and brain damaged children, seeking out a better classification of human capabilities. Gardner recognized, for instance, that autistic children would have a range of abilities similar to those of a gifted child, and thus categorizing these individuals merely according to an IQ was far too limiting.

The theorist argued that traditional IQ tests reflect only knowledge garnered from living in a specific, cultural context (Gardner). The tests employed in schools test only knowledge and not skill in arriving at new knowledge or solving problems and were thus bound to the test-taker's educational background. Among Gardner's chief issues with the IQ test is the instrument's failure in revealing anything about an individual's potential for future growth and learning.

Piaget, according to Gardner, was revolutionary in his perceptions of human cognition. Piaget contended that all human beings were in a constant state of sense-making, constructing hypotheses in an unabating attempt to generate new knowledge. Piaget's work was perhaps the most significant informant of MIT initially, as Gardner sought to extend Piaget's work to the specific realm of intelligence. In short, Piaget believed that every individual's cognition process was different, and Gardner asserted that, if this was so, then intelligences must vary as well.

Gardner recognized that scientific methods for orchestrating his theory would be useful, but, without such a process available he needed to apply methods that were less than empirical. Allix specifies that "although some sort of algorithm for optimally sorting out the details or factors from the mass of available data would have been desirable, the unavailability of such a procedure meant that Gardner had to resort more to an artistic judgment than a scientific assessment, by performing a kind of `subjective' factor analysis, to arrive at his map of the intelligences." Gardner contended that appropriate observation of the intelligences was a sufficient methodology through which to birth the theory.

Gardner's specific methods applied to the theory's development were, in essence, to identify potential intelligences and then evaluate those intelligences against specific criteria. If the intelligence held up against the criteria, then he deemed it worthy as being a legitimate category of intelligence. Some of Gardner's criteria for evaluating potential intelligences were as follows: a distinct, developmental history within the human brain; experimental support in the psychology field; potential isolation by brain damage. Gardner required there be biological and neurological evidence to support the existence of a specific form of intelligence, such as a noticeable pattern of breakdown in brain-damaged individuals.

Moreover, each intelligence needed to be triggered by either an internal or external stimulus. Musical intelligence, for example, is evident in the individual's sensitivity to pitch relations. Each of the seven, original intelligences and the nine, current intelligences recognized by MIT operate according to their own rules, however, with subtle variations according to required stimulus and other characteristics.

Gardner asserted that a fundamental shift in assessment philosophy was needed in order to accurately measure intelligence, as culture played a key role during intelligence measurement, according to Gardner. In short, competency in a cultural domain could be accurately assessed only by social structures that make up that same domain. Gardner defines an intelligence as "a psychobiological potential to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in at least one cultural context." Intelligence then holds cultural significance in that cognitive performance is a set of culturally significant abilities.

The Original Seven Intelligences and Classroom Application

The original intelligences articulated by Gardner were linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Linguistic intelligence refers to the capacity to use language for both personal expression as well as social interaction (Fasko). Logical-mathematical intelligence upholds the ability to make sense of underlying patterns and principles of a causal system, while spatial intelligence is the ability to represent the spatial world internally. Spatial intelligence is unique in that it is applicable to both art and science, with sculptors and engineers using spatial intelligence in their work. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to use parts of the body in order to solve a particular problem or to create something; athletes, dancers, and actors usually bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Musical intelligence refers to one's ability to hear and recognize patterns in music, and interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and empathize with others. Finally, intrapersonal intelligence is having a solid understanding of one's self, including skills and talents.

Gardner contended that teaching strategies should cater to the intelligences equally, and that educators should be cognizant of the intelligences that manifest in their classrooms. Logical intelligence, for instance, refers not just to the ability to understand math operations, but to a wide range of skills such as deductive reasoning and pattern detection (Nolen). Alternatively, spatial intelligence affords an individual the ability use mental images to solve problems and to perceive the visual world accurately even without physical stimuli; visual art caters to this intelligence in the classroom. The personal intelligences, interpersonal and intrapersonal, are social intelligences, with the former related to the ability to understand and distinguish between people's moods and sensitivities and the later dealing with the interworkings of the self. Teachers cater to interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence, respectively, by using collaborative and individually based exercises in the classroom.

Initial Success of MIT

In 1983, Gardner's work began to generate as much criticism as it did positive acknowledgement. Teachers recognized that classroom application of MIT had an empowering effect on students, particularly those who were perceived as at-risk or struggling in school (Rubado). Researchers cited that the array of teaching strategies promoted by MIT encouraged students to build upon their strengths without feeling defeated by their weaknesses (Rubado). While some critics initially contended that testing students according to their intelligence-strengths would pigeon-hole them into one of the seven categories, teachers recognized that encouraging students to apply all seven intelligences into their work allowed for more comprehensive, effective teaching methods.

Initial Criticism of MIT

Initial criticism of MIT stemmed from academic psychologists who questioned, among other things, Gardner's use of the word intelligence (Helding). While Gardner's methodology was and continues to be condemned by psychologists, others questioned the theorist's entire premise, arguing that it was not intelligence that Gardner was measuring but talents and abilities. A general lack of scientific rigor was the most frequent criticism of MIT, though this criticism rarely came from teachers, parents or students.

Synthesis: MIT during the 1980s and 1990s

The ten years that spanned the release of Gardner's Frames of Mind and the second edition of the same text saw a definite trend among educators to fervently accept and rally behind MIT. With as much vigor, however, the psychology realm rejected Gardner's theory. While teachers asserted that MIT corroborated directly with what they experienced in terms of various learning styles, the science world rejected the lack of empirical evidence to support MIT.

Irrefutably, however, MIT catalyzed an unprecedented paradigm shift in the academic world, through which a Harvard psychologist validated what teachers and curriculum developers had been beginning to notice since the 1970s; student intelligence is not limited to the realms of language and mathematics. In adamantly rejecting the idea that general intelligence (g) exists, Gardner single-handedly overhauled perceptions of the role of schools, teachers, and students. He asserted that "know-how" should always trump "know-that," birthing increased emphasis on higher-order and critical thinking, two salient elements of modern school reform efforts.

Amending the Theory

Following the release of the second edition of Frames of Mind in 1993, Gardner articulated his earlier shortcomings, responding to his critics. While he has never contended that his use of the word "intelligence" is improper or incorrect, Gardner has cited repeatedly that he failed in defending his use of the term immediately following MIT's original publication. During the 1980s, Gardner responded to his critics by citing that his use of the word, instead of talent or ability, was a "minor, lexical substitution" which he largely shrugged off as minor. He later stated, however, that he was wrong in not distinguishing intelligence from other concepts that might be perceived as closely related to intelligence, clarifying that an intelligence is a "biopsychological potential that is ours by virtue of our species membership" : " I am often asked whether an intelligence is the same thing as a talent or an ability . . . I have no objection if one speaks about eight or nine talents or abilities, but I do object when an analyst calls some abilities (like language) intelligences and others (like music) "mere" talents" (Gardner qtd. in Helding). The theorist has concluded that misconstruing intelligence for talent is birthed from a desire to instill a sort of cognitive hierarchy on people that does not exist (Helding).

The classroom outcomes of MIT's popularity among teachers during the first ten years were many and varied, with positive manifestations of the theory related to educator perceptions of students as equals. Gardner had expanded the view of human potential beyond the singly intelligent prototype, and suggested that teachers relinquish lecture-and-drill instruction and standardized assessments for more context-rich instruction (Stanford). MIT was particularly integral to special needs instruction, with educators perceiving students as possessing all seven intelligences at varying levels.

Gardner continued to evaluate and amend his theory throughout the 1990s and into the twenty-first century, adding naturalistic intelligence formally in 1999. Naturalistic intelligence refers to an individual's ability to categorize and evaluate elements and aspects of the natural world. Gardner later added existential intelligence, or the ability to think infinitely and beyond sensory perception. Gardner described existential intelligence as "the appreciation of spirituality and understanding questions about life. This intelligence relates to exploring human existence in the universe." The contemporary incarnation of MIT holds nine intelligences, with moral intelligence still being evaluated as a possible tenth intelligence.

Outcomes of MIT in the Twenty-First Century Classroom

Despite the criticism that exists surrounding the theory, MIT continues to manifest in the modern classroom. MIT has played a significant role in a myriad of school reform efforts, including recommendations for assessment alternatives. Educators who have embraced MIT most fervently assert that changing perceptions of intelligence and teaching strategies can only go so far if assessment methods remain the same. Traditional, standardized assessments, similar to the narrow IQ tests Gardner condemned, are now widely perceived as limiting learners. In his article entitled "Multiple Intelligences for Every Classroom," Stanford writes that "MI theory brings about an awareness of many assessment strategies that allow students to show they understand and can use new information in unique ways. Assessment alternatives include logs and journals, graphic organizers, observational checklists, video samples, rubrics, miscue analyses, and portfolios." By allowing students to demonstrate learning through a variety of channels, alternative assessments are more inclusive of the diverse learning needs of the student population.

Non-traditional assessments are more authentic in measuring learning for students with special needs (Stanford). Learning disabled students, for example, may struggle with written, timed exams, and MIT recognizes that not being able to succeed on an exam does not mean that a student lacks intelligence. Educators generally rallied against the No Child Left Behind Act, which heavily promoted standardized testing and detrimentally linked school funding to student achievement on standardized tests, and cited MIT as theoretical evidence against the employment of the legislation.

NCLB advocated use of direct instruction, or traditional lecture-and-drill instruction, in schools beginning as early as kindergarten. Researchers Douglas, Burton, and Reese-Durham compared student achievement in mathematics when direct instruction was applied to that when multiple intelligence teaching was applied, concluding that students faired far better under multiple intelligence methods. The authors studied the differences in learning within the context of an eighth grade mathematics classroom using the same, standardized assessment. Those learning in accordance to MIT, with a wide range of teaching strategies offered to cater to the class' cognitive diversity, scored an average of twenty-five points higher than those who learned via direct instruction methods. A salient limitation of this study, however, was a narrow explanation of the methodology, as there were few distinctions between direct instruction methods and those corresponding to MIT.

While undoubtedly popular throughout K-12 classrooms, MIT has had a less weighted effect on higher education. Griggs et al. writes that "the traditional way of thinking about college was the suit and tie wearing professor strolling in, setting down his worn leather satchel, and retrieving notes to be placed on the lectern. He would settle in to a long winded monologue about a certain topic and students would write down the pertinent pieces of information. A week or so later, there would be a written exam." The same authors contend that such strategies would be laughable in a lower education classroom during the twenty-first century, and this is attributable directly to Gardner's MIT. However, instruction in higher education institutions has been comparatively untouched by Gardner, with lectures that cater primarily to verbal-linguistic learners still being inordinately popular over collaborative and discovery-based learning (Griggs et al.). The same authors conducted a quantitative study of over 100 college students, evaluating them according to an MIT measurement tool and concluding that only twenty-three percent of learners held verbal-linguistic intelligence as a top-three strength; this would suggest that MIT-based teaching can benefit college students inasmuch as it does younger learners.

The advent of e-learning has reframed MIT to be possibly conducive to the online learning environment for students of all ages (Osciak and Milheim). Applying MIT to e-learning, specifically, expands the learning experiences to support greater collaboration between students and diversified learning experiences through the use of listservs and chatrooms. Electronic portfolios exist as a form of alternative assessment conducive to online learners and encourage cumulative, visual representations of work. However, there are intelligences that remain more limited within the context of e-learning, particularly interpersonal intelligence.

Current Criticism of MIT

While the theory has evolved somewhat since its 1983, common criticisms of MIT have remained largely the same since its inception. While educators generally support the outcomes of MIT in the classroom, there are researchers who condemn even the practical application of the theory. More frequently, however, criticism of MIT stems from the realms of neurobiology and psychology.

Criticism of Classroom Application of MIT

While MIT does not support the idea that different races or cultural groups would perform differently than others, some researchers have contended that MIT can support stereotyping. Rigidly profiling students according to their strengths and weaknesses is as problematic as using a traditional IQ score to determine the learning needs of a student. Along similar lines, MIT has the potential to limit students who begin to define their potential according to MIT. For instance, a student who scores low in the logical-mathematical category may assume that s/he is simply incapable of performing well in science or math and essentially give up in these subject areas (Gray and Viens).

More controversially, Gardner's work as it manifests in the classroom has been criticized for unfairly negating the potential of gifted students (Henshon). In essence, MIT argues that all children are equal and gifted, and thus special programs for gifted students are not necessary if MIT is properly applied to the classroom (Henshon). Gardner has defended himself and his theory against this criticism, however, citing that his "background is in psychology-cognitive development and neuropsychology. I wasn't focused in education or giftedness and I wrote about the different types of intelligence. I saw that as a contribution to psychology but people who took it up were much more interested in education." Gardner has also cited that giftedness is different than intelligence, though he fails to articulate precisely what accounts for these differences.

Neurological and Biological Criticism of MIT

More complex criticism of the theory surrounds its most basic premises (Allix). The nature of human competency as it manifests in the proverbial real world is not narrowed by a single form of intelligence but a combination of many intelligences. Allix writes "an example here is tool manufacture and use, where both human and non-human creatures are known to be capable of making or deploying various objects to remedy problems.... Such skills require not only visual-spatial, but also bodily-kinesthetic competence." Even more intelligence-combinations are demanded by complex activities, such as engineering for instance, and thus intelligence is generally encountered smoothly. By extension, MIT may be useful in the classroom but is less relevant in the greater context of society. Moreover, if school is meant to prepare students for the professional world, in which intelligence is measured and encountered as a seamlessly functioning entity, then MIT may not be serving students in the academic world

MIT falls short in other areas as well. Allix writes in his aforementioned article that Gardner struggles to explain cognitive experiences such as commonsense and metaphorical capacity, having no specific intelligence umbrella under which these experiences could fall, and only superficially explains the existence of the nine intelligences. The same author questions Gardner's methodology at defining an intelligence, suggesting that verbal-linguistic intelligence, in particular, does not meet Gardner's criteria for an intelligence because it is formed via interwoven components, only some of which are strictly linguistic in nature. Moreover, the failure to have a concrete methodology in place for validating the theory, according to Allix, undermines the integrity of MIT altogether.

Gardner's methods of identifying a possible intelligence and then applying that intelligence to a set of subjectively decided upon criteria is problematic, as it was Gardner himself that posited the nine intelligences and then upheld them to his own criteria. Gardner's defense of his methodology has been fairly weak, with the theorist rightfully contending that it would be impossible to scientifically test every aspect of MIT. Gardner defended his theory against accusations that criticized it for neglecting the interconnected nature of intelligence, writing that the intelligences were not mutually exclusive but were autonomous.

Additional condemnation of the theory has frequently surrounded the personal intelligences. Intrapersonal intelligence is an internal capacity to access one's own feelings and emotions, but psychologists are particularly skeptical of such ability being deemed a form of intelligence. Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to evaluate the moods and feelings of others. Both personal intelligences demand an end result in order to be effectively evaluated, a characteristic not as evident in the other seven categories. The personal intelligences are, in fact, largely conceptual and changeable, according to MIT's critics, and Gardner has been ambiguous at describing why the personal intelligences diverge so drastically from his other categories. Gardner's defense of the personal intelligences, specifically, has been to cite the union between personal and interpersonal intelligence as a second-level regulator, or an emerging, higher self.

While such flaws identified in MIT could be, and indeed have been, cited as minor, the combination of these flaws calls into question the validity of MIT. If Gardner admits that the personal intelligences do differ fundamentally from the other seven intelligences but fails to be able to explain why these differences exist, then the entire methodology supporting MIT is problematic at best and downright invalid at worst. Allix synthesizes that Gardner's weak defense of certain aspects of his theory- namely, the personal intelligences and the lack of attention afforded to interconnectivity of intelligence- raises "questions about the overall coherence of MI theory, since anomalies concerning the status of some intelligences vis-a-vis other identified types, suggests that there are inconsistencies in how the criteria for identifying an intelligence are applied." Moreover, neurobiological research supports a less compartmentalized perception of knowledge, increasingly indicating that connections exist between the areas of the brain which Gardner has long asserted to be separate and distinct from one another. Because Gardner lacks the methodological capacity to empirically support his theory, the holes in MIT are gaping ones, as a flaw in Gardner's criteria for arriving at an intelligence would compromise the integrity of the entire theory.

Ongoing Popularity of MIT with Educators

Strides in the neurobiology field have rendered MIT increasingly, empirically flawed; and yet, the theory remains popular in the classroom and has demonstrated success in fostering student achievement. MIT was embraced fervently by educators during the 1980s and 1990s due to an increasingly evident void in traditional education. MIT stepped in to fill the gap left by traditional assessment and a narrow perception of students as fundamentally unequal. Gardner cited in his article entitled "On the Three Faces of Intelligence" that "it is misleading to think of humans as possessing but a single intellectual capacity, which almost always amounts to an amalgam of linguistic and logical-mathematical skills. Rather, examined from an evolutionary perspective, it makes more sense to conceptualize human beings as having several relatively autonomous mental faculties." Gardner's chief problem with general intelligence is that it negates the potential of humans to be intelligent in areas outside of verbal-linguistics and logical-mathematics.

For educators, MIT provided an avenue to cater to a diverse student population. The critics of MIT do not usually fundamentally condemn the classroom application of MIT. Rather, they cite that the theoretical framework is problematic. By extension, while MIT may be methodologically flawed, that is not to say that the theory is not beneficial to students. Gardner has consistently condemned the semantic criticism of his theory, contending that arguing over the proper definition of intelligence negates his entire premise.

The empirical evidence suggests that MIT does benefit the contemporary classroom, but these benefits could stem from a wide range of elements and are not necessarily attributable to MIT. For instance, the aforementioned study in which MIT-based instruction was compared to direct instruction in a middle school classroom could have been significantly informed by the educators' presentation of multiple channels for learning to all students, rather than tailoring the instruction to a particular intelligence (Douglas, Burton, and Reese-Durham). The success of MIT in the classroom could simply stem from its encouragement of educators to be more sensitive to learner diversity and provide an array of opportunities for learning. Moreover, the provision of alternative assessments, collaborative learning, and other ways in which MIT has informed curriculum could simply be engaging to students who have tired of traditional instruction methods.

While traditional instruction does indeed work well for some types of learners, it undoubtedly does not bode well for others (McClellan and Conti). Educators acknowledged the existing gaps in the system and MIT provided a possible way in which to tailor instruction to student needs. The popularity of the theory has continued in the twenty-first century because MIT's practical application does seem to support learning for students in a way that traditional methods do not.

Conclusions

Gardner contended that the purpose of school is to develop intelligences and aid students in reaching professional goals that are conducive to their specific, intelligence spectrum. Such a definition does not account the unfragmented manner in which intelligence manifests in the real world, however. Perhaps more saliently, though, the realm of academia is already fragmented, broken down into specific subjects that will likely not be applied in the same compartmentalized fashion after students graduate. MIT could then be exacerbating an existing problem in the education system by further segmenting that which should be more cohesive.

The methodological framework for MIT, as evidenced in the literature, is deeply flawed. Problems stem primarily from poor definitions of that which constitutes an intelligence, increasingly countered by innovations in the neurobiological field (Allix). Despite a range of updates in the study of the human brain since MIT's 1983 inception, the theory has evolved only moderately and will likely be viewed as largely outdated in the coming years. Nevertheless, cognitive diversity is a mainstay of the modern classroom, and one that Gardner's work unprecedentedly highlighted.

References

Allix, N. M. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences: A Case of Missing Cognitive Matter. Australian Journal of Education, 44(3), 272.

Campbell, L., & Campbell, B. Multiple Intelligences and Student Achievement: Success Stories from Six Schools. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Douglas, O., Burton, K. S., & Reese-Durham, N. The Effects of the Multiple Intelligence Teaching Strategy on the Academic Achievement of Eighth Grade Math Students. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 35(2), 182-193.

Fasko, D. J. An Analysis of Multiple Intelligences Theory and Its Use with the Gifted and Talented. Roeper Review, 23(3), 126.

Gardner, H. Frames of Mind The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (2nd ed.). New York: BasicBooks.

Gardner, H. Intelligence Reframed Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. On the Three Faces of Intelligence. Daedalus, 131(1), 139-173.

Gray, J. H., & Viens, J. T. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Understanding Cognitive Diversity in School. National Forum, 74, 22-47.

Griggs, L., Barney, S., Brown-Sederberg, J., Collins, E., Keith, S., & Iannacci, L. Varying Pedagogy to Address Student Multiple Intelligences. Human Architecture, 7(1), 55-88.

Helding, L. Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Journal of Singing, 66(2), 193-205.

Henshon, S. E. The Evolution of Creativity, Giftedness, and Multiple Intelligences: An Interview with Ellen Winner and Howard Gardner. Roeper Review, 28(4), 191-216.

Hoerr, T. R. Becoming a Multiple Intelligences School. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Martin, G. P., & Burnette, C. Maximizing Multiple Intelligences through Multimedia: a Real Application of Gardner's Theories. MultiMedia Schools, 7, 28-46.

McClellan, J. A., & Conti, G. J. Identifying the Multiple Intelligences of Your Students. Journal of Adult Education, 37(1), 13-44.

Nolen, J. L. Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom. Education, 124(1), 115-134.

Osciak, S. Y., & Milheim, W. D. Multiple Intelligence and the Design of Web-Based Instruction. International Journal of Instructional Media, 28(4), 355-371.

A Primer on Multiple Intelligences. NEA Today, 15, 17.

Rubado, K. Empowering Students through Multiple Intelligences. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 10(4), 233-248.

Simmons, S. Multiple Intelligences at the Middle Level: Models for Learning in Art and across the Disciplines. Art Education, 54, 18-31.

Stanford, P. Multiple Intelligence for Every Classroom. Intervention in School & Clinic, 39(2), 80-105.

High-School Athletics Program for Adolescents

Abstract

This essay points to the instability and turmoil that is intrinsic to the adolescent years possibly reducible, according to scientists, to the literal immaturity of the adolescent brain. The benefits of exercise for adolescents are scientifically demonstrated, with the essay then concluding with a report that, analyzing the evidence from over 50 countries, asserts the importance of a program of physical education and sport for the school student.

The Turmoil in the Adolescent Years

G. Stanley Hall, one of history's greatest psychologists, had long ago classified the adolescent years as characterized by convulsive instability and stress. Although the overall consensus of experts seems to be that adolescences is not an exceptionally difficult period, recent reanalysis of these post-child-pre-adult years argues somewhat differently: "Although not all adolescents experience storm and stress [nevertheless] storm and stress is more likely during adolescence than at other ages" (Arnett quoted by Weiten).

A cursory glimpse of the evidence reveals a corroborative picture. Adolescent suicide seem to be lower than suicide committed by older age groups, but experts actually estimate that when suicide attempts are taken into the picture, adolescent suicide by far outnumbers suicidal deaths and attempts by other groups. The ratio, in fact, of attempted to complete suicide comparing adolescents to that of older age groups is between 100 to 1 climbing as high as to 200 to 1. In the United States alone, about 2% of adolescent males and about 5% of adolescent females attempt suicide each year.

When adolescents are not occupied with attempting to kill themselves, it seems as though they are obsessed with attempting to harm others. Adolescent violence is notorious for its existence, as wit the recent years of tragic shootings at many national high schools. Arrest rates for assault, rape, robbery, and murder have been statistically shown to climb during the adolescent years until age 18 and have then declined. "There is a distressing association," notes Weiten, "between adolescence and the prevalence of violent crime," and some researchers connect this to the neurology of the adolescent brain.

The adolescent brain is literally immature. Neuroscientists have recently discovered that the neurons are not fully myelinated in the adolescent brain as was formerly thought. On the contrary, increased myelination (neurons forming and connecting one with the other) is continuing all the term in sync with synaptic pruning (the elimination of less-active synaptic neurons), and neuroscientists have discovered that the process is only complete in the post-adolescent years. Most significantly, this process of continuing myelinization and synaptic pruning are most pronounced in the prefrontal cortex, and the prefrontal cortex is the "executive control center" where all rational thought and activity (such as planning, emotional regulation, response inhibition, and organization) is said to occur. What this means, in other words, is that the adolescent can, in a manner of speaking, not be held guilty for reckless or impulsive or otherwise seemingly "irrational" behavior. His brain is literally not fully developed.

That the adolescent's brain is not wholly developed can be evidenced in other behavior. There is her or his risky conduct; fluctuating moods; conflicts with parents and peers and others. Adolescents typically engage - more than any other age groups do - in risky behavior such as reckless driving, experimentation with drugs and other addictive compounds, unprotected sex, dangerous driving, perilous stunts and so forth. This tendency towards risky behavior peaks during adolescence. Furthermore, research indicates that adolescents do display far more violent moods than age groups younger or older than they do, whilst interpersonal conflicts escalate during these years. Although turmoil in adolescence, as Weiten observes, is far from universal, the adolescent years are certainly more stressful than those from any other developmental period.

Importance of Exercise for Adolescents

According to a report issued by WebMD, the foremost and one of the most authoritative web sites on medical concerns, "Regular exercise reduces the amount of stress hormones in the body, resulting in a slower heart rate, relaxed blood vessels, and lower blood pressure."

Multiple studies show that engaging in consistent exercise promotes emotional well-being. Moreover, research has consistently shown that maintained exercise prevents and treats moderate depression, boosting endorphins and other psychological-soothing chemicals in the body that raise the mood and assure emotional health. Other chemicals that are positively affected and aroused by exercise are those called serontonins, i.e. neurotransmitters that transmit messages from one neuron to another in the brain and are thought to impel calmness.

In short, an ongoing regime of physical exercise is important for any individual - adolescent included, and may be argued to be particularly productive for the adolescent in view of alleviating his or her natural tendency towards instability and stress. Bailey observing the quantity of reports that correlates the need for programs of physical education and sport (PES) for teens, quotes a Council of Europe report that summed up that there is:

Strong evidence ... on the positive effects of physical activities on self-concept, self-esteem, anxiety, depression, tension and stress, self-confidence, energy, mood, efficiency and well-being.

Conclusion: the Importance of a High School Athletics Program

According to Bailey's analysis of evidence that was extracted from over 50 countries, a PES can help a participant in five different areas: Physical; Lifestyle; Affective (i.e. emotional); Social; and Cognitive. PES almost certainly seems to have the potential of enhancing interpersonal conduct. Admittedly, research here is equivocal, with some research showing that in some circumstances behavior may actually worsen, but most school-based findings generally show encouraging results. Almost unilaterally, skilled and conscientious coaches and suitably trained teachers can develop social skills through their physical activities. Not only do these physical activities afford an environment for releasing the build up of stress, but they also offer situations where students can learn to interact together and engage in healthily competitive, sometimes healthily risk-taking, pursuits. PES can also reduce school absence, whilst various studies suggest that PES can enhance academic performance by "increasing the flow of blood to the brain, enhancing mood, increasing mental alertness, and improving self-esteem" (Bailey). Although results are mixed, overall research seems to indicate that programs of physical activity in school not only might make for less absenteeism, but also in many instances is associated with improved academic performance.

To sum up: Adolescents face major turmoil and stress during these developmental years. Their brains are literally premature, stimulating them to engage in behavior that is not only potentially dangerous to themselves but also to others. Exercise has been conclusively shown to augment emotional well-being. There is clear evidence that a school's athletic program can have a potent and overwhelming affect on all aspects of an adolescent's emotional and physical health. As Weiten points out:

"Programs that strive to reduce student alienation and foster healthy, supportive school environments appear to have some value in reducing school violence." If that doesn't call for high schools to implement athletics as part of their curriculum -what does?

References

Bailey, R. Physical education and sport in schools, Journal of School Health.

WebMD: Health and Fitness: how regular exercise benefits teens.

Weiten, W. Psychology: Themes and variations. USA: Thomson/ Wadsworth.

Research on Student Involvement and Student Achievement

RESEARCH ARTICLE: The paper should be written at a professional level. It must be typed in Times Roman type face and 12-point font, double-spaced with 1-inch margins on all sides, and 0.5" indentations on all paragraphs except the Abstract despite the example in the Action Research book. The paper should follow the standard research paper format:

1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Body
4. References

Citations used in text should match the reference list. Use last names of all authors, the date of publication, and page or paragraph numbers for direct quotes. Citing researchers indicates you learned the information from them or they support your point of view. Every paragraph that contains material that is new to the general public should have a citation, even if you used the same citation in the previous paragraph. Follow the APA 5th edition guidelines for citation format, referencing, and heading levels. See the APA/Library Resources Module in Blackboard for guidelines. Professional level writing is a must. Write in the third person and do not refer to yourself in the article. Do not use contractions or colloquial phrases or terms. Block quotes that are longer than 40 words. However, save quotations for when there is no better way to make the point; paraphrasing is preferred. Seek help from the Online Writing Center if needed.

Evaluation: Title (2 pts), Abstract (5 pts), Introduction (5 pts), Area of focus statement (3 pts), Research questions (5 pts), Literature review (10 pts), Data collection (15 pts), Data sources (5 pts), Data analysis and interpretations (20 pts), Action plan (15 pts), Final thoughts (5 pts), References (5 pts) = 100 total points. NOTE: 2 pts will be deducted if directions aren't followed. (**Evaluation and specific guide follow after the presentation directions.)

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The purpose of this study is to examine whether performing a single student involved assessment can improve student achievement. Further, this study will examine whether student involved assessments are more useful if consulted throughout the learning process and whether poor self-assessments at the start of learning discourages or encourages learning.

Defining the Variables

The independent variables in this study include the presence or absence of a self-evaluation, and awareness of self-evaluation. The dependent variables are the outcomes of the tests given at the end of each unit.

Research Questions

- Does performing a self-assessment improve achievement on a given scale?
- Does a positive self-assessment coincide with better achievement?
- Does a poor self-assessment coincide with greater improvement?
- Does knowledge of a self-assessment coincide with improvement on a given scale?

Review of Related Literature

The expectation of this study is that simply performing a self assessment will have no significant effect on test scores, but that incorporating self-assessment into teaching will provide a measurable impact on test scores, and on reported satisfaction with the overall learning experience on each unit. Previous research has shown limited correlations between self-assessment and performance (Byrd & Matthews-Somerville; Andrade, Wang, Du, & Akawi). However, the same research suggests that under certain conditions and applied in particular ways, self-assessment may indeed be able improve outcomes.

Andrade's research suggested that merely performing self-assessment improved students' understanding of the mechanics of the field of study. However, her research showed that instructional rubrics, not checklists, are required in order to improve outcomes. Andrade and Boulay found that two, facilitated, 40-minute self-assessment sessions did not create a consistent, measurable improvement in students' writing.

The research on self-assessment suggests that it can do more to help students understand teacher expectations, but it does not necessarily improve learning. There are two considerations that are interesting to consider on this point. One is that extensive self-assessment has a psychological affect on the learning, causing them not to focus their learning on weak areas, but to assume that weak areas are something they are not good at, thus securing poor performance (re-find that researcher!). The second, and one that this research will examine, is that in more mathematical or scientific arenas, improving knowledge of expected outcomes may improve learning. Writing is a different type of task and Andrade did not separate spelling or grammar improvements from stylistic elements like word choice, organization, or sentence fluency. It is possible that the interactive and design elements of the subject area are more amenable to improvement.

- Data Collection
- Data Sources
- Data Analysis and Interpretation
- Action Plan
- Final Thoughts

References

Andrade, H.G. Teaching with rubrics: the good, the bad, and the ugly. College Teaching, 53.1. p.27-31. Expanded Academic ASAP.

Andrade, H.G., & Boulay, B.A. Role of rubric-referenced self-assessment in learning to write. The Journal of Educational Research, 97.1. p21-35. Expanded Academic ASAP.

Andrade, H.L., Wang, X., Du, Y., & Akawi, R.L. Rubric-referenced self-assessment and self-efficacy for writing. The Journal for Educational Research, 102.4. p.287-301. Expanded Academic ASAP.

Byrd, T. & Matthews-Somerville, R. Efficacy of student's self-assessment. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 11.1. p.162-166. Expanded Academic ASAP.

Studying at the Graduate Level

Education at the graduate level and particularly degree programs intended to enhance professional skills involve adult learning for both domestic and international students. Graduate students often have previous work experience in a professional field and are self-motivated and self-directed in their pursuit of additional education. The application of adult learning theories to graduate programs have been successful for enhancing the students' perception of the value of the educational experience. In addition, the use of adult learning theories to shape the educational methods used in graduate programs increases the understanding of students of social problems and approaches to address the problems.

According to Franz, "No clear consensus exists on the specific theoretical base of adult education." Some of the major theories related to adult learning include behavioral theory, andragogy theory, and transformative learning theory. These theories have some common elements concerning a motivational requirement to support learning but differ in the models used to describe the mechanisms leading to motivation and knowledge acquisition among adults (Huang, 2002). The theories are also based on a fundamental assumption that the adult learner had different needs that must be met by an educational program when compared to a child or adolescent learner.

The early behavioral theory of learning postulated that learning occurs in response to a stimulus that motivates the actions that result in learning. If the learning meets the expectations of the learner, the knowledge will be accepted and reinforced through repetition. If the learning fails to meet the expectations of the learner, it will be rejected and the knowledge will be lost. In addition, the theory proposes that learning takes place through repetition of a cue and response in which the perceived benefits of the knowledge are reinforced through repetition. One of the shortcomings of the behavioral theory of learning is its failure to distinguish between the external stimuli used to motivate children to learn and the internal stimuli motivating adult learners.

The behavioral learning theories are the foundation for the constructivist approach to education. In this model, the role of the teacher or instructor is to shape the students' experience of the environment to enable them to construct knowledge their experience. The adult students bring their past experiences with them into the educational environment. The learning process assists the students with developing reasoning processes to develop a better understanding of the meaning of these experiences and how they fit into a larger pattern of knowledge. At the same time, learning takes place in a socio-cultural environment in which students interact with each other. This interaction results in a social construction of knowledge concerning the meaning of experiences. In effect, the theory postulates that individuals construct knowledge concerning the reality around them through interactions with others, which produces a collective understanding. The learning process occurs through these interactions whether they are formal in a classroom or informal through contact with instructors and peers.

The andragogy theory of learning originated with the seminal work of Knowles that distinguished self-directed adult learning from externally directed pedagogical approaches used to motivate childhood learning. In the andragogy model, the adult learner is presumed to be self-motivated and autonomous with the learner adopting full responsibility for acquiring knowledge. The teacher has a collaborative rather than a directive relationship with the adult learning and does not attempt to control the learning process. The teacher provides information and guidance, but allows the adult learner to set the pace and direction of the learning experience based on the assumption that the adult learner can determine the type and extent of useful knowledge. The andragogy theory also considers some methods of adult education more effective such as self-guided discovery because they conform to the motivations and autonomous position of the adult learner.

Andragogy relies on several assumptions concerning the adult learner. The adult student needs to understand how the learning will occur, the content of the material that will be learned, and reason the learning is important. The adult learner will not voluntarily engage in learning unless this basic information is apparent. The adult learner also desires to take control over the techniques of learning, which is important to maintain autonomy in the learning process. As a result, the adult learner determines the most suitable approach to learning to match their particular style of acquiring information and knowledge about a topic. The andragogy theory is also based on an assumption that adult learners will seek education when some event or situation creates a need for new knowledge or information. As a result, they are strongly motivated to learn to solve a personal problem or to achieve a goal or objective.

Transformative learning theory is based on the premise that the learning experience for adults produces some type of transformation in perceptions or viewpoints. The transformation results in a more mature guide for action. The transformative process is bounded by a frame of reference composed of existing paradigms and assumptions that influence thinking and the understanding of events. In this theory, learning consists of challenging existing paradigms and assumptions, requiring reflection and assessment of their validity. The outcome of the learning process is a paradigm shift that results in a different understanding of reality and the type of actions necessary to achieve goals.

In the general learning context proposed in transformative learning theory, the educator functions as a facilitator to assist the adult learner with challenging paradigms and development new perspectives the learning will use to guide future actions. Critical reflection plays a central role in the learning process with the educator in a horizontal relationship with the learner intended to provide guidance and mentoring rather than instruction. In addition, transformative learning theory incorporates elements of constuctivism by presuming that the adult learner has multiple interactions with peers from different backgrounds and often from different cultures, fostering the learner to challenge existing paradigms and perspectives.

Research conducted by Brown determined that the application of the principles of both the andragogy and transformative theories of adult education are effective in motivating and shaping the perspectives of graduate students in educational administration programs. The content and methods used in the program relied on transformative learning theory, and focused on assisting students to develop critical thinking skills and reflections focusing on social justice and equity in the educational institution. The transformation from the current state of understanding to a more reflective state of understanding was intended to support the ability of the students to take action to improve social justice and equity in the schools where they would be employed after completion of the program. The specific procedure relied on challenging the ontological and epistemological assumptions of the students concerning approaches to education. The specific instructional methods used in the program relied on andragogy theory, with students presumed to be self-motivated and self-directed. Using data obtained from a survey questionnaire, Brown determined that the use of transformative approaches in graduate education increases the students' perceived growth in awareness of social justice and equity issues and strategies for action to implement social justice.

Variants of transformative leaning theory include neurobiological transformation theory and cultural-spiritual transformation theory. The neurobiological variation of the theory is based on evidence that the brain cognitive process change during learning. For the learning to occur, however, there must be some initial discomfort motivating the discovery process leading to the learning. The process is strengthened by emotive and sensory experiences. The cultural-spiritual variation of the theory contends that learners construct meaning from their social, cultural, and spiritual experiences. Narratives or the storytelling that occurs internally and through interactions with others provide the foundation for constructing meaning.

The various theories concerning adult education and learning have a common factor in the assumption that individuals have an innate desire to learn that motivates adults to acquire knowledge. According to Ahl, however, the theories do not agree on the various situational, structural, or dispositional barriers that can moderate the motivation to learn. The situation or environment can increase or decrease the motivation to learn, creating variability in outcomes of the learning process. In addition, the theories do not fully address the motivations and needs of adult learners who attend programs because of employment requirements or the need to obtain a certification for career advancement.

The application of adult learning theory in graduate education is significant because of the effect of teaching methods on the satisfaction of the student with the educational experience. A pedagogical educational approach using didactic and controlling pedagogical methods could reduce the satisfaction of autonomous adult learners in graduate programs. The following section examines the factors contributing to satisfaction with graduate education.

Graduate Education and Student Satisfaction

Satisfaction with education is the effective response to the overall educational experience. It is a particularly important construct among adult learners attending a university to obtain an advanced degree because the educational experience and outcomes must match the expectations of the student to sustain the motivation to learn. Various personal and institutional factors can influence the perceptions of students towards the educational experience and their satisfaction. The institutional environment and accommodations to student needs, the relevance of the coursework to the needs of the student, and the perceived quality of instructors can influence student satisfaction with graduate programs. In addition, the graduate student must perceive that the education supports attainment of professional and personal objectives.

Some of research examining student satisfaction adopts a marketing perspective viewing the student as a service customer with the institution providing an educational service. Nicolescu notes that "Marketing theories and concepts, which have been effective in business, are gradually now being applied by many universities... with the purpose to gain competitive advantage." According to Arambewela, Hall, and Zuhair, "Education is a service that is experienced by students and other stakeholders of educational institutions who form judgments about service delivery performance in terms of its quality and consistency, which are basic properties of a service." The educational institution offers students a bundle of tangible and intangible products. The tangible product is the physical environment of the institution where residential education services are provided such as the buildings and laboratory facilities. The intangible products are the explicit service of the faculty providing the instruction and the implicit service that includes factors such as the way faculty treats students. From this perspective, the student is a customer purchasing services from the institution and forming opinions concerning the value of the service after the service has been delivered. Arambewela and Hall note that universities have inherent difficulty with developing uniform service performance because of the substantial variation in needs and attitudes among the students receiving the services.

The scope of marketing activities by institutions of higher learning envisions students as the primary customers, although the language used in educational marketing avoids commercial terms. Nonetheless, the general approach in educational marketing is customer-centric with the institution attempting to persuade prospective students that it is the best alternative to meet their educational needs. In the marketing approach used by education, students are segmented in terms of a demographic or psychographic characteristic such as international students or high achieving students. The marketing approaches in education also recognize that students purchase an educational service only one time, and are not repeat consumers of the service although they may recommend the service to others. As a result, the institution providing the educational service is inherently less concerned with developing and maintaining an ongoing relationship with students based on satisfaction with the service. While student dissatisfaction can lead to reputational damage in the long run, the student that has consumed the service will not purchase it again regardless of their level of satisfaction.

General Satisfaction with Graduate Education

Various theories attempt to identify the determinants the determinants and processes that lead to satisfaction in organizations that can be applied to the experience of students in graduate schools. Expectancy theory can be applied the motivations of students for attending a graduate program and the degree of satisfaction they experience from the program. Expectancy theory postulates that an individual assess whether an effort expended to achieve a goal will indeed result in attaining the goal. In addition, the individual must perceive that the value of the goal is commensurate with the amount of effort necessary to achieve the goal. The expectation that the goal is achievable and valuable motivates the individual to make the necessary effort to attain the goal. Dissatisfaction develops if the individual subsequently discovers a significant discrepancy between the original expectations and the actual ability to achieve the goal or the actual value of the goal. In this theoretical model, satisfaction is highest when there is substantial congruity between the expectations formed before receiving the educational service and the experience of the service. If the actual experience disconfirms the validity of the expectations, dissatisfaction develops.

Graduate students in universities have different expectations than undergraduate students because of their former experience with institutions of higher learning. As a result, they compare their graduate experience with their undergraduate experience when assessing a university or an educational program. In teacher education programs at the graduate level, students have an expectation that the educational process will foster the development of interpersonal skills and the acquisition of professional knowledge relevant to the field. Graduate students often have high expectations concerning the benefits of the educational program, which are necessary to justify the substantial commitment of time and resources necessary to pursue advanced education. The institution offering the graduate program, however, may have objectives that diverge from the expectations of the student such as producing graduates who have a positive impact on a professional or social problem. In expectancy theory, the satisfaction of the student with the graduate program depends on the degree of congruence between the student's expectations and the actual experience and outcomes of the graduate program. While the graduate student makes assumption that the program can be successfully undertaken and will lead to the desired valued goal, unanticipated difficulties or failure to achieve the goal can result in dissatisfaction with the program. At the same time factors such as the personality characteristics of the student can influence perceptions of congruence between expectations and outcomes.

Research based on expectancy theory investigating the factors influencing student satisfaction in universities has verified that the expectancy gap construct can identify factors contributing to or detracting from student satisfaction. In the research of Tan and Keck the SERVQUAL questionnaire was modified for use among university students. The SERVQUAL questionnaire was developed and validated to assess the perceptions of service quality among customers in a commercial context. The instrument measures the gap between the expectations of student and the actual educational experience of the student across various dimensions. In the modified SERVQUAL instrument, the magnitude of the aggregate gap scores correlates to the level of student satisfaction. Although this modified instrument was validated by research, it is not widely used by universities to assess student satisfaction. Arambewela and Hall used an unmodified SERVQUAL instrument to assess the gap between expectations and experiences among graduate students. Their findings determined that congruence between expectations and experience for education related factors such as quality and access to instructors accounted for the largest amount of variance in satisfaction among graduate students. Grebennikov and Skaines also found that the gap between expectations and both academic and non-academic experiences influence student satisfaction.

Based on service marketing theory and expectancy theory, Hassan, Ilias, Rahman, and Razek developed and tested a model to identify the broad factors influencing student satisfaction with educational institutions. The model was based on the traditional approach to service quality the five dimensions of tangibility, assurance, reliability, responsiveness, and empathy influence student satisfaction. Tangibility refers to the physical elements of the institution including accommodations and facilities for instruction. Assurance, reliability, and responsiveness are related to factors such as the perceived quality of instruction, the interactions with instructors, and the reputation of the institution. Empathy is the degree of concern demonstrated by the institution for the student's needs. Regression analysis of data obtained from undergraduate university students indicated that each of the five dimensions contributed to the variance in student satisfaction with the institution with perceptions of empathy accounting for the largest amount of variance. The findings of this study suggest that multiple factors influence student satisfaction with an educational experience.

Some prior research suggests that the marketing campaigns conducted by institutions of higher learning are instrumental in shaping many of the expectations of students prior to entering an educational program. Competition has increased among institutions to attract students particularly among second-tier universities that do not have a research orientation or a strong global reputation. Many universities have adopted the marketing practices used in commercial enterprises including branding and sales techniques emphasizing the attributes in a university valued by. The branding aspect of marketing links the institution with tangible attributes such as the ability to obtain a degree in certain subjects and the physical facilities of the institution. The branding also links the institution with intangible attributes such as quality of the education, social atmosphere, and utility of the degree for professional advancement. The branding efforts are essentially a marketing communication providing carefully crafted information to prospective students that foster the development of expectations concerning the educational experience at the institution. The information available in the market interacts with the goals and objectives of the students for pursuing higher education to motivate them to select a particular university or degree program.

The two-factor theory is another model of satisfaction, and postulates that satisfaction depends on the ability of the organization to meet perceived extrinsic and intrinsic needs of the individual with variables affecting the external needs known as hygiene factors and the variables affecting the internal needs known as motivation factors. In the context of graduate education, thee hygiene factors include variables such as cost and living accommodations for residential students. The motivation factors include variables such as relationships, opportunities for increased knowledge and responsibility, and the opportunity for career advancement. In this theory, improvements in the hygiene factors do not increase satisfaction, but deficiencies in these factors can lead to dissatisfaction. As a result, reducing the cost of the educational experience will not inherently result in higher student satisfaction, but increasing the cost could lead to dissatisfaction if the experience does not meet the expectations created by the pricing. Improving the motivation factors, however, can increase satisfaction. An education experience that improves opportunities for advancement in a profession or meets personal goals increases satisfaction.

While the two-factor theory is normally applied to employment situations, it is also relevant to the satisfaction of adult students with an educational experience.

DeShields, Kara, and Kaynak developed and administered a questionnaire based on the two-factor theory to identify the factors contributing to satisfaction with the educational experience among undergraduate students. The analysis of the survey data confirmed the validity of the theory when applied to the determinants of satisfaction with undergraduate level education. The findings indicate that relationships with faculty and the experience in the classroom were motivation factors and instrumental in determining satisfaction with the general educational experience. The research findings have limitations, however, because it relied on data obtained from business students a single small university. The findings cannot be generalized to students in other universities pursing different courses of study. Other research, however, has confirmed the importance of intrinsic motives for pursuing higher education for satisfaction and outcomes.

According to Lovitts, motivation is a mediating factor between what an individual can accomplish and what an individual does accomplish in higher education. Intrinsic motivation involves a positive reaction and enjoyment of a particular task. Participation in higher education particularly at the graduate level is voluntary even if an advanced degree can improve opportunity for career advancement. Intrinsic motivational factors are necessary to encourage the adult learner to engage in the necessary effort to pursue higher education. The educational experience, however, can reduce motivation if it involves rigid learning environments, extensive oversight and directive mentoring, and excessive bureaucratic requirements. From the perspective of expectancy theory, the style of instruction is one of the factors that can reduce motivation if the style creates an environment that the student perceives will require the expenditure of extra effort to achieve the goal.

The orientation and educational approach of the departments within a university can have an effect on the general satisfaction of students with education. Umbach and Porter investigated the effect on student satisfaction of the educational orientation of various departments within a single large research university in the United States. The researchers collected data with a survey questionnaire from 1,300 alumni concerning their perception of satisfaction, with the academic department as the unit of analysis. Multiple regression analysis was used to assess the data. The findings indicated that grade point average (GPA) was a predictor of satisfaction with the educational experience regardless of the department, with higher GPA leading to higher satisfaction among students. The findings also indicated that higher levels of student satisfaction were associated with departments that had a strong research focus such as the sciences and engineering. In contrast, departments with an interpersonal and skills orientation such as education, psychology, and the humanities had lower levels of student satisfaction. While this research identified the departmental patterns in student satisfaction, it did not offer an explanation for the differences other than the personal characteristics of the students attracted to the various fields of study. In addition, the use of data from a single university raises the possibility that variables specific to the university influenced the findings.

Institutional Accommodations and Facilities

Perceptions of the physical environment of the university including facilities such as laboratories can influence student satisfaction with the institution. Dissatisfaction develops when the physical environment does not meet minimum student expectations for quality. The expectations of the student for the physical environment at the institution are subjective, and often depend on the student's past experience with the physical structures in past educational experiences. In addition, students place lower value on aspects of the environment that ate not critical to education such as furnishings or the décor of buildings. Grebennikov and Skaines found that the availability of living accommodations perceived as adequate by students as well as assistance in obtaining accommodations were important factors for students that did not live near the institution. Some research, however, suggests that the physical accommodations at a university play only a minor role in student satisfaction with the educational experience. Even if the student perceives the accommodations as inadequate, other factors such as perceptions of academic quality and social interactions have a greater influence on overall satisfaction with the educational program.

From a review of research literature, Lovitts concluded both the institutional and social environment play an important role in the motivation of graduate students in residential programs to learn and to engage in educational activities beyond the minimal requirements of the program. The department in which the student studies largely controls the environment in graduate studies through its balance between andragogical and pedagogical educational approaches. In general, graduate students value a more collaborative method of education with instructors functioning as self-directed learning guides. In studies intended to enhance professional skills, graduate students also expect instructors to model the behaviors required by the profession. The conclusions of the research imply that institutions offering graduate programs should make some accommodations in approaches to education to meet the expectations of adult learners. The findings of Buchanan, Kim, and Basham, however, indicate that student expectations for graduate education are varied and depend on whether their goals involve career advancement, intellectual growth, or socialization and community involvement.

Relevance of Coursework

The literature generally suggests that students in graduate programs with professional experience in the workplace often require that the coursework is relevant to the profession and can be applied in practical situations. The relevance of the coursework is related to the autonomy found in the adult learner, with control of the learning process essential for satisfaction with the educational program. In addition, the coursework must be authentic in that it is related to the actual experiences of the students in practical situations and perceived as appropriate for the field of study.

Reynolds, Ross, and Rakow investigated the differences in the satisfaction of teachers and their principals with the coursework offered in schools of education that were classified as professional development schools and non-professional development schools. The professional development schools relied on the authentic learning paradigm in which the material was geared towards practical application in the secondary school educational environment. The non-professional development school offered coursework that was more theoretical and general in nature. The research collected data using a telephone survey, with qualitative methods used to analyze the data. The findings indicated that teachers were more satisfied with the learning they received at the professional development schools, and perceived the education experience as relevant to the teaching profession. In addition, the principals were more satisfied with the effectiveness of the teachers who had attended post-graduate programs at professional development schools rather than schools offering general programs. Although the findings of this research indicate that relevance of the coursework is a significant factor for satisfaction with the learning experience, the small sample size and the qualitative approach to the methodology reduces the ability to generalize the findings.

Quality of Instructors

Research evidence indicates that student assessment of the quality of instructors is subjective and based on their overall interactions with instructors. The perceived quality of instructors contributes to the overall perceptions of the quality of the educational program among students. The students form an expectation concerning the quality of instructors before entering the institution based on factors such as the reputation of the institution and marketing information from the school. These expectations may not be realistic, and can lead to a gap between the expectations and the experience with instructors.

The degree of interaction with instructors also contributes to satisfaction with the educational experience, with satisfaction increasing proportionate to the amount of contact with instructors. The student and particularly adult learners are more satisfied with the quality of the instructors when they perceive that they have a personal relationship with the instructor. This suggests that student assessments of instructor quality are subjective and depend on interpersonal factors rather than evaluation of instructional methods or styles. In contrast to the findings of Bain, Fedynich, and Knight and Umbach and Porter, Douglas, Douglas, and Barnes determined that students placed greater value on the teaching ability and expertise in subject matter than on personal relationships when evaluating instructor quality. These findings, however, were based on research in universities in the United Kingdom, with variations in cultural factors accounting for the differences from the findings of research conducted in the United States.

The differences in the findings of various researchers concerning the relationship between faculty interaction and student satisfaction may be because of the effect of student personality and demographic variables. Research conducted by Kim and Sax determined that factors such as student race, gender, and socioeconomic status influence the degree of interaction with faculty and the relationship between faculty interactions and satisfaction. The data was obtained from students in a large research university in the United States. The frequency of interactions was lower for some racial groups of students such as African Americans, but was similar for groupings based on gender or socioeconomic status. The frequency of interaction with instructors was also positively correlated with higher satisfaction with the quality of instructors and a higher GPA among students.

Martin, Milne-Horne, Barrett, Spalding, and Jones, G. determined that the perception of instructor quality has a correlation with the perception among students that a graduate program effectively prepared them for employment. The factors influencing perceptions of instructor quality among international students may also be related to the degree that faculty understands the differences in academic and personal needs between international and domestic students.

The accessibility and promptness of response of instructors is also a factor contributing to the perception of satisfaction with instructor quality. Students evaluate the accessibility of instructors based on flexibility to accommodate the needs of the students rather than a subjective perception of the quality of the information provided by the instructor. The flexibility of the instructor becomes more significant in distance education at the graduate level because of the asynchronous contact between the instructor and the student. Arambewela and Hall also found that access and feedback were separate antecedent variables accounting for a substantial amount of the variance in perception of education quality among graduate students. In the model developed in this research, subjective estimates of instructor knowledge, accessibility, and feedback interacted to influence perceptions of quality, which in turn influenced the level of student satisfaction.

Support Systems

In their analysis of the differences in student satisfaction among university departments, Umbach and Porter found that the academic ability of students was inversely related to their satisfaction with the educational experience. The researchers concluded that a highly selective academic department in a university resulted in greater competition during the course of study. The students perceived the competitive environment as less supportive, and a source of dissatisfaction with education. In addition, students that did not have the personal characteristics to thrive in a highly competitive environment were less motivated to complete the graduate program.

In contrast to the findings of Umbach and Porter, Bain, Fedynich, and Knight determined that the degree of personal support provided to graduate students by professors and faculty advisors increased the motivation to succeed and improved perceptions of the educational program. These authors concluded that high levels of faculty support for students creates a more nurturing educational environment that creates a sense of connection to the institution, which encourages students to persevere and succeed. Martin, et al. also found that the perception of support services in a graduate program positively influenced satisfaction with the program. In addition, these researchers identified a positive correlation between perceptions of support services and perceptions that the graduate program adequately prepares students for employment after completion of the graduate program.

Some research evidence indicates that students also value social support system because of the concern that they will not fit into the social environment of the institution. Social concerns include the ability to form friendships with other students, the general social climate in the institution, and the range of extracurricular activities. Some of these factors are beyond the control of the institution because they depend on student personality characteristics, although the institution can attempt to promote a social climate that fosters acceptance of diversity.

Career Goals and Outcomes

Career goals and anticipated outcomes are an important motivating factor for students to pursue graduate degrees, particularly after they have some professional experience. Individuals that have entered the workforce often experience events or circumstances that increase the perceived value of a graduate degree for career advancement. These individuals have experience in the profession, with the education intended to provide a competitive advantage for career advancement. From this perspective, the career goal associated with the education may be to increase marketability in a changing professional environment. In some cases, the intended outcome may be a change in career path that the graduate degree will enable. In the context of education, graduate degrees can improve existing teaching skills of support a transition into administrative tasks.

Research conducted by Browne-Ferrigno and Muth concerning the characteristics of students in graduate educational research programs determined that the majority have the career goal of entering educational administration. These students perceive that a master's degree in educational leadership is a necessary credential to compete for administrative positions in schools and school systems. The research supporting these findings was based on a meta-analysis of data in published studies, which increases the reliability of the identified trend in motives of students for attending graduate programs in educational leadership.

According to Buchanan, Kim, and Basham, the graduate student with a career objective is considered a goal-oriented learner, with the goal functioning as the motivation for engaging in the activity of learning. The student has the expectation that completion of the task will lead to the desired objective. In this orientation, satisfaction with the learning activities is not fully determined until the completion of the task and the student assesses the degree of congruence between the expected outcome and the actual outcome. In effect, the experience of learning is less important than the outcome of learning as an antecedent factor influencing satisfaction.

An investigation conducted by Knight, Tait, and Yorke found that the perceived need to obtain knowledge concerning changes in education is an important motivating factor for instructors in higher education to pursue professional training and development. This qualitative research relied on survey data and interviews with full-time and part-time instructors attending a single large online university in the United Kingdom. The participants in the study believed that ensuring that professional knowledge and practice conform to the generally accepted approaches in education was necessary to maintain employment at the institution and to secure eventually advancement such as the transition from part-time to full-time status.

Research conducted by Marginson found that the career goals of many international students in cross-border education involve the status accruing from attending a foreign university and the improvement in their prospects for obtaining better employment after graduation. The findings of this research suggest that international students assess factors such as the reputation of the institution in their particular field of study when selecting a foreign university. Arambewela, Hall, also Zuhair also determined that reputation of the graduates of the institution in a profession is a significant factor influencing students to select an institution.

One of the theoretical difficulties with satisfaction with achieving post-educational career goals is that the educational service is fully consumed before the student can determine if the outcome of the education meets their expectations. Students form an expectation that obtaining a degree from a particular university or program will enhance their career prospects when selecting the institution. The career prospect assumption is based on multiple factors include the reputation of the institution, information from peers, and information from media or marketing information from the institution. The assumptions concerning the value of the course of study for career advancement cannot be tested until the studies have been concluded and the student has fully consumed the educational product. If the student does not achieve the expected career objectives from the education, a gap develops between the outcome expectation and the actual outcome, leading to lower satisfaction with the institution or educational program.

The findings of Martin, et al. in an investigation of factors influencing satisfaction with graduate education programs indicate that several factors related to career aspirations moderate satisfaction. Significant differences exist in the factors influencing satisfaction among students intending to find post-graduate employment at the local, national, or international levels. Students with local employment aspirations were less concerned about content of the educational programs than students intending to work nationally or internationally. Students seeking employment internationally, however, evaluated their educational experienced based on their ability to find post-graduation employment in the field and the specific geographic location they had envisioned when they began their graduate studies.

Personal Goals and Outcomes

The personal goals of graduate students include acquisition of knowledge for its own sake to satisfy needs for intellectual growth and to engage in a non-routine activity involving socialization and involvement in the academic community. For students motivated to undertake graduate studies primarily by a learning orientation or a social activity orientation, the expectation is that the experience of the graduate program will meet these objectives. As a result, satisfaction depends on congruence between the expectation of achieving these personal objectives and the experience of the graduate program while studies are occurring. Satisfaction is higher when the program meets expectations for personal intellectual growth or increased opportunities for social or community activities. Personal goals for intellectual growth or socialization, however, can exist simultaneously with career goals, creating complexity if the factors influencing student satisfaction with graduate programs.

In an analysis of research concerning educational leadership programs in the United States, Browne-Ferrigno and Muth found that doctoral dissertations in the field are rarely available for other researchers and are often not considered as reliable source of information as post-graduate research. The practice of discounting the value of educational leadership research conducted in graduate school marginalizes the accomplishments of students motivated by the need to acquire knowledge for its own sake. The practice can reduce satisfaction of students with their achievements in graduate programs with the findings of the research discounted because of the status of the researcher as a student. At the same time, the student is expected to apply the knowledge obtained in the dissertation process to practical situations in the field of education.

The general research concerning student satisfaction with higher education often focuses on domestic students, although some studies consider the perceptions of international students in undergraduate and graduate programs. International students represent an increasing proportion of the student population in the industrialized nations. These students have different expectations for educational programs and different determinants of satisfaction when compared to domestic students. The following section examines the literature concerning cross-border education and satisfaction with the educational experience among international students.

Education Without Borders

Cross-border education occurs when "providers, programs, course materials, teachers or students move beyond national borders." The literature examining cross-border education generally adopts the perspective that globalization is fostering a trend towards internationalization of education with large well-established institutions competitively positioned in global markets. From this perspective, institutions of higher learning have become organizations providing an educational service for profit in an increasingly globalized environment. A particular difficulty faced by institutions, however, is the substantial variation among international students in the factors that contribute to satisfaction with education. Research evidence indicates that cultural norms and values influence the perception of factors relevant to satisfaction with higher education. As a result, institutions that host a large number of international students from many different nations can have difficulty developing standardized programs and methods to improve satisfaction.

Cross-border education is fundamentally a market-driven activity intended to meet the perceived learning and educational needs of international students who are willing to pay international prices. Competition to attract students in the global education market has created pressures on institutions and academic systems to develop programs suitable for international students. While the specific motivation for developing cross-border education programs varies among institutions, the purpose for the program is generally based on commercial considerations. International programs can expand the number of students at the institution and can improve competitive positioning by offering students a broader curriculum. Research conducted by Marginson, however, determined that cross-border education can be considered a positioned product. With this type of product, the buyer examines the benefits of purchase in terms of the value it will provide for social status or financial opportunities. As a result, the prestige and reputation of the graduates of the institution are the most significant factors for establishing the competitive position of the institution and the value of its services in the cross-border educational market.

The types of cross-border programs offered by institutions also vary and depend on the strategy adopted by the institution to attract international students. Some strategies include operating a branch campus in an international location, forming a joint venture or collaborative arrangement with an institution in another nation. According to Arambewela and Hall:

"Setting up offshore campuses by foreign institutions through branch campuses, subsidiaries or partnership arrangements, providing courses and qualifications to local students has contributed to the expansion of the international higher education."

In this model, the host nation functions as the importer of educational services while the nation where the institution is located is the exporter of educational services. Institutions can also attract international students by enhancing the curriculum with material aimed at the needs of the students. The curriculum enhancement can include employing professors from the students' home country to create a more familiar academic environment or establishing support programs for students from specific nations. Institutions with a strong international reputation such as major research universities attempt to recruit international students for residential studies at the main campus of the university, which is presented as necessary to take full advantage of the facilities and faculty of the university.

Distance education is a significant factor in cross-border education, and occurs when the buyers of the educational product remain in their home nation but are electronically connected to an institution in a foreign nation. The distance education approach to cross-border education provides an economic benefit for both the institution and the student because the cost of educational service delivery is far below the cost of traditional residential programs that require students to travel to a host country to receive the educational services. Roach and LeMasters conducted an investigation of the level of satisfaction among international students pursuing a Master's degree in education administration and leadership with distance education through an American university. The university had a residential program for the same degree, and had recently implemented a program that fully relied on distance education to attract a larger number of international students. The findings of the research determined that the students were satisfied with the academic aspect of instruction when instructors were responsive to requests and needs of the students. The expectations of students taking online courses are based only on assumptions about the learning experience and do not include expectations about the facilities or social environment of the institution offering the degree. As a result, students tend to assess satisfaction with online learning primarily in terms of relevance of course material, instructor support, and outcomes relevant to career or knowledge goals.

The general pattern of cross-border education involves institutions from industrialized nations providing educational serves to students from developing nations. This pattern is attributable to the belief that institutions of higher education in industrialized nations are better quality than similar institutions in developing nations. Investigations of the pattern of internationalization among institutions, however, suggest that not all industrialized nations have the same competitive advantages. The institutions of higher education in the United States attract the largest percentage of international students from developing nations, followed by the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and New Zealand. A common factor among these nations is the English language. Students from non-English speaking nations obtain education from English-speaking institutions to enhance their practical knowledge of the language and to improve their prospects for employment after graduation. According to Marginson, "global competition in degree programs is an export import market in positional goods, characterized by uni-directional student flows and asymmetrical cultural transformations." The cultural transformation takes place because the student must adapt to the educational paradigms and perspectives of the institution providing the educational services.

Marginson determined that the reputation of the institution is more important to international students than the quality of the teaching or the education they receive. Because space in the large research universities in the industrialized nations remains limited, many international students attend second and third tier universities. The students remain focused on the status and economic gains from graduating from a university in an industrialized nation regardless of the institution's reputational position. In contrast, Arambewela and Hall noted that the choice of a study destination among international students in residential study programs is a two-stage process with multiple factors affecting the decision in each stage. The student initially selects a country based on factors such as knowledge of the language, cost, lifestyle, and visa and immigration barriers. The student makes assumptions based on available information concerning their ability to function in a nation's educational and social environment. The second stage involves the selection of an institution in the country. The student bases the decision on the type of program offered at the institution, the reputation, and assumptions about the teaching method. The conflicting research findings suggest that multiple factors influence the decision of international students to select a particular institution for cross-border education.

Despite the assumptions of international students that institutions in industrialized nations offer higher quality education when compared to their home nation, actual quality is an issue in cross-border education. There are inherent difficulties with establishing educational programs and standards suitable for international students. At the current time, there are insufficient guidelines and quality assurance approaches to fully protect international students from fraudulent practices in cross-border education, although the reputation of the institution is an indicator of integrity. As a result, the reputation of the institution in the international educational community is a critical element for assessing quality among international students that do not have a substantial among of knowledge about the institution prior to enrollment.

Pereda, Airey, and Bennett determined both professional and personal goals motivate students to seek education in foreign countries. The lack of available education programs in the students' home nation to support career goals are a significant factor for obtaining foreign education. As with domestic students, the expectation of the international student is that the degree will result in professional advancement or increased employment opportunities. Another motivating factor is the desire to obtain cross-cultural educational experience, which is a personal goal. The international education increases personal skills in language and understanding of another culture. Regardless of the specific motivations for international students to obtain an education in foreign institutions, they begin the educational program with expectations about the nature of the experience. The satisfaction of the students with the educational program depends on whether the experience is reasonably close to the expectations formed at the time the student selects an institution.

Factors Influencing Satisfaction among International Students

International students represent a segment of the university student body with needs and perceptions that can differ significantly from domestic students. Because of cultural differences as well as difficulties with adjustment to foreign educational institutions, the gap between expectations and the educational experience of international students can be substantial, leading to lower satisfaction with an educational program. At the same time, the ability of the institution to accommodate the needs of international students may depend on available resources and the number of foreign students in a program. The research suggests that considerable variability exists among institutions in their approach to international students, which results in different levels of satisfaction with the educational experience.

A case study of cross-border education involving Finnish institutions providing educational services to Russians prepared by Alaoutinen and Voracek determined that cultural differences have a significant effect on the learning process and outcomes. Some of the cultural differences involved fundamental attitudes towards education including perspectives of academic honesty, communication skills, learning habits, and capability to work independently or in teams. The findings of this research imply that it is unreasonable to expect international students to adapt to the cultural norms of the foreign institution without extensive support and guidance. The cultural paradigms from the institution offering the education are embedded in the institutional structure, policies, and approaches to education. Foreign students often have only minimal understanding of the educational practices and expectations of the nation exporting the educational services. These findings are similar to those of Trice who determined that faculty in American universities are cognizant of the difficulties faced by international students with cultural adjustment, but are often uncertain as to the approaches that should be used to assist these students.

The attitude of faculty towards international students can be a critical influence on the perception of the students of the quality of the institution and their satisfaction with the educational program. Trice examined the attitudes of faculty in four departments of a single university in the United States with data collected through interviews. The research was motivated by prior studies indicating that faculty in American universities often do not value or understand the international student population, and fail to consider their special needs and priorities. At the same time, faculty recognizes the need for international students to maintain enrollment. Tice's research failed to confirm the findings of previous studies. Most of the interviewees recognized that there were significant differences between domestic and international students in their academic needs. Approximately half of the interviewees also recognized that international students also had personal needs differing from American students. The research also produced the unanticipated finding of faculty concern that international students would have difficulty applying knowledge obtained in context specific programs when they returned to their homeland. A context-specific program involves the acquisition and application of professional knowledge in a specific environment such as an educational leadership program with extensive material on school administration in the American educational system. The findings also indicated that segregation of international students often occurs, which reduces the value of the cross-cultural educational experience.

Research conducted by Robertson, Line, Jones, and Thomas also examined the relationship between attitude of faculty towards international students and satisfaction among this student group. The findings were similar to those of Trice, indicating that a negative faculty attitude will reduce the satisfaction of international students with the educational experience. This research, however, also examined the specific factors leading to the negative attitude among faculty. The instructors perceived that the international students often did not have sufficient language skill to communicate at a level commensurate with the course level or degree program. As a result, instructors believed that they had to slow the pace of lecturing, which had a negative effect on the amount of material presented to domestic students. The faculty also believed that any formal assistance provided to international students with language skills was insufficient because of the inherent difficulty with improving skills while taking advanced courses of study. In addition, instructors perceived that international students lacked critical thinking skills, which were particularly important in graduate programs.

Research evidence also indicates that substantial variation exists in the factors influencing satisfaction with a residential university experience among international students. Douglas, Douglas and Barnes found that the cultural learning style influences the preferences of international students for the availability of different types of learning materials. Asian students value a wide range of physical textbooks in the university library while European students value direct assistance and support from instructors. Robertson, et al.identified variation among international students from various nations in feelings of social isolation, which was related to the amount of cultural differences between the student's home nation and the host nation for studies. All international students, however, expressed difficulty with understanding colloquial language both in the classroom and in social interactions, even students from nations using the same language as the host country.

The research identifying factors influencing satisfaction among international students, however, often used samplings of undergraduate students. Grebennikov and Skaines compared factors influencing satisfaction among undergraduate and graduate domestic and international students. The findings indicated that statistically significant differences existed between international and domestic students in the influence of various factors on satisfaction with the educational experience. Among graduate students, however, there were no differences between domestic and international students in the factors influencing satisfaction. The researchers, however, did not offer an explanation to account for the similarity in expectations and factors influencing satisfaction in international and domestic graduate students. To some degree, the findings of Grebennikov and Skaines were confirmed by a subsequent investigation of Kim and Sax who determined that gender, social status, and ethnicity do not have a significant influence on the amount of interaction with faculty and the overall satisfaction of students with the institution.

International students are also often dissatisfied with the level of support provided by foreign educational institutions. Students perceive that the institutions do not appreciate the range of difficulties faced by an international student receiving education in a foreign nation with different customs, norms, and language. Grebennikov and Skaines determined that international students will also seek advice or assistance from faculty or their assigned advisors when they encounter a non-academic problem such as an issue with accommodations or cultural and social adjustment. The response of the faculty to the problem of the international student is significant for the student's level of satisfaction with the institution.

There is substantial research evidence indicating that many universities fail to meet the needs of international students despite the considerable efforts made to market universities to international students. According to research conducted by Haggis, universities with international students at the undergraduate and graduate levels anticipate that these students will experience difficulties with adjustment to the academic curriculum and the educational norms of the institution. Universities can approach the issue from the premise that the problem lies within the student or it can attempt to adapt the educational experience to meet the needs of the international students. Universities presuming that adjustment problems lies within the student provide programs such as tutoring or mentoring to assist students with adjusting to the university environment. This approach is often based on the assumption that the international student is academically or linguistically deficient and must acquire the knowledge and behaviors necessary to integrate into the educational environment. Haggis indicates that the alternative approach of adapting the educational experience to meet the needs of the student requires alteration to the teaching approaches to more closely conform to the values and norms of students from different cultures. It requires a departure from the mass education paradigm found in many universities to embrace a more flexible approach to educate that uses some degree of customization to the needs of the students. The research supporting the conclusion of Haggis, however, was qualitative and based primarily on a review of previous studies. As a result, the findings and conclusion are not well supported by empirical evidence.

The position adopted by Haggis is similar to the argument advanced by Ahl concerning the need to perceive learning motivation as the result of the interaction of the individual with institutional situations and structures. The discourse concerning adult students and particularly international students frames any difficulties with learning in terms of inadequate learner motivation. The difficulty may be the result of the relationship between student and the institutional policies and procedures rather than an inherent shortcoming of the student. From this perspective, the institution should moderate its practices to meet the needs of international students. In contrast, Grebennikov and Skaines found that the majority of international students are relatively satisfied with the academic courses and procedures, but have a lower level of satisfaction with personal and social experiences. The institution has only limited control over the personal behaviors and social environment of graduate students. At the same time, negative personal and social experiences among international students can influence their academic motivation.

Some research findings indicate that international students often form their expectations about a university educational experience with only sparse knowledge about the institution based on published information and reputation. Prior to enrollment, international graduate students evaluate the competency of the educational staff based on credentials and professional status. In addition, students evaluate the formal support programs for international students. The international student also has substantial gaps in knowledge about the institution because of the difficulty with obtaining accurate information about the educational experience from individuals that have attended the institution. In many cases, the international student bases the selection of an institution on assumptions about the value of the institution's degree in their home nation for improving employment opportunities . As a result, the international student enters the institution with some expectations that may not be realistic and based on incomplete or inaccurate information. The actual experiences with both academic and non-academic aspects of the institution are equally relevant for the overall satisfaction of the international student with the education.

Leadership Theory - Graduate Student Education Satisfaction

Leadership theory has a relationship to satisfaction of international students with graduate education because it influences the non-management elements of the content of graduate level educational leadership programs. Transactional leadership theory is based on the assumption that the behaviors of the leader can influence followers. The leader selects a behavior that communicates the goals and objectives to the follower as well as the rewards and consequences involved with achieving or failing to achieve the objectives. In this theoretical model, the leader and follower are rational actors who bargain to maximize their benefits. The leader establishes the benefits for the desired actions to achieve the goals with the follower responding to obtain the reward and avoid the negative consequences associated with failure. The theory does not consider the emotional responses of leaders and followers. It also assumes that extrinsic factors such as rewards and consequences are sufficient to motivate the follower to take the actions desired by the leader. The transaction leader adjusts behaviors to the situation and the characteristics of the follower.

Multiple variants of transactional leadership theory exist. The path goal theory of leadership is based on a model in which the leader motivates followers by defining a path to achieve a goal desired by the leader, with followers obtaining a reward for complying with the desires of the leader. In this view of leadership, the task of the leader is to align the goals desired by the leader with the personal goals of the followers. The leader member exchange theory postulates that a series of social transactions involve rewards and consequences establish a social relationship between the leader and the follower that motivates the follower to achieve the goals defined by the leader. According to Ross and Gray transactional leadership theories are flawed because they assume that "transactional leaders accomplish organizational goals without attempting to elevate the motives of followers or the human resources of the organization." In effect, the transactional leader controls followers through rewards and consequences and discounts the possibility that followers can be self-motivated if effectively inspired by the leader.

Transformational leadership theory was developed to address some of the shortcomings in transactional leadership theory and has become the preferred theoretical approach in leadership training programs. In transformational leadership theory, the effective leader develops a personal relationship with followers to inspire them to adopt the leader's goals as their own, which results in self-efficacy and motivation among followers to take the actions necessary to achieve the goals. The theory is called transformational because it motivates followers to perform tasks by changing their perspectives about the value of the goal and their relationship to the organization making the collective effort to achieve the goals. Ideally, the leader's goals are intended to move the organization from its current state to a desired future state that allows the group to achieve a common objective. The leadership process encourages individual followers to cooperate to achieve the objective. The transformational approach to leadership requires the leader to appeal to the intrinsic factors within followers that act as motivators such as the desire for achievement or the desire to cooperate with a collective effort. This approach differs from the transactional leadership methods that rely on rewards and consequences extrinsic to the follower as motivational factors. In addition, transformational leadership contrasts with transactional leadership because it focuses on the outcomes of leadership rather than on the behaviors of the leader.

Research investigating the effects of transformational leadership used by principals in schools indicates that it has a strong correlation with positive teacher and organizational outcomes. Some of these positive outcomes include higher teacher job satisfaction, willingness to make extra effort to achieve educational objectives, and higher organizational commitment. In the school environment, transformation leadership depends on the factors of the charisma of the principal, the willingness of the principal to form personal relationships with teachers, and the degree of intellectual stimulation of teachers. To some degree, the effectiveness of transformational leadership in the schools also depends on the degree of collaboration the principal as leader permits in the decision making process.

The application of transformational leadership theory in any organization including schools, however, has difficulty accommodating cultural differences between the leader and the follower. In practical situations, transformational leadership requires the leader and follower to form a personal relationship that allows the leader to appeal to the internal motivators of the follower. Leaders from different cultural backgrounds from followers, however, may have difficulty forming the relationship and understanding the factors that can inspire followers to be self-motivated.

Distributed leadership theory attempts to remedy some of the shortcomings of transformational theory for dealing with leaders and followers from different cultural backgrounds and is often used in educational institutions. Distributed leadership theory envisions leadership as "a process dispersed across the organization (within systems, activities, practices and relationships) rather than residing within the traits, actions and/or capabilities of 'leaders' in formal positions". In this perspective, leadership occurs through the interactions of individuals in both formal and informal leadership roles, which typically occurs in organizations such as schools. The individuals in both formal and informal roles exert leadership influences on each other, with the context of the situation determining the type of interactions that result in leadership. In this model, all members of the organization share some responsibility for leadership and can exchange the roles of leader and follower. In practice, a formal leader in the organization can temporarily assume a role of follower when a follower has particular knowledge or skills that can assist the organization in achieving its goals. In some situations where the leader and followers are from different cultural backgrounds, the exchange of roles provides an opportunity for both the leader and follower to learn about cross-cultural expectations for leadership behavior. The theory focuses on the leadership potential of the collective rather than the leadership potential of the individual.

Research examining distributed leadership practice in universities, however, has determined that the concept is more effective as an analytic framework for describing leadership styles rather than as an explanation of the nature of leadership. Distributed leadership does not adequately address issues of accountability, which remains with the formal leader such as a principal in the school organization. As a result, a formal leader temporarily relinquishing a leadership role to a subordinate can be viewed as an attempt to foster a more collegial and participative environment rather than actual sharing of leadership functions. In practice, it is also difficult to determine whether the leader has indeed adopted the role of a follower or has merely delegated responsibility to a subordinate or is seeking advice from an individual with specialized knowledge concerning an issue.

Educational Leadership Programs

Research evidence suggests that the number of graduate level educational leadership graduate programs in the United States have increased substantially over the past decade. At the same time, the expansion in graduate programs in educational leadership has occurred primarily in comprehensive educational institutions that do not specialize in research. At the same time, the labor market in education in the United States has not expanded sufficiently to support specialized professional degrees for educational leadership. As a result, many institutions rely on international students to support these programs. Roach and LeMasters provide evidence that institutions with residential graduate level educational leadership programs face substantial competition from institutions offering distance education programs to international students. The distance education approach has competitive advantages for attracting international students because of the lower cost and the ability of the student to obtain a degree without disruption to work or family life. These factors are particularly important for employed educators seeking a degree in educational leadership to enhance their career prospects.

According to Robinson, the focus of graduate level educational leadership programs is shifting away from the effective management of schools and towards leadership of the people responsible for teaching and learning. In this emerging model, management and administration of schools is a separate task from leadership. The management of schools involves the organization of the physical and human resources in the school to perform the tasks necessary to educate students. Leadership, however, involves inspiring the human resources of the school to adopt a vision of educational excellence, which motivates teachers and other personnel to educate students. In contrast, Browne-Ferrigno, and Muth argue that leadership in the context of educational institutions is synonymous with administrative responsibility. The conflicting opinions concerning the nature of educational leadership are indicative of the variable theories and perspectives influence the content of educational leadership programs.

In the past, graduate level leadership education programs have functioned to regulate entry into education administration. Because of this orientation, many educational leadership programs have focused on teaching the technical skills necessary to administer an educational institution operating in the public sector. The theoretical and practical aspects of managing human resources to maximize their contribution to the organization were considered a secondary objective of the program. The increased recognition of the importance of leading personnel to enable schools to achieve their educational objectives, however, has produced an increased balance between administration and leadership in the content of educational leadership programs. The balance between administrative and leadership content is apparent in the institutions that have added educational leadership graduate programs in the past decade.

According to Orr, "the research in the leadership preparation field has been characterized as scant and of limited methodological quality." In the United States, organizations such as the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Council (ISLLC) strongly influence the content of educational leadership programs. As a result, the university programs in educational leadership focus on providing the information deemed necessary by external bodies, which results in standardization of content. Despite the efforts to standardize educational leadership curricula, innovation and existing learning theories have influenced program content and methods of delivery. Adult learning theory has fostered the greater use of self-directed learning, particularly in the use of developmental and self-reflective practices in field experienced intended to apply leadership in practical situations.

Orr further indicates that ideally, leadership theory and leadership education theory intersect in graduate educational leadership programs. Leadership theory should guide the program components and processes as well as the learning outcomes in terms of ability to understand and apply the principles of leadership. The desired general outcome of the educational program is to improve school leadership, which occurs only when the graduates of the program learn leadership methods and can apply those methods in the specific school environment where they are employed after completion of the program. This perspective, however, considers the outcomes of the programs in terms of the teaching profession and society in general and does not consider whether the program meets the objectives or needs of the graduate students. It also conflicts with the traditional paradigm concerning the administrative nature of educational leadership.

Some evidence from research suggests that the way the curriculum for leadership programs is designed influences the students' perceptions of quality and satisfaction. Fenwick examined student perceptions of a graduate leadership programs using a problem-based learning approach. Because leadership is a subjective topic subject to the interaction of many different variables, the instructional approach can be significant for the ability of students to apply theoretical principles in practical situations. The researcher collected data using questionnaires and interviews from 166 past students in a graduate program in leadership at a single Canadian university using problem based learning. Qualitative descriptive analysis was used to assess the data. The findings indicated that the students as mid-career professionals believed that the problem-based approach produced significant long-term learning gains in the methods to apply leadership principles in practice. The participants in the study were also very satisfied with the problem-based approach to learning. The findings of this study, however, are suspect because of the failure to compare problem-based learning in leadership programs with the traditional didactic approach. In addition, the qualitative analysis of the data suggests that the findings are functionally a case study that cannot be generalized.

Subsequent research by Ivanovka and Stick confirmed the findings of Fenwick concerning student satisfaction with graduate educational leadership programs among a population of distance education students. The research used a mixed methods approach with doctoral students in an educational leadership program. The findings indicated that students valued emphasis on developing critical thinking skills and the application of theory to practical problems that could be applied in practical situations.

The importance of interactions with faculty and advisors is also a significant factor contributing to satisfaction with graduate educational leadership programs. The student must perceive the relationship as personal, with the faculty tailoring responses and advice to the specific needs of the students. The subjective perception of the student concerning the personal nature of the relationship controls the degree of satisfaction, which creates variability in the expectations of the student for the extent of the relationship. In effect, some students may require more attention from faculty to perceive the relationship as personal.

Based on the findings of survey research among university instructors, Knight, Tait, and Yorke suggest that professional development programs in educational leadership or administration adopt some of the approaches and perspectives used in commercial firms. In this model, formal educational interventions are intended to provide the knowledge to educators to lead and manage others. The acquisition of the formal knowledge, however, must be supplemented with mentoring or coaching to assist with the practical application of the knowledge. Because of the substantial variation in the way in which leadership skills are applied to different individuals and in different situations, educational leaders may have difficulty applying theoretical knowledge in practical circumstances. While some activity-based training can occur as part of the formal training in educational institutions, some form of subsequent support for students after completion of the program may be necessary.

Some assessments of research into the content of educational leadership programs are highly critical of the effectiveness of the programs for providing a knowledge base that can support practical leadership. In a discussion of curriculum standards for educational leadership programs, English identified a trend towards standardization of the content across institutions. The content is often theoretical and addresses only a limited number of the actual responsibilities of school leaders. In addition, the content often emphasizes the more concrete elements of administrative tasks rather than the application of leadership skills necessary to inspire and guide subordinates in the school system. English further argues that the content of educational leadership programs is static and presumes that the same knowledge base concerning educational leadership is relevant in all situations. As a result, the content of advanced programs for educational leadership encourages use of traditional methods and stifles innovation. In contrast, Orr considers the trend towards standardization of content beneficial because it reduces variation in quality. According to Buchanan, Kim, and Basham, however, the content of a graduate program has less importance to students with an objective of career enhancement because obtaining the degree rather than knowledge acquisition is the objective of studies.

Some research evidence suggests that institutions have to develop a comprehensive global approach to attract and retain international students for graduate level educational leadership programs. Bogotch and Maslin-Ostrowski used a case study approach to examine the processed used by a small university in Florida to develop an international educational leadership program. The education department established a comprehensive internationalization policy that was intended to coordinate the efforts of faculty and to justify an increase in the budget for the department. In addition, it developed curriculum that was general in administrative areas to allow the information to be adapted to the practices and regulations in the home nations of international students. The process involved the stages of internationalization analogous to the stages used by commercial enterprises. Initially, the department focused on attracting international students to residential programs tailored to meet the needs of the students. As the department gained competencies with international students, it formed joint venture relationships with foreign universities to develop collaborative programs that included instruction in both the United States and foreign locations. In this model, the satisfaction of foreign graduate students with the educational leadership program is likely to be relatively high because it focuses on meeting the needs of this segment of the student population.

Education and Educational Leadership in Belize

The literature concerning the educational system in Belize is relatively sparse. Lewis provides an overview of education in Belize in the colonial period based on a review of primary and secondary historical sources. When Belize gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1981, the nation's educational system was based on the British colonial model. In this approach, schools were used to train students for employment after graduation and to maintain social order by imparting values and norms that supported colonial authority. The educational process in the nation has traditionally relied on rote memory and discouraged critical thinking because it could lead to ideas challenging the existing social order. Compulsory education began in 1915, which resulted in an increase in enrollment and the number of primary and secondary schools in the nation. After World War II, the nationalist movement in the nation advocated greater expenditure on education, which was viewed as a necessity to develop the self-reliance and civic knowledge to support independence. The enrollment in secondary schools until 1981 remained low because most students did not finish primary school. Three teacher training schools were in operation at the time of independence providing three year programs leading to certification but not to a university degree.

Pandos discusses the education system in Belize following independence, outlining some of the challenges inherent in the system. Primary education is free and compulsory, but secondary education is optional. Although the government pays tuition for secondary schools, students face additional fees that reduce enrollment. While the Ministry of Education establishes national curriculum and formulates education policy, the Catholic Church administers the schools, and makes all decisions concerning teacher and principal employment. The Ministry of Education funds the school system, but the resources available in the nation are limited. The founding of University College Belize in 1986 resulted in secondary school teachers obtaining a baccalaureate degree in education. The Belize Teachers Training College opened in 1992 with programs intended for new teachers and to improve the professional skills of teachers already in positions in the schools. Challenges for educational leadership in the nation include the continued practice of hiring untrained teachers at the primary school level, and a shortage of teachers leading to high student teacher ratios. In addition, there are few opportunities for development of skills of teachers in the nation because of the policy focus on new teacher training. The educational outcomes for students in Belize are poor as measured by performance on national and international examinations.

Bush and Charron note that in the past teachers and principals have no opportunity to obtain a graduate level degree in educational leadership in Belize. The Ministry of Education and the Belize Teachers Training College have established a one-year in-service program to provide primary school principals with management training, but does not address leadership in the curriculum. The program involves attending a workshop one day a month and the preparation of an activities portfolio under the guidance of a supervisor. Successful completion of the program leads to certification and an increase in compensation. The focus of the program is on the administrative tasks associated with school management, and can be considered a traditional approach to educational leadership that does not emphasize motivating human resources Robinson.

Implications and Gaps in the Literature

An implication of the research concerning student satisfaction is the importance of the gaps between student expectations and the educational experience. The research based on expectancy theory and gap analysis indicates that graduate students use the same processes as other consumers of services when evaluating an educational program. The existing research has identified numerous expectations among students including adequacy of physical accommodations and environment, relevance of coursework, and perceived quality of instructors. Previous research has also examined some of the expectations of international students based on their unique situation involving consumption of an educational service in a cross-cultural context. Some of these factors include a need for adjustment support and perceived effectiveness of communications and relationships with faculty. These findings imply that international students are more likely to be satisfied with educational programs in institutions providing a wide range of supports for cross-cultural adjustment and the communication needs of foreign students.

A particular gap in the literature concerning international students is the absence of research examining the moderating effect of institutions with collaborative teaching arrangements with universities in the students' home countries. The research investigating satisfaction of international students with a cross-border educational experience assumes that the institution indiscriminately seeks students from all nations with no customization of coursework or support systems for the specific cultural needs of students. Some institutions, however, have formed a collaborative relationship with other universities in specific nations and have gained expertise in educating students from that nation. There has been insufficient investigation of the effect that this type of collaborative arrangement has on the satisfaction of international students.

An additional implication of the literature is the effect on international students of the transition in many institutions offering graduate programs in educational leadership from an administrative orientation to a combined administrative and leadership orientation. The educational administration elements of a graduate program in educational leadership can be specific to the nation where the program is offered because administration often entails compliance with local laws and norms. As a result, the content may not be relevant to students from other nations that use different administrative practices. In contrast, leadership is more universal in nature and can be relevant to international students regardless of the specific administrative practices used in their home nations. Previous research has not focused specifically on the expectations of international students for the relevance of coursework in graduate administration programs and the perceived congruity between expectations and the program experience. A gap in the literature also exists concerning the perspectives of international students in educational leadership programs of the applicability of the knowledge obtained through the program to the schools in their home nation.

Summary

The literature examining adult learning theory and its application to graduate studies is relevant because graduate students often have previous work experience in a professional field and are self-motivated and self-directed in their pursuit of additional education. The traditional behavioral learning theories used repetition to reinforce learning based on the assumption that retrieval cues can elicit stored information, but the theories fail to adequately address the special needs of adult learners. Andragogy theory adopts the premise that adult learners are self-motivated and self directed with the teacher functioning as a guide in a collaborative relationship with the student. Transformative theory presumes that the learning process results in a transformation of the perspectives of the adult student through the evaluation of new and existing knowledge with critical thinking skills. The manner of applying adult learning theories in the context of graduate education can influence student satisfaction with the educational experience with a pedagogical approach generally associated with lower levels of satisfaction.

Satisfaction with education is the affective response to the overall educational experience. Factors influencing student satisfaction include the institutional environment and accommodations to student needs, the relevance of the coursework to the needs of the student, the perceived quality of instructors, and the relationship between education and achieving personal and career goals. Graduate education is a service that students purchase from institutions. As a result, institutions adopt a marketing approach to influence students to select the institution in a highly competitive environment.

Expectancy theory is often used by researchers examining the gap between student expectations and student experiences with graduate studies. Students are satisfied when the gap between their expectations and experiences is relatively small. The two-factor theory can also account for student satisfaction, with satisfaction increasing if the educational experience addresses the higher order needs of the student. Factors such as style of instruction and the educational approach of specific departments within the institution can mediate student satisfaction.

Research investigating the factors influencing student satisfaction with education has identified categories of factors related to institutional accommodations, social environment, relevance of coursework, quality of instructors, and support systems. In addition, the career goals and personal goals of students are factors influencing satisfaction with the educational experience.

Cross-border education is a market driven activity that is a solution for educational institutions faced with increased competition, Cross-border education is a positioned product with the reputation of the institution determining the value of the education in terms of social status or employment opportunities. Institutions penetrate international markets with various strategies including establishing a branch campus abroad or forming partnerships with foreign institutions. The general pattern in cross-border education is for students from developing nations to attend institutions in industrialized nations, with the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia dominating the cross-border education market. Research findings differ concerning whether the reputation of the institution or other factors such as location of the institution or cost influence international students when selecting a university.

The needs and perceptions of international students often differ significantly from domestic students. Cultural differences between students and the dominant culture of the institution influence learning processes and outcomes, with the ability of the institution to make adjustments for these differences critical for satisfaction among international students. The expectations of international students also vary across cultures, creating difficulties for universities with a diverse international student body when attempting to standardize support programs. The attitude of faculty towards international students influences satisfaction. The degree of support from the institution to assist with cultural adjustments also influences satisfaction among international students. Some research findings indicate that international graduate students do not differ substantially from domestic students in the factors influencing satisfaction with an educational program. International students also often develop expectations about a foreign institution based on sparse information, which increases the risk that the reality will vary substantially from the expectation.

The number of graduate level educational leadership programs in the United States has increased substantially in the past decade, which has also increased competition to attract students. The trend in educational leadership programs is away from an exclusive emphasis on administration and toward the inclusion of more general leadership theories and principles. Nonetheless, graduate level educational leadership programs continue to regulate entry into administrative positions in the school system. In graduate educational leadership programs, approaches emphasizing practical application of theoretical knowledge such as problem-based learning can increase student satisfaction. The perceived quality of faculty interactions also increases student satisfaction, although there is substantial variation in the expectations among students with respect to the type and extent of interactions with faculty. Institutions that develop a global and cross-cultural approach to graduate education programs can successfully attract international students because the content is tailored to the needs of students from other nations.

The sparse literature concerning professional education of teachers in Belize indicates that the system of teacher education has been undergoing changes over the past several decades. Secondary school teachers can receive an undergraduate degree from University College Belize, but most primary teachers have received two years of training at the Teachers Training College. Principals of elementary schools receive a leadership certification by attending an in-service program that focuses on management skills.

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Ross, J., & Gray, P. Transformational leadership and teacher commitment to organizational values: The mediating effect of collective teacher efficacy. School Effectiveness and School Improvement: An International Journal of Research Policy and Practice, 17(2), 179-199.

Shanka, T., Quintal, V., & Taylor, R. Factors influencing international students' choice of destination: A correspondence analysis. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, 15(2), 31-36.

Szekers, J. Sustaining student numbers in the competitive marketplace. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 32(5), 429-435.

Tan, K., & Kek, S. Service quality in higher education using an enhanced SERVQUAL approach. Quality in Higher Education, 10(1), 17-24.

Taylor, E. Transformative learning theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, (19), 5-15.

Trice, A. Faculty perceptions of graduate international students: the benefits and challenges. Journal of Studies in International Education, 7(4), 379-403.

Umbach, P. & Porter, S. How do academic departments impact student satisfaction? Understanding the contextual effects of departments. Research in Higher Education, 43(2), 209-234.

Varghese, N. Globalization of higher education and cross-border student mobility. UNESCO Research Paper.

Academic Writing Process

This writing course is designed as a portfolio course. The purpose of the portfolio is to allow you to capture both the process and the product of your writing. Because the portfolio will contain multiple drafts of several written projects, it will allow you - and your instructor - to see the processes you went through in order to reach the final writing product.

Throughout the course, you will complete weekly assignments that will be graded individually. During the final week of the course, you will submit a final portfolio, which is a compilation of the weekly assignments. For your final revision, you are encouraged to incorporate the feedback from your instructor for each of the assignments. In addition to instructor feedback, you will use the Smart thinking service and complete peer reviews, so you should also incorporate this feedback.

Your final portfolio will include revisions (if necessary) of some of the weekly assignments, and will include the following components:

- Annotated Bibliography.
- Annotated Outline.
- First Draft.
- Global Peer Review.
- Revised Draft (global revisions).
- Local Peer Review.
- Revised Draft (local revisions).
- Smarthinking Submissions and Feedback (at least 3).
- Final Paper.

Project Objectives

To successfully complete this project, you will be expected to:

1. Apply information literacy skills.
2. Articulate writing tasks.
3. Implement a plan for research, writing, and revision.
4. Assess individual strengths and needs for enhancing writing skills.

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Peer Review: I

The topic you have selected on educational improvements and how leadership styles impact these seem very relevant today. However, I noticed that I had difficulty following your train of thought. I believe that a more effective Introduction section would have been useful in establishing the tone of the entire article, and as such, needs to incorporate certain background information like for instance (i) what is the "traditional leadership pyramid of one leader;" (ii) what criteria constitutes educational improvement; or (iii) why is there a need for educational improvement? I suggest that you revisit Category 3, particularly about the part on the unique perspective of the writer. I appreciate the thorough definitions that you have provided in the body of your paper. But then again, I would have preferred seeing your personal touch, your insights, rather than the definitions alone. I recommend you revisit Category 4, so that within a paragraph, there is an introduction of the main idea, evidence is provided to support the main idea followed by an analysis or your personal interpretation of the concept. I realize that you have a separate section on Evidence and I believe that it would have been effective if these pieces evidence directly go into the corresponding leadership style sections so that there is a systematic flow to your paper. I personally believe that educational improvements not only impact teachers but the students as well. Therefore, your article could perhaps be improved by undertaking even just a brief analysis about learners' perspectives with each leadership style. Although there are discussions about student outcomes, an analysis could have provided examples that would make each concept clearly understood. Moreover, as I reached the Conclusion portion of the paper, I realized that I still did not understand the leadership pyramid that you mentioned in the Introduction section, what its shortcomings are, and why it is beneficial for the leadership styles you have discussed to surpass this traditional method. I noticed that you have very good and consistent citation all throughout the paper. However, I did notice as well that there is an overuse of quotes. Aside from this, there are also certain statements of fact that need citations, such as, (i) Less work is assumed by an individual, if the total workload is shared; (ii) Co-principalship is like co-leadership; and (iii) The effectiveness of co-principalship indirectly impacts teaching though raising job satisfaction. Incidentally, an Abstract will also be helpful in establishing the tone and the objective of your paper. Finally, I also noticed too many commas so that they actually interrupted the train of thought of certain sentences, as well as missing quotation marks (at the end of the quote) as well as sentences that are too long.

Peer Review: II

I thoroughly enjoyed reading your paper. The Introduction is very good and is able to provide an adequate background to the topic. Perhaps it could be further improved by a thesis statement. Nevertheless, the Introduction also has a nice personal touch that provides your own perspective on the topic. I noticed that your paper is also well-structured so that the discussion follows a logical flow. I also noticed that the Body of the paper has paragraphs the present main ideas first, followed by evidence, which in turn, is followed by critical analysis. This closely adheres with Category 3. The paper provides a well-balanced discussion of the topic and is complete with evidence, critical analyses as well as the writer's personal perspective. There is also an effective Conclusion section that reiterates what have been discussed in the Body of the paper. I suggest, however, that you revisit Category 8, which refers to Documentation Style. For instance, I noticed in several instances in your paper that APA referencing is improperly used. There is a number of sentences that have page numbers enclosed in parentheses in the end, but there is no author cited within the sentence. Moreover, there were instances when the names of the authors were spelled incorrectly, such as Furegeson instead of Ferguson. I also noticed certain grammar mistakes, such as (i) which an individual prioritizes a set of events in their lives; (ii) Being able to balancing stress; (iii) there exist two preferences; and (iv) Furgeson et al, purposes a combination. It is also noticeable that there are commas where there should not be, and no commas where there should be. Finally, I suggest a review of Category 2 because an Abstract would have completed the paper.

Learning, Studying, and Professional Collaboration

Human beings are inherently social beings. The increasingly individualistic swing of society seems in a direct and unnatural conflict with the innate collaboration that has allowed the survival of our species (Lonzano). Individuals, groups, and organizations mirror these conflicts. Collaboration is but one approach to working together while maintaining the best interests of individuals and groups. Collaboration requires an interconnectedness that occurs at multiple levels (Fernandez & Hogan). Collaboration involves emotions, behaviors, and individual cooperation. It's multi-faceted and involves an intentional commitment to working together at multiple levels. Collaboration involves sharing ideas, resources, and assets. When organizations value collaboration, they are often more innovative, successful, and conducive to the creation and maintenance of a successful culture committed to continues learning and growth (Summers et al).

Organizations typically demonstrate one of four character types (Fernandez & Hogan). These character types include 1) the Achievement type 2) the Safekeeping type 3) the Collaborative type, and 3) the Creative type. The Collaborative type of organization differs from other clusters because its focus is on the foundation of trust and commitment that emerges from a culture of coordination, communication, and helpfulness. Employees of collaborative organizations are often handsomely rewarded. Rewards may come in the form of job security, support in specific job duties, or even bonuses related to exceptional performance. There are formal procedures for communication and cross-agency coordination of activities. While collaboration might be an innate preference for humans, it certainly isn't something that just happens within an larger scale organization (Summers et al). While the attributes of a truly collaborative organization seem extremely appealing, many organizations claim to be collaborative when their true values are incongruent with such an approach. Just as individual employees may lack self-knowledge of weaknesses, organizations too are vulnerable to blind spots related to necessary areas for growth.

As described by Lozano, the Japanese culture has exemplified collaboration in the workplace and learning environments. The Japanese concept "Kyosei" means the "spirit of cooperation." It's not without irony that the English language has no true match for the term. Collaboration entails a level of selflessness that is rarely reinforced in individualistic societies. Beyond sharing duties, collaboration also promotes an ongoing exchange of information. Collaborative learning environments are most conducive to learning for all types of learners (Summers et al). The Western spirit of competitiveness is not lost in a commitment to collaboration. In fact, collaborative organizations are often exceptionally ranked in outcome measures because this organizational and leadership approach results in excellent performance and satisfaction.

Collaborative learning communities and organizations are increasingly popular. Universities, job training programs, and large scale companies boast about their collaborations within and outside of te organization's doors. While the value for collaboration is shared, the mechanisms by which collaboration is facilitated differ. Online learning communities facilitate collaboration through assignments that require critical thinking, interpersonal communication, and even coordination between students. In formal classrooms, instructors facilitate collaboration through guided practice activities and prompts that promote shared knowledge. These skills transition from the classroom to the workplace. Companies and organizations like McDonalds have been recognized for their collaborative approach to training new employees (Lonzano). As Americans begin to compare strengths and weaknesses with worldwide competitors, it is increasingly important to recognize the value of collaboration if we hope to pull ahead.

References

Fernandez, J. E., Hogan, R. T. The character of organizations. The Journal of Business Strategy, 24(1), 38-40.

Lonzano, R. Developing collaborative and sustainable organisations. Journal of Cleaner Production, 16(4), 499-509.

Summers, J. Beretvas, S. N. Svinicki, M. D., & Gorin, J. S. Evaluating collaborative learning and community. The Journal of Experimental Education, 73(3), 165-188.

Research on Learning Curve and the Pizza Simulation

Learning curve theory suggests that the rate of learning slows as people repeatedly perform the same actions. This theory further argues that by changing the context of the learning one might be able to create a process of continuous learning (Chase Jacobs and Aquilano). This is seen in the "Pizza Simulation" as a new restaurant manager attempts to speed up the service of the restaurant.

Several decisions were made in the process of the simulation that could have been done earlier or that should have been done without the interference of the owner. For example, rather than maintaining the manual ovens the decision should have been made to switch to the conveyor ovens alone prior to the reduction in service times. This not only would have allowed staff more time to learn how to use the ovens effectively (since learning decreases after the initial encounter with new material). In theory, this would increase the effectiveness of the employees in relation to serving and cooking time.

Another change that could have been made would have been in the process of switching to the Menupoint system. As it stood in the simulation, only the servers were trained in the use of the new system. Because the restaurant business has notoriously fast turnover and often employees can be unreliable, one method by which service speed could have been increased is if the shift managers and store managers were trained on the new system. This would have sped payment and ordering processes up even further in that management could have taken orders and processed payments if needed be when they were short staffed.

While adding the takeout window did greatly improve things adding local delivery at least during lunch, and on weekends could have significantly improved sales. It also would have reduced pressure on waitstaff since people would be more likely to order takeout from home.

The main thing that this seems to say about the learning curve when applied in management is that as the learning process continues a person is less likely to notice small details that could be fixed or changed in order to ensure continuous improvement. Without this improvement learning does not occur. One example of this is that it was not noticed until nearly the end of the simulation that would have been noticed sooner if learning had been continuous was the issue of the conveyor oven in comparison to the manual ovens. If my learning process had not been slowing down, I would have associated the slowness of the manual ovens with the idea that the faster conveyor oven was more than fast enough to handle the extra orders.

The initial data was acceptable in that it illustrated quickly learning occurs in the beginning of the learning process. At the beginning of the process it was very noticeable how even small changes or mistakes altered the performance of the restaurant. In the second simulation this was not as noticeable in that my learning curve had caused by ability to notice these details to slow down so that I was not noticing the small details any longer.

References

Chase, R. B., Jacobs, F. R., & Aquilano, N. J. Operations management for competitive advantage (11th ed.). New York : McGraw Hill/Irwin.

Pete, A. The Learning Curve.

Zangwill Willard I. and Kantor Paul B. Toward a Theory of Continuous Improvement and the Learning Curve. Management Science, 44(7), 910-920.

Reflection Paper: for the educational issues reflection paper and presentation, select an educational issue to research (ex multicultural education, school choice, single-sex education, etc... choose something that has been a current issue or topic of discussion). Research the topic by reviewing scholarly articles, articles in the newspaper, articles in educational publication.

Reflection Research Paper on American Education in the XXI Century

For too long, the citizens of the United States have tolerated an educational system that is inadequate to meet the needs of 21st century. In the 19th and 20th centuries, schools were comparable to factories (Au 26). This was a sensible model because, after all, schools were preparing large numbers of young people to work in America's industrial sector. In the factories where these students were likely to work as adults, suppliers delivered raw materials to the facility. These materials were then processed by workers, usually using simple machinery, until a final product rolled off the assembly line. Schools were designed in much the same way. The suppliers (administrators and makers of educational materials) delivered raw materials (facts, figures, and other forms of information) to the factory floor (the classroom). There, simple machinery (textbooks, worksheets, filmstrips, and myriad other devices) enabled the workers (teachers) to convert the raw materials into a finished product (students as educated citizens, ready to contribute to America's prosperity through factory work). This system worked fairly well while the United States' economy was based on the industrial model. But the end of the 20th century saw rapid changes in the country's economic basis, with a concomitant need for change in the ways workers were educated. This paper examines the educational needs for the 21st century and the ways in which most schools are failing to meet these needs.

Few people doubt that the world is rapidly changing. The educational system has been slow to respond to these changes, however. In the late 1990s, President Bill Clinton spoke of the need to build a "bridge" to take America into the 21st century. He spoke of a country where "education will be every citizen's most prized possession" (para. 21) in "the dawn of . . . the Information Age and the global society" (para. 6), and he set a challenge for the educational system of the United States. How have we fared in the more than fifteen years since Clinton described his vision of American education? Sadly, not enough has changed, and the dream of an education appropriate for the 21st century is still largely a dream. Much debate has occurred on the subject of updating educational goals, methods, and practices, but few schools have been able to fully implement programs that match the needs of a changing American society. The impetus toward change has run headlong into the educational and political establishments, which have been slow to embrace the dramatic adjustments that need to take place. Arguably, the biggest challenge for reformers is the dominance of standardized testing, adopted under the banner of "accountability" for teachers and administrators. There is a wide gulf between the type of knowledge needed for success in the 21st century and the standardized testing practices of the 20th century, as will be examined below. Meanwhile, an educational system that must conform to the mandate of filling out bubbles on a test sheet in order to demonstrate students' memorization of discrete facts is failing to provide the next generation with the knowledge it needs in a rapidly changing world.

In the 20th century, students were expected to learn to read and write, perform lower-level mathematical calculations, understand a few basic scientific processes, and memorize facts about American history and a few other subjects. All of these skills could be imparted from teacher to student using materials such as textbooks, chalkboards, and worksheets, after which students' learning was evaluated using paper-and-pencil tests. Such tests were perfectly adequate for measuring whether students had memorized, say, mathematical formulas or major dates in American history, and whether they could competently compose an essay. Some students would move on to higher levels of education, where critical thinking skills would become important, but the majority would graduate high school with no need for more education, since they would have assured jobs in the agricultural, industrial, or service sectors. But with the exception of service jobs, the employment horizons today have changed drastically. Neither agriculture or industry has need for large numbers of employees-and those industrial jobs that do remain or are being created require workers with a high level of technical knowledge, as well as critical thinking and problem-solving skills. As knowledge expands exponentially in most fields, problem-solving and integration of processes is crucial. Businesses operate globally, meaning that their employees interact with people from different cultures who see the world in different ways. The expression "thinking outside the box" might well be altered to "thinking outside the American educational system" as far as knowledge and skill needs are concerned. While it is true than some students "are fortunate enough to attend highly effective schools or at least encounter great teachers" (Rotherham and Willingham 352), the vast majority attend schools that are designed on the model of the 20th century.

What, then, are the skills that students need to acquire in the course of their education? Opinion is not unanimous, but this list from the website "What Is 21st Century Education?" provides a fair enumeration:

- Critical thinking and problem solving
- Collaboration across networks and leading by influence
- Agility and adaptability
- Initiative and entrepreneurialism
- Effective oral and written communication
- Accessing and analyzing information
- Curiosity and imagination

Notably, the only skill on the list that is a universal goal of curricula in today's schools is "effective oral and written communication." Granted, critical thinking and problem-solving are emphasized in many schools, as are information access and analysis, but they are not always treated as crucial to a complete education. Even more importantly, they are skills that are not easily measured by standardized tests. Adaptability, imagination, initiative, and the other skills are even less amenable to assessment by paper-and-pencil testing methods, which is one reason why they are seldom practiced as outcome goals. This is a shame, since outcomes of student projects (as opposed to timed paper-and-pencil tests) are an important element of a 21st century educational plan.

An up-to-date teaching plan would look considerably different. It would focus not on the "memorization of discrete facts" (What Is 21st Century Education?), but on teaching students how to access, analyze, and use information, and to create new ideas. It would go beyond the lower levels of Bloom's Taxonomy (remembering, understanding, applying) to higher levels (analyzing, evaluating, creating), where students would process knowledge acquired at the lower levels. Old-style learning is passive, driven by teachers and textbooks; new-style learning is active and dependent on student exploration, research, and creativity. Rather than a curriculum broken into distinct units, the curriculum would be interdisciplinary, with integration of subjects. Students would be given the chance to explore their interests as they learn a wide range of skills in a range of disciplines, working both independently and in groups. Learning communication skills would be essential (Noll 351), and both group and individual projects would be assigned. Multiple intelligences would be valued and utilized, and teaching methods would be flexible. Lessons would be designed to develop the abilities of students with all types of intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, and existential (McFarlane Table 1). Students would acquire a variety of literacies: environmental, cyber, health, multicultural, social, media, financial, and arts-related. Teachers would engage students' higher order thinking skills and teach them metacognitive strategies for understanding their own learning. Technology would be used to the students' benefit-an important consideration, since most students today rely on technology for social purposes, while often failing to acquire technology skills that would qualify them for high-quality jobs. The entire globe would be used as an educational tool, connecting American students with others around the world. Note that all of these descriptions center on methods of delivering education, not on the content itself. Much, if not most, of the content taught today should be taught tomorrow. The change will occur in how students acquire knowledge, and what they learn to do with it. Education in the 21st century should not be equal to job-skills training; it should provide exposure to the arts, sciences, and more-but it should do so in a way that allows students to discover and utilize knowledge in a way that will benefit them in the post-school world.

But a changed system of delivery will require a changed system of assessment, since teachers will always need to determine whether their students are actually achieving their academic goals. As Rotherham and Willingham point out (356), multiple choice tests, while easy to administer and grade, will not suffice for measuring progress in a 21st century classroom. Creativity, initiative, analytical ability, and other 21st century skills are not amenable to assessment by a standardized test; in fact, standardization is a trait of factory-model education. And yet, twelve years into the 21st century, standardized testing is still the norm nationwide. That it is a nationwide practice "is largely due to the passing of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, . . . the federal US law mandating high-stakes testing in mathematics and reading/language arts that uses the threat of loss of federal funding for failing schools and districts" (Au 29-30). As a result, schools have little choice but to teach the discrete facts and skills that will be on the standardized test and to do so in the most efficient, prescribed manner. Curricula must conform to the test-and the test is not designed to assess 21st century skills. Teachers are "both disempower[ed] and deskill[ed]" by the strictures of the current educational system (Au 30), yet they must conform if they hope to keep their jobs. Furthermore, the emphasis on reading and math skills frequently results in the elimination of classes in other subjects in order to clear more time for the teaching of the language arts and mathematical skills that will be on the test. Au calls this "zero-sum curriculum" (30), since tested content squeezes out learning that will not be on the test. This standardization and narrowing of the curriculum also precludes the use of teaching methods that instruct using 21st century skills, since teachers seldom have time to employ these methods. Despite the increasing realization that students are being shortchanged by the continued use of an outdated educational model, the practice continues in most American schools.

To say that American education stands at a crossroads is an understatement. Public support is badly needed in order to bring about change in the educational establishment-and just as important, in legislative bodies. The natural inclination is for those who have already completed their educations to think that "what worked for me will work for today's kids, too." Despite President Obama's continual call for an educational system that meets the needs of the 21st century, the public does not seem incentivized to take action. Perhaps it is because so many families are struggling to meet their basic needs, they do not have the time or the will to think about overhauling education. But as American society recovers, as it eventually will, attention must be paid to what is happening (or not happening) in our schools. If we continue to shortchange students on the skills they need, we will have created a lost generation of adults who have no ability to participate in the economic growth of the 21st century. Bill Clinton's bridge to the 21st century will have collapsed before our eyes. We need to realize the critical need for changes in education, and cross the bridge while we still can.

Works Cited

Au, Wayne. "Teaching Under the New Taylorism: High-stakes Testing and the Standardization of the 21st Century Curriculum." Journal of Curriculum Studies 43.1: 24-45. Academic Source Premier.

Clinton, Bill. Second Inaugural Address. Web.

Lowther, Deborah L., Fethi A. Inan, Steven M. Ross, and J. Daniela Strahl. "Do One-to-One Initiatives Bridge the Way to 21st Century Knowledge and Skills?" Journal of Educational Computing Research 46.1: 1-30. ERIC.

McFarlane, Donovan A. "Multiple Intelligences: The Most Effective Platform for Global 21st Century Educational and Instructional Methodologies." College Quarterly 14.2: n.p. ERIC.

Noll, James William. Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Educational Issues. 17th ed. Ed. James William Noll. New York: McGraw Hill. Print.

Preus, Betty. "Authentic Instruction for 21st Century Learning: Higher Order Thinking in an Inclusive School." American Secondary Education 40.3: 59-79. Academic Source Premier. Web.

Rotherham, Andrew J., and Daniel T. Willingham. "21st Century Skills: The Challenges Ahead." Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Educational Issues. 17th ed. Ed. James William Noll. 352-58. New York: McGraw Hill. Print.

Senechal, Diane. "The Most Daring Education Reform of All." Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Educational Issues. 17th ed. Ed. James William Noll. 359-70. New York: McGraw Hill. Print.

Stone, Kyle B., Karen Kaminski, and Gene Gloeckner. "Closing the Gap: Education Requirements of the 21st Century Production Workforce." Journal of Industrial Teacher Education 45.3: 5-33. ERIC.

"What Is 21st Century Education?" 21st Century Schools.

Literature Review Paper: ( Sociology of Ethnic & Relations)

In this assignment, students will summarize and discuss key aspects addressed in the literature of their choice pertaining to the field of racial and ethnic studies. They are expected to find out what is known by their topics of interest and what is still being asked about them, including conflicting findings and gaps that may still exist in literature. Students will write a critical summary of the key ideas and findings and properly cite each author.

ESL Deficiency in Grade School

This topic highlights the significance of English as a second language (ESL) programs for students of Latino origin in grade schools. As an undergraduate student majoring in speech language pathology, I find it necessary to stress the importance of ESL programs in schools because language fluency allows students to adapt to educational standards. There is literature that supports the idea that ESL programs play a major role in the futures of the students who have access. These programs also have an effect on the succeeding generations of Latino students and their success rate. Latino students whose first language is not English are at an academic disadvantage because they will face a myriad of issues in school including not being able to keep up with the school's curriculum and fall behind due to language barriers. The academic success and future outcomes of grade school students are directly influenced by their ability to learn the English and assimilate into society.

Since there are large numbers of Latino students in U.S. schools, they can be crucial to the social and economic fabric of our society once they are well assimilated in school programs. Another significant aspect to address is the inequalities in various school districts around the country. Some schools do not have integrative ESL programs that are as effective as others which may not help the students that inhabit those programs. This results from the lack of resources being poured into these programs, leaving certain communities with Latino students in a constant struggle. Since Latinos represent a large portion of the population in the U.S., funding ESL programs can result in a greater assimilation of Latino communities within the U.S. and close the race gap.

Problem/Statement of Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of ESL programs on the Latino population. Specifically, the research will examine how ESL programs affect Latino success rates. The research proposal will explore whether ESL programs influence the ability of Latino populations to gain better career prospects. The paper also explores whether ESL programs prepare students for graduate school more so than traditional programs, and whether ESL programs allow graduates to enjoy higher paying jobs following graduation than non-participants.

Significance of the Study

Espino, Leal & Meier identify need in the Latino community, stating the variables that can be used to identify ESL students and how educational facilities can identify needs. Need according to the authors is measured by the logged total of limited-English-proficient (LEP) students in the district for total teacher models, and the percent of students classified LEP that is a growing subpopulation of Latino students (250). Need can also be determined by statistics. The Nation Center for Education Statistics reports that Latino students have a dropout rate of 27.8 percent compared to Caucasian students, who have a dropout rate of 6.9 percent. Black students have a dropout rate of 13.1 percent, and Asian/Pacific Islander students have a dropout rate of 3.8 percent (NCES). This suggests a gap in learning for ELL, one that may be addressed by ESL programs. There may be evidence suggesting that ESL may reduce dropout rates among the Latino population, particularly when attention is given a reason for higher dropout rates among this population.

English language learners and ELL learner rates at the public school level has been growing steadily since 2002-2003, with rates as much as 10 percent higher in 2011 than in 2003. An estimated 4.7 million students were ELL or English language learners, and being served in ESL programs in 2011 compared to 2003.

Research Questions

The West serves the highest percentages of ELL students, including in the regions of Oregon, Hawaii, Alaska, Colorado, Texas, Nevada, California and New Mexico. 29 percent of public school enrollment in California includes students enrolled in English as Second Language programs. Thirteen states including the District of Columbia has ELL public school enrollment that was as high as 9.9 percent in 2011. The rates of enrollment in supportive programs is expected to continue to grow through the next decade. Reading scale scores as per the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) for non-ELL students are generally higher for students that are not in supporting programs including ESL; this is referred to as an achievement gap, resulting in lower standardized achievement testing scores among ELL students.

Without intervention, Latino populations generally report lower average household incomes. Further, studies suggest educational support in the way of ESL and other supportive programs can result in citizens that contribute to greater societal benefits. These include an ability to generate increases in tax dollars within the community. The American Council on Education estimates that increasing ESL and the average level of schooling through one year could potentially increase community economic growth by as much as 6 to 15 percent, adding between "600 billion to 1.6 trillion in U.S. economic output" due largely to the extensive Latino population. Thus, not investing enough in programs to support this community could be "detrimental to the future of the U.S." and not simply the cultural community of the Latino population.

Advising and Support

Part of the success of ESL relies on the ability of students to receive adequate advising from professional counselors. Support structures must be in place to assist students seeking the recommendation and guidance from trusted academic support counselors. The role of an advisor includes providing students with appropriate guidance in course selection. 67 percent or more of community college students seek out appropriate advising, yet 26 percent of students or more are allowed to disregard the advice given when selecting college courses, or enrolling in academic classes. This may have devastating impacts during the assignment and registration process. Administrators must work on developing more trusting, one-to-one relationships with Latino students, particularly those that qualify for ESL support, to ensure they receive the guidance necessary to succeed in the academic environment.

New Strategies for Success

At one high school a "push in" strategy was adopted to enable students to succeed, based on the idea that second language must be learned in "meaningful contexts through student's social interactions. This strategy has been used in special education and for students with disabilities, providing students opportunities to interact with other students in a traditional classroom. In the traditional environment, Latino students have an opportunity for greater self-esteem; peer, school, body image and global self-esteem may be enhanced in the traditional classroom setting. Adolescents generally struggle with many self-reliance and identity issues. Without additional supports including those that ESL may provide, issues including peer pressure, drug and alcohol use, sexuality and other problems may evolve and develop; contrarily, ESL can provide the support necessary to enhance confidence, friendships, relationships and independence among adolescents.

Melendez finds that without support; Latinos have a difficult time finding jobs apart from low-wage jobs. The lowest attained jobs are often those attained by Latinos. This is particularly true among women; in the absence of other social and financial support mechanisms, many women turn to welfare supports and reliance on employment-service programs. Many research studies find that Latinos are representative of what many refer to as "revolving door" never fully realizing their potential without the support of ESL and other programs, thus it is important to offer supports in the way of ESL and employment and training programs. More importantly, it is important that these programs clearly define goals and expectations and provide the types of support that will lead to positions of worth and define the type of characteristics that can sustain women and other independent Latinos, rather than lead to other low-paying positions and dead end careers within the community. Many Latinos find they graduate and are left with choices that are too risky to embark in and thus are left in a state of poverty, although much of this is simply the result of a language barrier. Positions often do not take into account forces working against an individual including language barriers. Often language barriers do not take into consideration the actual skill set that an individual may bring into a position. This perspective may bring discriminatory practices against an otherwise worthwhile worker.

The job placement rate of ESL participants is over 10 percent; however a large majority of them will still make minimum wage without further employment and career training. Thus, vocational training may also be necessary for program participants to succeed. However, the job placement rate and median wage for ESL participants is generally higher in the long-term, than high school graduates with alone without ESL, or those with only Basic Education in the form of a GED. The average placement rate of ESL only participants is approximately half of that of individuals with a college education, and the pay is approximately less of that of college educated individuals. Individuals in job placement programs earn approximately the same wage as ESL students, although the job placement rate is significantly higher, nearly 5 times that of ESL students and participants alone.

Skills training including participation in skills or vocational training leads to significantly higher placement rates, and a modest increase in salary; the same is true of combined skills training or participation in job development programs that are specific to an employer or work group. The best odds for an ESL student may be working with a specific employer, via an internship or other program to learn skills that are specific to a position or work task. In this way, an employee may get a headstart on a position, and learn talents and abilities that are specific to a position. This may also provide promotional opportunities to a participant and provide higher odds of earning greater income.

Small businesses are more often interested in forming partnerships with high schools and vocational institutions that offer programs for ESL students. Many often also collaborate with special education classes and facilities in the interest of providing equal opportunity to all individuals regardless of ability or class. This may be an opportunity for ESL representatives within the Latino community to represent an opportunity to students or provide Latino students with representation within the community. A student that is Latino, ESL and presents with a disability may have the most difficult time assimilating into the work environment, and realizing sustainable work opportunities. However, some employers and small businesses will work with high schools and educational institutions to actively recruit these individuals in the work setting. Certifications are available that are job specific, and may provide specific, focused and specialized training to individuals that fall into this and related categories. Certification may help ESL students in the Latino category, providing extra wages, extra attention and greater opportunities in the career force.

In-class support, as well as support following graduation is also necessary to ensure the success of students in Latino populations. Support in the classroom is often provided to ESL students year round. Once students graduate however, often many find it is difficult to cope with the demands one is presented with in the "real" world. During this time Latino students may find they are faced with an entirely different setting where they are in the minority, or faced with a higher level of demand and stress then they are accustomed to dealing with. Their employer or community, or even independent living establishment may not offer the same support structure they have become accustomed to in the ESL school setting. Providing opportunities to explore similar communal structures as those presented in ESL become increasingly important during this transitional period, to ensure the long-term success of graduating students.

Many tools and external supports can be offered to students to ensure their long-term success. Community support groups may be put in place to ensure the success of Latino students and graduates. Some of these may include weekly meetings to check in with students to ensure they are on track with their career goals. Continuing career counseling may prove beneficial for other students. Independent living support and counseling may also prove helpful in ensuring students feel supported while they move out of familiar family structures and move into independent living. This is particularly true for student that may have disabilities in addition to ESL needs. Providing culturally relevant and communally binding experiences in the way of religious institutions, community experiences and a culturally dynamic work experiences may also provide Latino students transitioning into the work force with the support they need to succeed in the long-term. Fort Hispanics in the U.S., educational experience without support is one of disadvantage; thus it is critical that children receive support otherwise students will realize a high rate of dropout or low rates of college attainment, hindering their rate of employment.

References

Contreras, S.V. The Effect of Language Program Type on Latino Immigrant Adolescent Self-Esteem. ProQuest.

Essay News. English Language Learning and Reading. https://essaynews.com/other/secondary-language-affects-children-reading-106/

Espino, R., Leal, D.L. & Meier, K.J. Latino Politics: Identity, Mobilization, and Representation. University of Virginia Press.

Free English Help. English Language Writing Guides for Students. freeenglishhelp.com

Grover, S. Getting the Green: Fundraising Campaigns for Community Colleges. American Association of Community Colleges.

Kluth, P., Straut, D.M. & Biklen, D.P. Access to Academics for all Students.

Melendez, E. Latino Poverty and Economic Development in Massachusetts. Boston: University of Massachusetts Press.

NCES. U.S. Education Fast Facts. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistic.

NEA. Hispanics: Education Issues.

Schhneider, B., Martinez, S. & Ownes, A. Hispanics and the Future of America. The national Academies Press.

Soto, L.D. The Praeger Handbook of Latino Education in the U.S. Greenwood Publishing Group.

African-American English, also sometimes referred to as "Ebonics", is a rich and vibrant form of the English language. Particularly in a school or educational context, there has been controversy regarding whether the presence of African American English -- both alongside and within Standard English as it is presently used - represents an enrichment or contamination of the standard English language. Cross-pollination between African American English and Standard English is clearly evident in the realm of popular culture. However, the African American English words and forms that are most commonly used in Standard English generally occur in verbal forms, and forms of language derived from the oral tradition. As Standard English is transmitted often through written forms, the effect of African-American English upon Standard English remains mostly confined to the spoken word rather than the written word. Therefore, the place of African American English within Standard English is inherently mostly temporary, as it is mostly spoken in real-time and not preserved for posterity. Obviously, there are exceptions to this situation - for example, when a famous person is videotaped speaking a hybrid of African-American and Standard English forms. However, the majority of cross-pollination between the two forms of English occurs in the inherently temporary, spoken/oral realm.

DEFINITIONS

Bailey et al. define African-American American Vernacular English (AAVE) as a distinctive variety of American English. Some common features of African American English include: consonant cluster reduction; time reference markers; invariant or habitual "be"; and the absence of the copula. Consonant cluster reduction involves removing one of the consonant sounds in a cluster. This commonly occurs when a word ends with two consonants produced the same way by the voice - often, the final consonant will be removed from the word as pronounced. For example, the final "t" may be dropped from the word "pest", leaving it pronounced pes'. Clearly, consonant cluster reduction could be a problem when young students, particularly, attempt to write down their thoughts and words. The habitual reduction of consonant clusters in speech could well lead to the absence of the reduced consonants when the word is written. Therefore, a student's written work may appear to be at a lower level than his or her actual comprehension of the words and the language, because consonant cluster reduction can lead to mis-spellings in Standard English. The words "been", "done", "did" and "do" can be used to indicate how recently in the past an action occurred - "been" indicates the most distant past action, while "do" is the closest to the present time. So "I been eating that" indicates an action (eating) further in the past than "I do eat that". "Been" and "done" can be used together, with different tense meanings based on order. "She been done eating" means that she stopped eating a long time in the past; "She done been eating" means that she was eating for a long period of time until recently (Bailey et al.). "Habitual be" refers to the use of the word "be" to indicate an action taking place over an extended period of time. Linguistically, the word "be" can be understood as a substitute for "is" - for example, in the phrase: "She is eating oranges". However, the African American English use of be - "She be eating oranges" - often means that she is habitually eating oranges. Therefore, habitual be allows the language to convey understanding of an action outside of the present tense.

EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT

In education, the "Ebonics debate" has been active for several years, without any clear conclusions as to how educators might reconcile the use of African American English by their students, with the reality that a lack of ability to access and use Standard English would probably have a significant negative effect on these students' chances of succeeding both in education and in more general life and employment:

'While having access to the politically mandated language form will not, by any means, guarantee economic success (witness the growing numbers of unemployed African Americans holding doctorates), not having access will almost certainly guarantee failure' life.

If educators insist on use of Standard English in school, they may be effectively silencing those students whose first learned language is African American English. Constant correction of "Ebonics" with reminders to use Standard English in school may reduce an individual's confidence when they are learning to speak or write English in school. Attempting to eliminate African American English from the language used in the school environment is also problematic in terms of privileging one cultural and linguistic heritage over another. Further, an educational practice of continual correction of African American English can lead to an adversarial relationship between the educator and the individual student (or group of students). When a student is continually corrected for his or her use of African American English, he or she may feel that they are being singled out for negative attention by the teacher. This can reinforce patterns of defiance, or other behavioral dynamics that are counter-productive to educational efforts in the classroom.

POPULAR CULTURE - CASE EXAMPLES

Many musical genres - including, but not limited to jazz, R&B, blues, gospel and hip-hop - are based in African-American traditions and therefore commonly employ African American English idioms and linguistic features. For example, Nina Simone's song It Be's That Way Sometime uses the "habitual be" of African American English. Hip-hop artist Kanye West makes extensive use of African American English, and the AAVE vernacular is arguably the dialect in which much to the entire hip-hop genre is grounded. Hip-hop is, at the time of writing, a dominant force in the mainstream American musical and cultural landscape, and African American English is used by artists who are not themselves of African-American heritage. The white rapper Eminem is a prime example of the use of African American language in mainstream hip-hop. Eminem's use of the language is not an attempt to "be" black himself, but rather an attempt to align himself with the musical culture of hip-hop. In a hip-hop context, African American English can convey ideas of being cool, being tough and being at the cutting edge of language and culture itself - words, brands and ideas are constantly being changed and developed in AAVE's hip-hop context. According to Hill, "speakers use appropriated words and ways of speaking to make claims on a wide range of desirable qualities: learned, cosmopolitan, regionally grounded, cool, hip, funny, street-smart, tough, masculine, laid-back, rebellious, etc". Eminem's use of African American English carries class-related connotations also - growing up poor in Detroit, Eminem aligns his socio-economic beginnings more closely to the urban black poor than the suburban white middle class. Now that hip-hop is a dominant global musical and cultural phenomenon, members of the American suburban middle class - and other groups with diverse socioeconomic and geographical statuses - are exposed to, and familiar with, African American English. In this way, although African American English is a potent and powerful group signifier, it cannot be contained within the racial or ethnic group where it originated. In Eminem's words:

'Though I'm not the first king of controversy, I am the worst thing since Elvis Presley. To do black music so selfishly, And use it to get myself wealthy.' (quoted in Page).

CONTAMINATION AND CONFORMITY

Clearly, the significant presence and influence of African American English in popular culture demonstrates that there is "contamination" of Standard English with African American English already. Language is dynamic and fluid, and different languages commonly absorb individual words and stylistic elements from other languages and dialects. The Standard English of 2013 is rather different to the Standard English of 1913, or even the language of 1983. However, the continuity in Standard English is the reason that historical texts remain accessible to the modern reader. When the majority of education, work and public life function on the basis of using Standard English, a degree of conformity is necessary if speakers of other dialects or languages are to fully access employment opportunities, education and cultural activity. In effect, speakers of African American English are required to become somewhat "bilingual", maintaining an ability to switch to Standard English as and when the situation requires them to do so. In an educational context, especially, this can disadvantage students by comparison to their peers who speak Standard English as their first or only language. Overall, African American English is being absorbed into Standard English just as all forms of English, and dialects, cross-pollinate one another.

References

Bailey, Guy, et al., eds. African-American English: structure, history and use. Routledge.

Bratcher, Melanie E. Words and Songs of Bessie Smith, Billie Holiday, and Nina Simone: Sound Motion, Blues Spirit, and African Memory. Routledge.

Delpit, Lisa. "What should teachers do? Ebonics and culturally responsive instruction." Dialects, Englishes, Creoles, and Education: 93-101.

Hill, Jane H. The everyday language of white racism.

Page, Clarence. "Crossing Over: Elvis Presley and Eminem." PBS Newshour Essay.

Wolfram, Walt, and Erik Thomas. Development of African American English.

Small learning communities (SLCs) are school organizations designed to improve student achievement in large, public schools that have 1,000 students or more. According to the Department of Education, "SLCs include structures such as freshman academies, multi-grade academies organized around career interests or other themes, "houses" in which small groups of students remain together throughout high school, and autonomous schools-within-a-school, as well as personalization strategies, such as student advisories, family advocate systems, and mentoring programs," (Department of Education). This section provides information on small learning communities and how they can impact student learning, particularly in the area of technology and technology implementations.

History of Small Learning Communities

The concept of the small learning community has been around for many years. Carr instituted a small furor in New Orleans when she announced that the New Orleans Public Schools' plan to go to the "school within a school" plan was a new approach to education. Readers were quick to correct her misinformation, pointing out that the idea of the school-within-a-school or the small learning community had been adapted for use many years ago. In reality, the National Association of Secondary School Principle has been working with the concept of the school within a school, or small learning community, since February 1940. The concept remains in use today and is particularly utilized in school districts which hope to increase graduation rates, improve math and reading scores, improve the behavior of students in the classroom, improve the social behavior of students, and improve attendance of the students.

Washington State, which focuses on small learning communities, or "small schools" in the organization of their educational system, suggests that small learning communities are autonomous, are focused, are personal, and are committed to the equalization of races, cultural groups, and genders. Washington State asserts their goal is twofold: to increase achievement levels of all students, while simultaneously closing the achievement gap between any individual groups of students. Lee and Friedrich report that modest gains are being made in small learning communities across the nation, but there is still a gap between races and sexes.

Sparger stated that small learning communities were developed as an attempt to reverse problems that are endemic in large urban schools today. Bullying, violence, the inability to attract good principals, and low teacher morale were all problems that small learning communities ought to address. By creating a smaller learning environment with specialized teaching and more emphasis on the relationship between teachers and students, educators hoped to achieve a better graduation rate with a lower rate of drop outs. The next sections address the gaps, whether or not they exist, and whether or not they can be closed, along with their relationship to small learning communities.

Small Learning Communities and the Increase in Graduation Rates

One of the ways that it has been suggested which small learning communities contribute to the educational system is to increase graduation rates while decreasing dropout rates. The question arises, however, whether or not implementation of small learning communities automatically means that graduation rates will increase and dropout rates will decrease. Leonard, Leonard, and Sackney have reported that just because small communities for learning can be built does not mean that they are being built and utilized in the correct fashion. It appears that schools which are organized in specific learning models do indeed have success with increasing graduation rates and decreasing the rate of drop outs.

Kemple, Herlihy, and Smith have stated that the drop out rate in urban US high schools is abysmal. They characterise the problem as a "national crisis" (Kemple et al). They point out that the problem is of particular concern in areas of high poverty, where the drop out rate may exceed fifty percent. Even when students graduate from these schools, they may not be able to get and hold a job or obtain and maintain postsecondary education. Across the nation, the 'Talent Development High School model' is a reform initiative now being used in a number of school districts. The program works with all high school students but concentrates on ninth graders. By stressing attendance, the importance of gaining credits in academic classes (especially algebra) and promotion rates, the model increases graduation rates.

The program, which was originally concentrated in Philadelphia's urban city schools, developed the Ninth Grade Success Academy as the school-within-a-school program. The ninth graders were concentrated in learning communities and which utilized special curricula that concentrated on giving double length classes in English and Math. The results reflect that by the end of high school, graduation rates increased 8%, or 40 students per year, even with no other interventions.

One of the problems with the Talent Development High School Model is that students may be graduating, but they are not doing so within four years. Instead, many students are still taking extra time to graduate (Kemple et al., Executive Summary). In the beginning, instituting the project is very expensive, causing some school systems to decline to participate. An evaluation by the Institute of Education Sciences (IECS) suggests that the Talent Development High School Model may not be effective in increasing graduation rates at all. IECS suggests that the Talent Development model may be successful in helping students progress in school, but this evaluation does not suggest that Talent Development helps in increasing graduation or preventing dropouts. Indeed, IECS reports that there are no studies relating to this program which meet best standards for evidentiary studies.

Tyler and Lofstrom stated that the graduation rate at the present time is nearly the same as it was 40 years ago. Some variation in graduation rate, they report, is simply due to differences in how different states report GED rates. One of the larger issues, they suggest, is not that the graduation rate is largely unchanged, but rather that the demands on young adults are so much higher in this age of globalization than they were years ago. Thus, while the actual rates may be similar, they actually represent a decrease in functionality.

In summary, the 'experts' differ greatly in their opinions on whether or not small learning communities increase graduation rates and decrease dropout rates. There are two main reasons for this. The first is that some studies are based only on best practice levels of evidence while others are based on less stringent standards. The second reason is that the definitions of graduations and dropouts can vary significantly depending on the source. Since different analyses use different definitions of the terms, it is not possible to do a straight line comparison of the statistics in any meaningful manner. Tyler and Lofstrom stated that in general, most programs make no difference in preventing dropouts, a sad condemnation of the current educational system.

Small Learning Communities and the Increase in Math and Reading Scores

Kemple et al., reported that students who went through the Talent Development program generally earned five credits during the school year, and that three of those credits were heavy academic classes of English, math, and science. The program appeared to increase the number of students who achieved credits by about 8% a years. Students who participated in this program generally earned extra ninth grade credits that totaled an additional 2/3 of a year credits. The program also increased the number of students who earned algebra credits by 25 percentage points. This means that nearly 125 more students earned algebra credits than prior to the program.

Tyler and Lofstrom support the use of the Talent Development Program Model in increasing both math and English scores. They state that the program will "prepare all students for high-level English and math courses, along with measures to increase parent and community involvement in the school," (p. 91). They suggest that the Talent Development Program's record is significant simply because it is difficult to find any program which has been able to make a real, documented difference in math and English scores. The fact that this particular program appears to have succeeded, then, is exceptional (p. 92). They do point out that the research design is "quasi-experimental" (p. 92) and thus is not well established. This is the same criticism that was reported by IECS regarding other studies.

Small Learning Communities and Improvements in Classroom and Social Behaviors

Sparger reported that one of the keys to success in small learning communities is to replace "anonymity with community" (p. 12). Though the SLC can consist of any one of a number of models, all of them exist as a function of making the large high school smaller. Bill and Melinda Gates established an organization to create [good] small schools. The Gates model schools concentrated on rigor, relevance, and relationships as the three r's, rather than reading, writing and 'rithmetic. Lee and Friedrich suggested that the idea of the small learning community as being based partially in relationships is seated in the sociological concepts of association. By functioning in smaller school units rather than large high schools, students became associated with the same students and teachers on a day to day basis. As they formed relationships, they developed strong bonds. The bonds led to better social actions and behaviors. Each small school unit had at least one individual who was specifically to be a 'caring adult' who would serve to develop rapport and provide personal advice, and in essence to be an anchor for social attachment for the students affiliated with that school (Lee and Friedrich). Personally emphasized activities such as helping students develop career plans, helping them pick classes, and helping them develop learning plans all ensured a better social outcome for the student populace. In doing so, students who might otherwise have difficulty adapting to their schools would transition with less stress and would have a relationship with someone they could trust to look out for their interests.

By increasing the students' social capital, the small learning community helps increase the potential of students to achieve, both socially and academically. With many students in high risk families and suffering a lack of support, building the students' networks at school increased their levels of good behavior while concurrently increasing their social behaviors. As Lee and Friedrich stated, "With strong social ties in place, informal knowledge, expectations, mentoring, modeling, ideas, and decision-making can all be conveyed and shared" (p. 267). In increasing social ties, the student's life improves holistically. In summary, then, as small learning communities increase the social ties of the students, they increase the level of social capital; as the social capital increases, good behavior is reinforced as well as social and academic performance. The better the academic and social performance, the more chance of success and the greater the likelihood of graduation.

Small Learning Communities and Improvements in Classroom Attendance

Sparger reported that students in smaller school settings have higher attendance rates. It appears that the more that students feel that they "belong" in a setting, the more they attend. Tyler and Rofstrom point out that attendance is not necessarily related to negativity of the student. Instead, students in the at-risk group tend to be older than the average student, have low grades, and have a child. In short, the students in the high risk group may be unable to attend because of pressing family obligations. By developing that sense of belonging, and by providing flexibility of classroom times (perhaps combined with technological interventions such as computer time), students can be helped to develop more consistent attention, which in turn leads to better grades.

Conclusion

This review of small learning communities has covered the history of small learning communities, the role of small learning communities in increasing graduation rates and decreasing dropout rates, increasing reading and math scores, and improving classroom and social behaviors. This section has investigated the use of small learning communities in increasing attendance, and provided information on conditions which affect student performance in small learning communities. Although the small learning communities offer a great deal of promise in the reduction of attendance problems, and an overall increase in student achievement, there is still controversy over the extent to which small learning communities can make a difference in graduation and dropout rates.

References

Carr, S. School within a school is new strategy to transform education. Times-Picuyne.

Department of Education. Smaller learning communities program. Office of Elementary and Secondary Education.

IECS. What works clearinghouse: Dropout provision. US Department of Education.

Kemple, J., Herlihy, C., & Smith, T. Making progress toward graduation: Evidence from the talent development high school model. MDRC.

Lee, M., and Friedrich, T. The `smaller' the school, the better? The smaller learning communities (SLC) program in US high schools. Improving Schools, 10(3), 261-282

Leonard, J. Frontiers in junior high school education. NASSP Bulletin.

Leonard, L., Leonard, P., & Sackney, L. Confronting assumptions about the benefits of small schools. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 29(1), 79-96 Small School Project. What are small schools?

Sparger, T. J. An investigation of implementations of smaller learning communities in Florida high schools. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Central Florida.

Tyler, J., & Lofstrom, M. Finishing high school: Alternative pathways and dropout recovery. Journal Issue: America's High Schools 19(1) pp. 77-103.

Should schooling be based on social experiences?

John Dewey says yes, learning should be acquired through relevant, productive experiences, as opposed to being taught by textbook and lecture. Dewey feels that the latter method is geared to adults, not to the learning needs and abilities of children. His progressive philosophy views education as something that grows from the individual child, rather than being handed down, almost forcefully, from adults. He cautions, however, against reflexively rejecting traditional teaching practices, preferring to improve them instead. Notably, he makes an argument that is heard a lot today: that education should address the needs of present and future society, not just impart information from the past. Instead, past knowledge should be used as a means to construct new, more relevant knowledge, and not be looked upon as the end point of all there is to know.

Roger Scruton says no, education should be conducted in the traditional manner that has worked for centuries. He believes that received knowledge, passed from texts and teachers to receptive pupils, is a viable form of learning, especially if the teachers are experts in their fields. In his view, expertise in a subject matter is the critical factor, and he looks down on professional education as a university program. There is no need to educate teachers to be professionals, he thinks; the emphasis should be on the subject they will teach.

Why I chose this topic: It is an argument that has been ongoing for a hundred years, is still highly controversial, and requires a choice between two opposing philosophies of education. I side with Dewey-perhaps because I am the professionally trained educator that Scruton warns against.

Should the curriculum be standardized for all?

Mortimer Adler says yes, all students at all levels should receive the same basic schooling. He objects to a multitrack educational system, saying that it is not rigorous enough. He says that students will not be prepared to participate meaningfully in society if they can't realize their potential. They will not be prepared to contribute to society as either worker or as voters. The only elective he would allow is a modern foreign language. Other than that, the curriculum would be traditional (somewhat expanded), and vocational training would be prohibited. He is in favor of exploratory learning, however.

John Holt says no, students should have a choice of what and how to learn. He believes that free people deserve freedom in their learning. He includes this type of education under freedom of thought, freedom of ideas, and freedom of speech. The type of education he recommends does not include a mandatory curriculum, or even mandatory attendance, believing that they are servants of an educational industry. He sees a threat that compulsory school might be extended beyond high school, threatening a form of mind control.

Why I chose this topic: These ideas affect the entire structure and underlying philosophy of education, and are thus of concern to every educator. While I believe that students should be able to input ideas into the formation of their education, I think that Holt's fears and ideas for letting children skip school whenever they want to are ridiculous. He brings up some legitimate concerns-the bullying, bad teacher, for instance-but does not address them in a realistic manner. The anecdotal episodes he mentions are not a sufficient basis for making the radical changes he proposes. He goes far beyond the idea that students should play a role in their own learning.

Is constructivism the best philosophy of education?

David Elkind says yes, constructivism offers students the kind of participatory learning that helps them be invested in their own education. Although constructivist methods of teaching require more time and effort that the traditional, textbook/lecture/test method, Elkind feels they are well worth the trouble. The teacher and the curriculum must be prepared to implement this type of education, and society must accept that it is a worthwhile method that results in real learning. All three forms of readiness are vital to success, and many constructivist programs fail to adequately prepare all three.

Jamin Carson says no, constructivism as a method is inferior to objectivism. Objectivism allows for only one version of reality, while constructivism has room for shades of gray. Child development theory plays far less of a role in objectivism. Carson's own experience in trying to implement constructivism was not successful because students did not understand the concept. This says less about constructivism than about Carson's ability to employ it.

Why I chose this topic: This ties directly into the topics addressed above. It is another aspect of the dichotomy of received versus explored knowledge. I side with exploration and constructivism, although I think these are built on a basic foundation of "factual" (i.e., imparted) knowledge.

Should "public schooling" be redefined?

Frederick M. Hess says yes, the traditional concept of the public school is inadequate to meet the needs of contemporary society and should be remodeled. Public schools are financed by government revenues and are thus overseen by the government, but nongovernmental organizations may be involved in its administration or even its financing. One of the problems in defining public education is deciding what its purpose is, from the standpoint of the public good. Is it to teach good citizenship? Values? Critical thinking? There is no consensus on the answers to these questions, and many parents want their children to learn particular values that are not specifically taught in public schools. Hess's argument, however, is that some public school teachers use their classrooms to promote their own personal beliefs.

Linda Nathan says no, redefinition opens the way to for-profit entities whose goals may be in direct conflict with those of public schools (as they are currently defined). She sees the specter of profit-making educational ventures as a real threat, and the push for vouchers to private schools not much better. She (correctly) criticizes Hess for advocating thinly disguised attacks on the traditional role of public schools by accusing them of having a liberal point of view. His alternative, she says, is support of new types of schools that have a definite agenda, such as making a profit or promoting religion-and doing it with public money. Her ideas are reinforced and expanded upon by Joe Nathan, Ray Bacchetti, and Evans Clinchy.

Why I chose this topic: It is very timely. Online public schooling is the latest example of drastic changes in the way public education is offered. I was surprised when I began to see commercials for elementary age students (as well as older ones) being taught online in their homes-as a form of public schooling. I admit I haven't explored how this works or what the differences are from a traditional classroom setting, but it is intriguing (and somewhat threatening to a teacher). I'm not sure what I think of that, but I am sure that private schools and for-profit schools are not public schools. I also don't think vouchers should be used to attend any of these types of schools.

Has the Supreme Court reconfigured American education?

Charles L. Glenn says yes, and it was a good thing. He believes that secularism is too prevalent in public education and religious schools should be allowed to receive federal funds. He disagrees that secularism has the effect of reducing conflict between different religious sects. He also argues in favor of traditional teaching methods and objectivism.

Paul E. Peterson says no, offering vouchers to parents is not an endorsement of private religious schools. Furthermore, he says that government already supports religion in several ways-Pell Grants to religious colleges, child care credits for church daycare, and tax breaks for contributions to religious organizations, for instance. Peterson's opinion is that religious schools have not indoctrinated their pupils in intolerance of other types of religion and tend to be more involved with the community than public schools are. (There are, of course a few exceptions.) Vouchers used to attend religious schools have resulted in raised test scores for African American students, according to Peterson. Counterintuitively, some school districts have reported improvements in the test scores of students who remained in public schools when other students have used vouchers to attend private schools.

Why I chose this topic: It is one of the most sensitive topics in education today. Both sides feel very deeply, as their arguments show. I found that I truly disagree with many of Glenn's claims. He ignores the fact that secular enlightenment, of the kind offered by public schools, and the enlightenment offered by religious schools are most often quite different. Secularism, by definition, is separate from religious beliefs, and in countries where there are many different religions, this is the best way to promote tolerance and discourage strife. Glenn seems to believe that anyone who does not support government funding of religious schools is against religion, and I disagree with that. Also, he doesn't understand that good morals are not exclusive to religion. Secularists can be moral, too. Finally, a secular school does not intend to separate students from their religions. It just avoids promoting religion, which comes in too many varieties to be a part of public schools.

Can failing schools be turned around?

Karin Chenoweth says yes, and goes on to give specific examples of how it can be done. One of the ideas that impressed me most was the realization that American teachers tend to be isolated in their classrooms. The collaboration model that Chenoweth mentions is much better because it builds in time for teachers to confer with each other about how to teach students background knowledge that they will need to master before they can be brought up to grade level standards.

Andy Smarick says no, improvement efforts have consistently failed. He cites instances where failure has occurred-but ignores schools like the examples ones Chenoweth describes. Smarick uses the example of industry/business to make the case that failing schools should be closed and replaced by charter schools. His analogy is that a school is like a business, and failing businesses are forced to close their doors. This argument presumes, in my opinion, that children are like products the school turns out. Closing a failing school is like giving up on its students, telling them they are not worth saving.

Why I chose this topic: The decision to close a "failing" school can have a profound impact on the families whose children attend the school-but so can failing to fix the school's problems. The students whose school fails them are, in effect, cheated out of their right to a good education, which is a guaranteed right. If a school does not teach well, whatever the problems of its students, society as a whole suffers. But mostly, the individual suffers. A quality education offers hope and a chance of success to all students. A poor education offers nothing, and may even prevent the student from succeeding in life. If failing schools cannot be turned around, alternatives must be found-and these alternatives are often controversial and, sometimes, suspect (e.g., for-profit schools, where the bottom line may be the most important goal).

Is privatization the hope of the future?

Chris Whittle says yes, that the competition inherent in privatization makes innovation and success mandatory if a school is to stay open. He feels that the education establishment is too comfortable and invested in the status quo to do what needs to be done to improve schools, so private sector innovation is needed. He sees schools as potential businesses that must be competitive in order to stay open.

Henry Levin says no, Whittle's vision is too simplistic. He says the privatization model has been tried, unsuccessfully, before. While many of Whittle's ideas are solid and workable, they should be applied to public, not private, education. The profit motive may work well for businesses, but children are not products; they are far more complicated and individualized.

Why I chose this topic: While I am on the side of improving, not replacing, public education, I think that the privatization advocates may have some valuable ideas to offer (although privatization itself is not the answer). I think the complications of this issue are worth discussing and exploring.

Is the inclusive classroom model workable?

Mara Sapon-Shevin says yes, the inclusive classroom is good for all students, including those without disabilities. The main purpose of inclusion, she says, is to broaden the horizons of all students. Accommodation and diversified instruction should be built into educational planning, not tacked on for individual students. The key is to increase awareness and acceptance of differences.

Wade A. Carpenter says no, creating successful inclusive classrooms is not that easy. He says that, while we shouldn't go back to the noninclusive ways of the past, we should be more sensitive to which students will benefit from mainstreaming. Furthermore, students without disabilities need to be sufficiently challenged, and often they suffer from a slow pace and over-simplified instruction in an inclusive classroom. He also wants to see less emphasis on socialization. He is quite concerned with allowing criminals, as he calls them, in the classroom. My problem with this view would be in the decision to classify some students as criminals. A criminal record is one thing, but misbehavior, while disruptive and unproductive, should not be enough to brand a child as a criminal. It could even be a self-fulfilling prophecy. Carpenter would just allow some kids to skip school altogether.

Why I chose this topic: I chose it because every teacher, at some point, will have to deal with inclusion. I do, every day. I am a teaching assistant and I work with learning disabled students. Also, I myself have dyslexia, so I know how much hard work it takes to overcome that kind of challenge. The points brought up by these authors are somewhat different from what I expected to read, but they are certainly valid. I have been fortunate enough to not encounter the types of students that concern Carpenter, so my opinion in favor of inclusiveness can't be based on the experiences he describes. I will have to consider his essay some more.

Can zero tolerance violate students' rights?

Supreme Court Justice David Souter says yes, in his opinion for the Court's decision. The majority of the Court ruled that the strip search of a 13 year old female middle school student violated her 4th Amendment rights against unreasonable search and seizure. I know that decisions like this are based strictly on the law, and I think the Court certainly made the right decision. But I think it should also be mentioned that, however admirable their goal of keeping students safe might be, any school official who thinks it won't harm a middle school girl to strip search her has got his or her priorities severely out of order.

Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas says no, the school officials were justified in doing the strip search because he thinks the standard described by the majority opinion is not specific enough. He believes that schools should be allowed to make their own judgments in such matters and the government should not interfere.

Why I chose this topic: This is a controversial topic, and both sides have legitimate concerns. School administrators have a difficult challenge in trying to keep schools safe, and failure to do so can have severe consequences. On the other hand, administrators are also responsible for following the law, and this requires respecting the rights of students. Trying to do both things must be like walking a tightrope, and I don't envy the administrators. However, common sense, in this case especially, should be followed. Given the nature of the pills they were looking for, and the lack of a good reason to think the student was hiding the pills in her underwear, the officials made the wrong decision, possibly scarring the student emotionally in the process.

Is the "21st century skills" movement viable?

Andrew J. Rotherham and Daniel T. Willingham says yes, the movement's goals are worthwhile-but only if they are implemented properly. They do not want to see this movement become just another educational fad, because they think it has much to offer to students and society both. They say that critical thinking skills, problem solving, and a global point of view are already part of the curriculum, and are certainly skills that will be necessary in the future, as they are today. What is necessary is a serious commitment to these goals, which means a comprehensive program that is more than just teaching a set of skills. Teachers must also be trained correctly, and learning must be assessed in a way that reflects the new types of skills.

Diana Senechal says no, traditional education does the job it's supposed to, and the movement for 21st century skills is just another fad. She calls for a common-sense approach to using technology, which means using it as a tool rather than an end in itself. The danger is in treating students as future employees rather than as individuals who deserve a full, well-rounded education. I think the best solution lies somewhere in between these two authors. Students need to be prepared to get good jobs, but they shouldn't be treated like commodities for employers' use.

Why I chose this topic: I watched the recent presidential debate, and I noticed how often President Obama mentioned the need to focus education on the needs of the 21st century. By this, I think he means that students in school today must learn the skills they will need in a rapidly-changing world that relies more and more on technology and globalization. Therefore, this is an important topic that is shaping national policy. I think that schools will be unable to avoid dealing with it. I also agree that needs are changing, but I also think that basics should continue to be important. To give a really basic-level example: If a catastrophe ever turned off the electric grid, people would have to resort to writing by hand, so even though such an event is unlikely, we should be prepared. I also agree with Rotherham and Willingham that critical thinking skills and solving problems are always valuable skills, so emphasizing them is important, but not something new.

Philosophers and the most important question.

I chose Is privatization the hope of the future? as the most important question because privatization of many public functions is currently being vigorously debated in the United States. In Europe, the state plays a different role than it does here, and I think it is interesting that so many people in the U.S. want the government to become smaller and do less for the people. These people want privatization-which, to me, means letting businesses run things-to offer competition, which they think will make improvements inevitable.

But is this really true? I found an article that compares the test scores of students who attend for-profit and not-for-profit charter schools in Michigan over a four-year period. The results showed that there was little difference between the two: there was "no evidence of a change in efficiency when a charter school is run by a for-profit company (versus a not-for-profit company)" (Hill and Welsch 147). Although this is only one study, it confirms my opinion that introducing a profit motive into education will ultimately benefit only the business and its investors.

Privatization sounds like a very modern issue, but when I think about it, public schools are a relatively recent phenomenon. Therefore, I'll look at two philosophers from the 19th century or later.

Fanny Coppin, an African-American educational activist from the late 19th and early 20th century, believed strongly in vocational as well as traditional education for black Americans. At the time she lived, slavery was a recent memory and Jim Crow laws were in effect. For this reason, black citizens were far more likely to make a good living from learning a manual or industrial skill than from extensive studies in the traditional liberal arts. Working with businesses to teach black students in a way that would give them a good basic education and a marketable skill would probably have pleased Coppin. However, she would not want the students/future employees to be exploited by their educators.

Howard Gardner, who is still a professional educator today, would be wary of possible exploitation, but he would also be concerned about privatized schools that generalized education too much in an effort to meet standardized goals. His emphasis on the individuality of students might mean that a business approach to education rewarded some types of intelligences more than others. For instance, if a student's talents were in the areas of music or kinesthetic movement, would the business-directed school value them as much as students who were good at math or negotiation? Perhaps the privatized school would be, because they wanted to please parents, but there would still be a risk that a student who threatened a profit margin might be overlooked or made to fit into an uncomfortable mold. Or just as bad, the student might feel that the school had little to offer him or her and lose interest. Gardner would want to see every child's potential realized, not just the students who will produce great test scores that will keep the school in business.

Work Cited

Hill, Cynthia D., and David M. Welsch. "For-profit versus Not-for-profit Charter Schools: An Examination of Michigan Student Test Scores." Education Economics 17.2: 145-66. Academic Search Premier.

Noll, James. William. Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Educational Issues. 17th ed. New York: McGraw Hill.

English Language Usage and Learning in Pakistan

How can the area of your variety be characterized with respect to its historical and current population structure and political situation?

(especially in so far as these have consequences for the language situation). When did English arrive in your area, who brought it there, and why? When and how did English spread and develop? Was it English initially used only by native-speaking in-migrants, or also by the indigenous population? Are there any other language spoken in your area? If so, which? Have there been later settler groups or immigrant streams after the introduction of English in your area? If so, who were they?

The British slowly and gradually extended their power over different areas of India through military conquest and internal intrigues. The areas surrounding Pakistan were annexed in the mid and late 19th century. English was first introduced in these areas in the 19th century by the British Empire. Initially, it was the British administration that spoke and used English for the administrative areas of the empire (Crystal). The British established elite schools, colleges and universities in this area which was meant to ensure that English would be the language of the elite groups. Indigenous people began to study English so that they could be members of the civil service, armed forces, judiciary, universities, and entertainment. Pakistan has numerous local as well as national languages. The national language is Urdu while local languages like Balochi, Puhsto, Punjabi, Sindhi, and others are spoken in specific areas. English has now become the official language as well as spread to different social and ethnic groups in the country. It is now a part of Pakistani culture as well as the medium of instruction in educational institutions.

Compare (time period, explain, history, examples) the phenomenon of 'drift' in Pakistani English with 'drift' in Malaysian English.

Pakistani English has evolved into a distinct form because of the influence of local languages. Typically, Pakistani English is written in an Anglicized form in specific schools that adhere to the British curriculum. This form of English is considered to be the closest to British English which has led to high levels of efficiency and effectiveness. It has created a collaborative environment for success which is based upon achieving long term success within a short period of time. Another form of English is acrolectal which is typically utilized by Pakistanis who have studied in English mediums schools (Nelson).

Mesolectal Pakistani English is that which has been applied by Pakistanis who have studied in Urdu medium schools. A number of unique idioms and colloquial expressions have been utilized by Pakistanis. This is very much similar to Malaysian English which has highly evolved because of its unique local influences. Malaysia is also an area which has a number of ethnic and linguistic groups. English has been transformed because of the influence of local languages. This has helped to achieve the highest levels of efficiency and effectiveness. Moreover, it has created an environment for success which is based upon long term success. There are some differences between Pakistani English and Malaysian English. For instance, Pakistani English has been able to use a number of antiquated British terms.

What has been the policy regarding the use of English as medium of instruction (at what age/level are children instructed in English?) and what have been the considerations of governments or educational authorities in this policy?

(for example, children learn a second language best when the language has first been taught to them as a subject, or rather that it is best to immerse children in English straight away.)

Pakistan has English medium as well as Urdu medium schools in different parts. In the Urdu medium schools, English is taught at a very basic level. These schools are run by the government and are meant to be for students coming from poor income groups. English is taught as a second language to these students. On the contrary, the English medium schools use English as a language of instruction from the starting classes).

Children at 3 years are introduced to the English alphabet while they are slowly given instructions as they move to the higher classes. English is also taught at the college and university levels which points towards the popularity of the language. Educational authorities take exams in English while course material is also undertaken in English. English is taught to students in English medium schools straight away as they are introduced with the basic concepts. This is done on the basis of having clear and precise goals. It is based upon achieving long term success within a short period of time. It also seeks to develop a comprehensive strategy that can lead to long term accomplishment of educational objectives.

4. watch?v=tWZqmiQvDhw give comment on his accent an whats typically pakistani about it.

Accent is considered to be a unique part of human identity because it is shaped by the influence of local and cultural variables. Local languages tend to exert a strong influence on accent especially for individuals who speak a number of languages. This is because it is based upon having clear and precise goals. It should be based upon achieving long term success within a short period of time. Additionally, the task is to create a collaborative strategy which can lead to long term development. The individual's accent is Pakistani because of the fact that the influence of the local language can be seen in an efficient manner. Pakistanis typically speak English in an efficient manner which is as close to the original. The individual has also been using a number of sentences which are direct translations from local Pakistani language. This is a unique phenomenon that is exhibited by Pakistanis when they speak in English. Accent is something which takes some planning and preparation. An individual's accent is based upon achieving high levels of efficiency within a short period of time. It seeks to ensure the highest levels of success with an emphasis on long term success and development.

References

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (Second ed.). Cambridge, UK.
Rahman, T. "The use of words in Pakistani English". English Today 7 (02): 32.
Nelson, Cecil L. World Englishes in Asian contexts. Hong Kong University Press.
Mahboob, A. English as an Islamic Language: a case study of Pakistani English. World Englishes, 28(2):175-189.

Study 1: Personality characteristics and romance on Facebook.

1. What is the title of the study?

Personality characteristics and romance on Facebook.

2. What is the purpose of the study?

The study aims to understand aspects of online social networks and romantic attraction. The questionnaires were designed in a manner that will answer pertinent questions on the influence of personality on romance seen in Facebook. The study was designed to find out if Facebook promotes romantic relationships. The findings will be used to understand the development of romantic relationships on Facebook.

The possible hypotheses in this study include:

I. Personality of an individual has a profound influence on romantic relationships on Facebook.

II. Facebook has become a vital tool for young people who single to look for romantic relationships.

III. Facebook as a social network tool will always promote romantic relationships based on the emotional state of an individual.

3.Describe some of the measures and items that they asked in the on-line survey. What variables do you think these items were measuring? Give at least 3 example items.

The measure that was mostly used in the survey was different personality questions that could be possibly measured using personality scale. The following were some of the questions that were survey in this online survey:

I. I see myself as some who is ingenious, a deep thinker?

II. I see myself as some who tends to be quiet?

III. I see myself as some who is emotionally stable, not easily upset?

IV. I see myself as some who has an assertive personality?

These questions revolved around one around personalities of individuals and how the different personalities influenced romantic relationships onFacebook. The variables that were common in the study include mood, trust, thinking ability, enthusiasm and emotions. These variables were used to determine if they have influence on romantic relationships on Facebook.

4.What suggestions do you have for improving the study?

In order to improve the study, the questionnaires must be designed to include open-ended questionnaires that will ensure that more responses are gathered from the study. Open-ended questions will ensure that the element of reliability and validity of the data collected will be attained easily.

5.Give your reactions to participating in the study. Did you enjoy participating?

The study was extremely interesting because it touches the most interesting topic in the social domain. I enjoyed the entire study because I always use Facebook to interact with my friends and family. Facebook as a social tool has influenced the way I perceive romantic relationships. Thus, while answering the questions of the study, I found that it was more inspiring my participation.

6.Where would the results of this study fit into the textbook?

The topic that the study personality characteristics and romance on Facebook would fit is on 'Personality and Social Psychology'. The study present research examined associations between attachment measures, relationship quality and outcome measures, and the 'Big Five "personality trait". This study focuses on the traits that are likely to bring the element of attachment as seen in Facebook.

7.If you were to study a similar topic, what would it be and how would you study it? What method?

The topic would be 'How Facebook Contribute to Family Break-ups'. I would use questionnaires to undertake a study on this topic.

Study 2: Moral Psychology

1.What is the title of the study?

The title of the study is moral psychology.

2.What is the purpose of the study?

This study aims to examine how individuals differ in their evaluative reactions to other people's behaviors in the society. Therefore, the study will attempt to understand what causes the different reactions to other people' behaviors and answer questions on different morality premises?

The possible hypotheses include:

I. Morals are in most cases not permissible in some circumstances.

II. Morals can be unlawful based on the prevailing circumstances.

III. Person's identity is centered on morality.

3.Describe some of the measures and items that they asked in the on-line survey. What variables do you think these items were measuring? Give at least 3 example items.

The study attempts to find out if morality is wrong based on sailors' action of weeping. In addition, the study attempts to examine ways that are used decide if something is right or wrong. The study also links the element of whether someone is right or wrong based on whether a person acted in a manner that God would approve it. The study also examines the element of justice in relation to morality. Equally, the study examines how laws enacted by a government have influence on morality.

4.What suggestions do you have for improving the study?

This research on moral psychology should not only use one example to provide the answers on the aspect of morality. The closed-ended questions were too many in this research. The questions should be moderate as it was taking too much time and they were related. The study should be also improved by introducing more open-ended questions to increase the results of the study.

5.Give your reactions to participating in the study. Did you enjoy participating?

The topic of the study was not that much interesting because it was too general. This means that the topic could have been narrowed to a specific one to make more fascinating to undertake it. Thus, I did enjoy the topic much as it not touching real-life experience.

6.Where would the results of this study fit into the textbook?

The results of this study on moral psychology will fit on the topic 'moral development'. This is because the moral development explains how individuals in the society develop through adopting the available moral principles in a given society.

7.If you were to study a similar topic, what would it be and how would you study it? What method?

The topic will be 'Morality and Society' and the method of research to be used to collect the necessary data would be use of survey questionnaires with interviews.

Study 3: Religiousness and Identity.

1.What is the title of the study?

The title of the research is 'Religiousness and Identity'.

2.What is the purpose of the study?

The purpose of this study is to find out the views on identity of the religious leaders in the community.

3.What variables do you think these items were measuring? Give at least 3 example items.

The study uses many variables to find opinion concerning religious leaders in the community. These variables include attitude of Christians towards religious leaders, how individual feel as a Christian and the ideals of good religious leader. These are items that were used in this study:

I. How much do you feel you identify with being a Christian?

II. How much do you support this vision of Christianity?

III. Overall, how favorable do you feel towards this leader?

4.What suggestions do you have for improving the study?

The study has too many questions making it time-consuming; thus, there is the need to shorten to make it easy for participants to provide relevant answers. In addition, the questions are more related, and this should be ensured that the questions are not related in any way.

5.Give your reactions to participating in the study. Did you enjoy participating?

The study was boring because of the many questions that were asked, and I did not enjoy all session of the survey. The questions were almost asking the same thing making it tiresome.

6.Where would the results of this study fit into the textbook?

The results would fit in the textbook 'Personality and Identity'. This topic studies the different personalities and identities that are seen in the society.

7.If you were to study a similar topic, what would it be and how would you study it? What method?

The topic, which is similar to this, is 'Psychology and Identity'. The appropriate method to be used in this study is questionnaire and observation.

Question A:Which study, of the three, did you most enjoy doing? Why?

The study I enjoyed most is the on 'Personality characteristics and romance on Facebook' as it was captivating to undertake. The topic touched on debatable issues on aspects of romance and Facebook. The topic was also appropriate for my age and from the fact I use Facebook always was also one of the factor that attracted my concentration on this topic. In addition, the questions were brief and uncomplicated like it was in the other studies. Therefore, I enjoyed the first study as it also touched my everyday life.

Question B: For which study, of the three, are you most eager to find out the results? Why?

The study I am eagerly waiting for the results is the one on 'Personality characteristics and romance on Facebook' because I found the questions very interesting and the results will help me deal with my relationships. The results will be important as currently I handle several relationships.

Question C: Which study, of the three, is most likely to have applications to real-world social problems? Explain.

Study on 'Personality characteristics and romance on Facebook' is applicable in the real-world social problems because it can be used to teach young people. Young people are the majority who use Facebook and other social media tools to look for romance. Therefore, this is an ideal topic for them to learn more because they have different personalities.

Abstract

Action research is particularly conducive to academic settings in that it allows for the complexity and dynamism inherent to the educational environment. The common methodologies of practical, participatory, and teacher action research are all concurrently viable in the school context despite the common criticisms of action research. The research study briefly proposed herein would lend itself well to a participatory, action research framework.

Action Research: Exploring Common Methodologies and Applications for the Higher Education Setting

Action research methodologies have distinct implications for academic settings which exist independent of those had by alternative research methodologies. Primarily, action research is particularly conducive to educational settings because of its cyclical, flexible nature. This inquiry explores methodologies common to action research, synthesizing the advantages and disadvantages of the research frameworks and affording attention to action research possibilities for higher education settings. In essence, action research recognizes that academic settings are defined by a myriad of interconnected variables that are constantly in flux, and, by extension, effective research methodologies must be just as dynamic as the setting in which the research is taking place.

Action research is cyclical planning with respect to a particular intervention (Armstrong and Moore). While the focus is streamlined during an action research study, the outcomes are not predetermined. Action researchers are fervently sensitive to the complexity of academic settings and adopt the action research approach out of respect for the nature of the educational context. In their text appropriately entitled Action Research for Inclusive Education, authors Armstrong and Moore cite that "action research generates knowledge, as well as being concerned with bringing about change, through processes of observation, reflection and critical engagement with ideas and practices" (2004, p. 2). Consistently responsive, action researchers welcome results that might be construed as unorthodox or unexpected. Similarly, a project that does not, on the surface, appear to have been a success with respect to the original focus could in actuality be extremely productive, yielding unique perspectives and raising unanticipated issues (Armstrong and Moore, 2004). During action research, regardless of the precise methodology utilized, the goal is simply the production of knowledge and not necessarily the instrumental agenda set forth at the beginning of the study.

Common Methodologies in Action Research

Action research surmounts an obstacle commonly presented to the field of education by conventional research; it defies the common formula of yielding a relatively simple conclusion to a complex problem. The family of methodologies common to action research embodies both action and research conclusions in parallel. Action research is generally qualitative rather than quantitative and depends crucially on the active participation and critical reflection of all stakeholders in the research process. Unlike conventional research studies, action research is cyclical, repeating the research steps in a recurring, predictable sequence. Additionally and most saliently, the family of methodologies common to action research are all concurrently responsive and emergent, adapting to change gradually and over time.

Interconnected Methodologies

Action research methodologies are generally characterized by the research context or the researchers themselves; they can be individual, collaborative, school-wide, or district-wide. Practical action research depends on the critical reflection of teachers or other stakeholders on their practice, be it in the classroom, administrative office, or alternative context. Participatory action research methodologies evolve from the acts of planning, action, observation, evaluation, and reflection; these steps then repeat in the aforementioned, cyclical fashion common to action research. Teacher action research is usually individual or collaborative in nature, taking place in a single or small group of classrooms within the same school.

Though most action research is qualitative, defined through observation and reflection and articulated through language and not numerical evidence, some action research can be mixed-method in nature, utilizing both qualitative and quantitative data-gathering techniques. Depending on the nature of the study, qualitative methods are usually more conducive to educational research than quantitative methods. Quantitative data collection depends crucially on the streamlined, efficient choice of an instrument and most action research does not lend itself to a single survey or quantitative tool. In essence, qualitative methods allow for the responsive nature of action research, and quantitative methods are usually too rigid to be applied to a true, action research study.

Traditional Research versus Action Research

The conventional formats for research studies disallow for constant adjustments. Specifically, if a researcher uses a quantitative tool such as a survey or close-ended questionnaire and it yields inapplicable results, a traditional research framework would demand that the data collected be either thrown out completely before the study can be adjusted lest the study be deemed unsuccessful. In either case, inflexibility in methodology is tantamount to wasted time and energy. The element of responsiveness in action research is critical, as is the cyclic nature of the research study. In his article entitled "A Beginner's Guide to Action Research," Dick writes that "to achieve both action and research outcomes requires responsiveness -- to the situation, and the people, and the growing understanding on the part of those involved. Using a cyclic process in most circumstances enhances responsiveness." Additionally and in sharp contrast to traditional research methodologies, action research methodologies allow all data collected to be held as equally valuable, even if it is reflective of unanticipated outcomes.

Rigid, research frameworks generally warrant hypotheses and expected conclusions. When the data being collected is not in line with the identified variables, a conventional methodology does not have the flexibility to amend the study midstream. Action research, however, demands only an area of focus prior to the study's beginning. While the researchers will undoubtedly hold preconceived notions about the study may end, they do not allow these ideas to skew the study before it begins. However, should the study progress in a way that suggests a different route be taken during a proceeding cycle, action research allows this to happen. Dick contends in his aforementioned article that "imprecise questions and methods can be expected to yield imprecise answers initially. But if those imprecise answers can help to refine questions and methods, then each cycle can be a step in the direction of better action and research.... In other words, there are times when the initial use of fuzzy methods to answer fuzzy questions is the only appropriate choice." In short, while traditional, quasi-scientific methods have a rigid vision for the progression of a study from beginning to end, action research allows the study to evolve in conjunction with the data being gathered.

Quality in Action Research

Just as quality is critical to conventional research methodologies, quality is equally paramount during action research. However, that quality is defined very differently during an action research study. Specifically, quality action research has repeated cycles and multiple sources of data. The data sources may shift and adapt throughout the study as well and need not be defined prior to the study's beginning. Ideally, however, the researchers themselves are an integral data source, as they are truly committed to the study and may be the stakeholders most affected by the change being addressed. A number of cycles ensures the validity of the evidence being yielded, as long as planning precedes action, followed by critical reflection. Constantly and fervently pursuing quality during action research studies can aid in countering the common critiques of the process.

Synthesis: Advantages and Disadvantages of Action Research

Action research presents a myriad of advantages to the field of education. However, the most advantageous elements of action research methodologies are the same areas criticized by skeptics of action research. Primarily, the two most common critiques of action research are that it is not scientific enough to be called authentically empirical and that its participatory nature renders it inherently political.

Common Critique: Action Research Is Not Scientific

Proponents of traditional methodologies demand scientific structure throughout the course of a study. The environment must be controlled in such a way that the predetermined variables are, in essence, the only element in the study allowed to change. While such methodologies are conducive to medical research and other scientific fields in which a clinical setting is feasible, the nature of the academic world does not lend itself to such constraints. For instance, if a teacher were to study the effects of standardized testing on his or her student population's stress level during test-week in a quasi-experimental format, he or she would not be able to take into account unforeseen stressors such as schedule changes, widespread illness, or a bomb threat. The academic environment is far too complex to be confined to a rigid, scientific framework.

Common Critique: Action Research is Too Political

An alternative criticism of action research is that it is too political in nature. Because action research methodologies are so participatory in nature, depending critically on the teachers' or other stakeholders' involvement throughout the process, critics are skeptical of the extent to which the role of the researcher is tantamount to the role of political activist. Authors Armstrong and Moore write in their aforementioned text that "action research has been used as a means of imposing policy change and of implementing policy (sometimes no more than a 'gentler' version of imposing change)." More positively, however, action research is a channel for challenging the often problematic top-down path of policy-making. While action research is undoubtedly a means of empowering teachers to catalyze genuine change in their schools, there is no reason why the political element of action research should be perceived as a negative. Schools themselves are deeply entrenched in politics, and allowing teachers to play a proactive role in their working environment is an invaluable result of action research methodologies.

Action Research and Higher Education

Action research is conducive to academic settings on all levels. In higher education settings, in particular, teachers often have the freedom to pursue action research agendas and may have the temporal flexibility to do so in a way that elementary and secondary school teachers do not. Additionally, the common criticism that action research is too political may be less asserted within higher education settings, particularly in private institutions.

Action Research: Applying Waldorf Education Principles to the University Classroom

Within the higher education setting, stress levels among full-time student populations are a mounting problem, as is absenteeism and drop-out rates for freshman, visual arts students. Waldorf education is a growing, alternative education movement that began during the 1940s in Germany and has since spread exponentially throughout Europe and North America. Though Waldorf was initially focused on early childhood and elementary education, the movement has grown to birth several high schools in the United States and dozens more in Europe and Asia. As yet, however, there are no Waldorf universities save those that specifically educate Waldorf teachers. The focus area of the action research study discussed herein is to examine the effect of employing Waldorf principles in a college classroom on the stress levels, participation, and overall engagement of freshman students majoring in art and design.

Background and Problem-Focus

Much like action research, Waldorf education is both heralded and condemned. While proponents of the movement fervently support its strict focus on creativity and devaluation of science and mathematics, skeptics have accused Waldorf education of everything from inefficacy to racism. The curricular framework for Waldorf is rigid and similar across institutional lines, with strict content areas for every grade from kindergarten through twelfth. The central tenets that are embodied by Waldorf schools throughout all grades are predictable rhythms, home-like atmospheres, student-made textbooks, and a strong emphasis on creative exploration regardless of the subject being studied. Waldorf schools are highly critical of technology and generally do not condone the use of computers, calculators, or other technologies in the classroom even at the high school level.

Undoubtedly, not all of the Waldorf tenets will be conducive to the higher education setting, particularly for certain subject areas. However, supporters of Waldorf celebrate, among other things, the movement's de-stressing effect on students, citing that the educational style holds the ability to engage students in a way that conventional education does not. The creative element of the movement is particularly conducive to visual arts classes and may be able to counter the high rate of absenteeism and student drop-outs among freshman students.

Proposed Process

The chosen, action research methodology will be participatory in nature, cycling through the interconnected processes of planning, action, observation, evaluation, and reflection (Armstrong and Moore, 2004). Initially, the study will take place over the course of one, fall semester and within the context of four different painting and drawing classes. The study will be collaborative, as two teachers will be participating and engaged in all stages of the cycles.

Planning

Planning for the study will be a critical stage during all cycles. Initially, the planning stage will involve choosing which Waldorf elements will be particularly effective in the higher education setting. The participating teachers will aim to have regular rhythms within each class that are posted and predictable (ie. students display homework, students critique each other's work, teacher discusses class assignment, etc.). Most importantly, the classrooms will be organized in a home-like fashion using Waldorf design elements; these are usually muted, pastel color schemes, natural lighting, soft seating areas, and the presence of foods such as fresh bread and tea. Teachers will also implement the Waldorf strategy of having students make their own textbooks using book-binding methods.

Action

During the first action stage, seasoned teachers will be assessing the effect of the changes on their student population using all previous years as a baseline. For instance, if they usually lost two through five students during the first month of classes, they will compare this with the drop-out rate during the study. More qualitatively, teachers will interview students regarding the changes in the classroom specifically and how they feel about the class in general using open-ended questionnaires.

Observation and Evaluation

Much of the process will be observation, as some of the Waldorf elements imposed may be more effective than others. During the observation process, however, the participating teachers will discuss how they feel the changes are affecting the students, what is working and what is problematic, and, most saliently, whether the process should change during the next cycle. The key during all observations will be to assess the effect of the changes on student engagement, stress level, and absenteeism within the classroom contexts. The evaluation process will synthesize the data garnered from observations in a collaborative discussion between teachers and students.

Reflection

The final stage in the initial cycle is essential in retrospectively evaluating how the process could be amended during the next cycle. For instance, perhaps the activity of textbook-making consumed too much class time and did not seem particularly relevant to student engagement. Alternatively, perhaps the home-like atmosphere was particularly successful and kept students in the painting or drawing studio working long after class had ended. During reflection, the participating teachers will need to comprehensively extricate the most salient elements of the study, assess what is working and what is not working, and what needs to be remedied during future cycles. Unless an alteration is glaringly and immediately necessary following the first cycle, recommended is it that no changes be made to the methodology until at least the second cycle.

Synthesis

The study briefly proposed herein is particularly conducive to action research methodologies in that it may yield a range of evidence that is not anticipated; thus, some data would fit into a rigid, quasi-experimental research design. While the focus area of the study is well-defined, there are no inflexible variables or expected conclusions. The study is indicative of teacher empowerment at the higher education level, as they can implement changes that can boost student engagement and remedy identified problems within their institutions.

Summation

Action research charges teachers to collaborate, plan, carry out, and evaluate an intervention that they have deemed salient to their institution. Despite common criticisms, action research is particularly conducive to the educational setting in that it allows for the much needed flexibility and complexity of the academic context. While action research does indeed have a political component in that demands practitioner participation in catalyzing change, the political realm is inherent to the school environment anyway, and teacher empowerment is hardly a disadvantage of action research. Conversely, allowing teachers to effectively challenge the traditional imposition of values and policy from the administrative top downward is one of the single, greatest advantages of action research methodologies. In short, no one is more cognizant of the effects of a policy on the classroom than teachers. By extension, there is no one better to embark upon a research process than the teachers themselves.

School reform suggestions pervade institutions of all levels. Higher education teachers have greater freedom, in most cases, to embark upon an action research agenda. However, a formidable challenge presented by the higher education institution is that they are arguably even more complex than lower, academic settings; student populations are in flux on a semester-by-semester basis and the curriculum may be largely dynamic as well. While such a setting would present considerable opposition to any research agenda, including an action research methodology, action research is undoubtedly more appropriate for the intricacy of higher education settings. Authors Armstrong and Moore write in their aforementioned text that "we recognize the complexity of social settings such as schools and colleges, and the artificial nature of identifying a 'focus' a as if it were possible to delineate a bounded area of social life without taking into account the dynamic and reciprocal relationships between contexts." Much like education itself, the goal of action research is to generate knowledge. In the absence of a predetermined, rigid agenda, a greater amount of knowledge can be yielded during a research study, as no variables or data need be eliminated merely because they did not suit the expected format or gel with the anticipated conclusions.

References

Armstrong, F. & Moore, M. (Eds.). Action Research for Inclusive Education: Changing Places, Changing Practice, Changing Minds. New York: RoutledgeFalmer.
Dick, B. A beginner's guide to action research.

McDermott, R. Waldorf Education in America: a Promise and Its Problems. Re-vision, 15(2), 82-90.

A Genre Analysis of a Research Paper Abstract and Introduction

General

The general purpose of the report was to "explore the beliefs about language learning of Lebanese English as a foreign language students" using the targeted languages of English and French for comparison. The intended audience would be the academic community stakeholders concerned with the second language acquisition process and the relationship of culture to that process. The reader expectations would be to find out how the attitudes of Lebanese students differ in their perceptions of English and French, both in terms of usefulness and ease of learning. The source of the text is the Science Direct database, however, the original publisher of the document was the American University of Beirut. In terms of the data employed, the author collected information from 284 students following an adapted version of "Horwitz's 'Beliefs about Language Learning Inventory.'" (Diab p. 80).

Abstract

The Abstract employed is of a atypical length and follows the general attributes of Hyland's move structure classification. In this capacity, though it clearly has an introduction, methods, results and discussion, it does not specifically articulate them. The introduction first states what the project did, "This study explored...." (Diab, p. 80). The methods are stated as "A modified version of.....was administered to 284 students in three universities" (p. 80). The results were articulated by the statement, "Findings revealed that the students....." (Diab, p. 80). Similarly, the discussion commences with the following statement, "Notably, the students' beliefs...." (p. 80). After the introductory discussion statement, the Abstract continues with additional information typical of the discussion portion of an Abstract.

Though the Abstract is detailed, it is not overly detailed. The methods employed are articulated, however, if the reader was not familiar with the Horwitz language inventory, they would not exactly understand how the study took place. For an Abstract, however, this is sufficient information that is clarified at later portions in the work. In general, the accepted length of a typical Abstract is 100 words. This particular Abstract is 201 words, which makes nearly double the length of a typical Abstract. This does not necessarily detract from the study, as the information provided in the Abstract is useful and it does follow the essence of content related to conventional Abstracts. Had the author employed jargon or other abbreviated terminology, it is possible that some of the content could have been eliminated from the Abstract making it a smaller size. However, the choice of the researcher to not employ jargon makes the overall understanding of Abstract more accessible to readers who may not be familiar with prior work in the field.

Generic Structure of the Introduction

The generic structure of the introduction clearly follows the CARS model by establishing research territory, introducing previous studies, establishing a niche and occupying the niche. Building the study on the widely held academic belief that language teachers and researchers place much of the importance of second language acquisition on the role of the learner, the introduction moves on to cite work from Horwitz (1987), Park (1995), Wenden (1986), Yang (1992), Truitt (1995), Young (1991) and others. Many of the innate characteristics of Horwitz's work, which were not included in the Abstract, were articulated in the introduction. The niche that is established and ultimately occupied is characterized by the researcher as follows, "In spite of the growing number of studies......no study has yet explored the beliefs about language learning of Lebanese EFL students" (p. 81). The identification of how this particular study occupies this niche is demonstrated through the clearly established parameters of the research questions. Diab articulated the research questions framing the research base as follows, "What are the beliefs....," "How do the beliefs about....," and "Are there any statistically significant differences...." (p. 81).

Referencing and Style

The referencing style followed by Diab appears to be a fairly consistent APA type of in text citation system. So deviation from the newest APA handbook are noted, and this could be attributed to the 2005 publishing date, it appears that some of the slight variance is intended and likely a product of standards outlined for the American University of Beirut. Regardless of the slight differences, however, the style is clearly APA in nature and it is easy to follow where the citations came from. The language style, though simplistic, is academic in that it is free from contractions and no declaration is left without literature or original data to back up the statements. The tense of the articles and those cited follow the proper established present and past tense when referring to past articles and the current study.

Conclusions

Diab's University students' beliefs about learning English and French in Lebanon study, follows what can be considered a typical patter of a research paper Abstract and Introduction. Though the Abstract is double the typical length of most Abstracts, the content, wording and citation methods of both sections are what one would come to expect from peer reviewed academic research. Using a proven methodology, the author establishes a niche and demonstrates how this particular study occupies this niche that has not yet been explored fully in published academic literature related to the subject.

References

Diab, R. L. University students' beliefs about learning English and French in Lebanon. American University of Beirut. (34), 80-96.

Learning to Research

Reflection represents an active process of learning through the medium of experience. Consequently, the act of reflection often supplements the learning process, with metacognition, or thinking about thinking, serving the learner in a myriad of ways. Active reflection charges the individual to frame the learning process in terms of strengths and weaknesses, observation of meanings, and cultural contexts. According to Woo and Looi, structuring the reflective process by asking specific questions boosts the overall quality of reflection and aims the entire reflection at one, key goal; to position the significance of learning within broader dimensions such as personal or professional experiences, goals, or an overarching vision. The following inquiry, by extension, asks the following question to guide the reflective process: How did meetings with my mentor support the learning process?

Reflective thinking is not a series of random thoughts but a sequence of interconnecting meta-thoughts. Over the duration of the course, I met with my mentor three times, with each meeting representing a significant turning point in the research process for me. The first meeting was essentially a discussion of my research topic and evaluation of my proposed research directions. While initially I was disconcerted by the time constraints affecting my research methodology, reflecting on the first meeting by asking the aforementioned question highlights several experiences; namely, I learned the importance of flexibility in the research process as well as the need to constantly evolve the research scope. The second meeting was an extension of the first, though I was further along in the research process and had solidified the methodology. My mentor made several helpful suggestions during the second meeting, including how to conduct the quantitative surveys without unwittingly limiting my conclusions. The third and last meeting was less of a discussion and more of presentation, during which my research was concretely presented to my mentor in a way that highlighted what I perceived as the most critical points emerging from the research process.

In reflecting on my mentor meetings, in it clear that the potential existed for certain, preconceived notions to limit my learning. Musolino and Mostrom write that "it is the emotional, intellectual, and practical commitment to beliefs that pushes one to inquiry," with reflective thinking beginning with doubt and hesitation and moving toward exploration and observation (54). My inclination is to doubt that the communication dynamics between myself and my mentor limited my first meeting, but, ultimately, I believe I could have streamlined my research goals far earlier than I did had I felt comfortable discussing options with my mentor during the first meeting. The second and third meetings, however, represented more equal communication dynamics grounded in my better understanding of the research process. Ideal reflection comes from a position of comfort, pause, and uncertainty, and, reflecting from this position now, I see that a clear evolution existed over the course of the three meetings, with the initial meeting highly fragmented and fear-riddled for me and the latter meeting representing a far more empowering interaction. Overall, however, the meetings with my mentor were invaluable to the research process and aided me significantly in examining the direction of my research.

Achieving the Research Objectives

The mixed-method approach to research represents, ideally, a comprehensive means of combining the best practices in both qualitative and quantitative methods. In reflecting on the extent to which my research objectives were achieved, it is critical to identify the research aims and how well the methodology aligned with these aims; in doing so, the strengths and weaknesses of the research process are directly bound to the link between research objectives and methodology. Overall, while I do believe that my research objectives were met, two weaknesses in the research process could have been remedied by a more solid objective-methodology connection. The following inquiry explores the extent to which my research objectives were met and makes concrete recommendations for improving future research processes.

The dominant themes in my research were the relationship between motivation and organizational strategy, with the specific research objectives being as follows: Define the application of motivational theory within an organization; determine the most critical motivational factors within the same organization; evaluate the current motivational strategies being applied within the firm; make clear and practical recommendations for improvement of motivation within the organization. In order to achieve these objectives, the mixed-methods approach was applied to the research process, with the specific methodology comprised of quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews of thirty participants. Both qualitative and quantitative methods embody strengths and weaknesses that the mixed-method approach seeks to overcome. The extent to which my aforementioned objectives were met was directly informed by the strength of the methodology, by extension.

In essence, weaknesses of quantitative methods include results that are limited by the need to be framed as numbers, specifically in terms of quantity, and those of qualitative methods are linked to the higher level of subjectivity. According to Poggenpoel, Myburgh, and Van der Lind, qualitative methods emerged from a general level of dissatisfaction with quantitative methods: "The quantitative methodology and its requirements almost became the only accepted methodology even to the level of an ideology.... Respondents thus quite often become mere numbers. Research seemed to become equivalent to a mechanical implementation of a measurement instrument and statistical testing" (409). In my research, I attempted to use the qualitative interviews to supplement the quantitative research, and this affected the research objectives in both positive and negative ways.

Specifically, two of the four objectives were clearly supported by the mixed-methods approach, and two were rendered problematic by the methodology. The initial objective was to define the application of motivational theory within the organization, and this objective represented a weakness in that it assumed participants would be cognizant of motivational theories and many were not; thus, neither the quantitative nor qualitative methods were useful in meeting this objective. However, the second and third objectives were clearly met through the mixed-method approach, as motivational strategies were identified in both the surveys and interviews, with the data largely aligning with itself across methodological lines. Additionally, the most critical motivational factors were identified through the surveys and interviews, with the interviews filling in gaps left by the quantitative surveys. Specifically, the surveys had not identified all motivational factors relevant to the organization, but the participants were able to articulate these factors in their own words within the semi-structured interviews. Finally, the latter objective was to make recommendations for improving motivation within the organization, and this objective was met by linking the conclusions drawn from the data to literature on motivational theory; this final objective was difficult to meet from the research data alone, as the diversity in responses precluded universally applicable recommendations. Overall, however, the four objectives were met to various degrees, with the first and fourth objective not as supported by the methodology as the second and third objectives.

Interpersonal and Communication Skills Demonstration

Communication and interpersonal skills represent a professional and academic necessity. Arn, Kordsmeier, and Gatlin-Watts write that "interpersonal and communication skills make or break your career success in the office of the future.... [T]o succeed in a knowledge-intensive environment, employees must work cooperatively, generate and archive knowledge, and communicate effectively" (4). The global marketplace demands that workers exhibit higher order communication skills, including negotiation, empathic communication, nonverbal communication, and culturally competent communication. The following inquiry explores the extent to which these and more basic communicative and interpersonal skills were demonstrated during the research process. Overall, I believe that my communication strengths lie in traditional, written communication as well as nonverbal and culturally competent communication. A communicative weakness of mine is empathic communication, though I am seeking out ways in which to improve in this area.

Traditional communication can be framed as oral and written communication, with written communication now manifesting in the digital world. I made initial contact with research participants via email and maintaining contact with them primarily in email form throughout the duration of the research process. Nontraditional forms of communication, or higher-order communication, proved invaluable, however, during the interview process. nonverbal and culturally competent communication, for instance, aided me in prompting interviewees and selecting the appropriate questions to ask in order to further my research aims. For example, one interviewee's facial expression and body language alerted me that she wanted to elaborate more regarding motivational factors in her department, and I was able to prompt her to do so. Empathic communication is essentially when one attempts to listen to another's point of view, attempting to place him/herself in his/her proverbial shoes during an interaction; I struggle with this, and I believe it could have benefitted my research by allowing me to take more effective notes during the interviews. The interviews were digitally recorded, and I focused intently on handwriting notes regarding nonverbal communication during the interviews; this may have precluded me from empathically communicating with participants.

Overall, however, I believe I demonstrated solid communication skills during the research process and, more saliently, identified areas that need improvement. Rao writes that "soft skills are the abilities required in the workplace for professional success.... They are a collection of several skills and abilities related to the execution of such tasks as communicating, managing time, negotiating, writing, listening, reading, presenting, problem solving, and decision making" (50). While hard skills represent concrete technical competencies, communication and interpersonal skills represent equally critical abilities to the global marketplace. The research experience, for me, supported an understanding of how I can both use my communicative strengths to mediate existing weaknesses as well as improve key areas that are, as yet, less formidable than others.

The Research Process and My Professional Role

The research process aided me in both my accountancy studies as well as my professional role in several ways. Most weightedly, the experience attuned me to the importance of research in facilitating organizational change. While many firms have issues related to worker motivation, specifically, that preclude ideal productivity, they do not seek out ways in which to improve worker motivation; this is due, in part, to a lack of empirical evidence that pertains directly to their firm. Moreover, organizations may opt to apply a one-size-fits-all motivational strategy to their firm which may be structurally or culturally not conducive to the proposed changes. The research process supported me in my workplace in identifying areas in need of change by discussing issues with the firm's internal stakeholders. In doing so, I was able to suggest preliminary changes related to motivation in my own firm.

Additional parallels existed between the research process and my academic goals, as personal motivation often represents a barrier to studying. Strong connections exist between worker and student motivation, and I was able to perceive similar issues in myself as the interviewees saw in their workers. Overall, the twenty-first century workplace demands that workers be competent in forging connections between existing research, experience, and their organizations in order to promote meaningful work for themselves. I believe that the research experience was beneficial for me in facilitating the identification of weak and strong areas that were not otherwise apparent to me, and, by extension, supported this same recognition in the broader organization in which I work. The research experience made me a stronger communicator, a more critical thinker, and an overall advocate of empirical examination.

Bibliography

Arn, J., Kordsmeier, B., & Gatlin-Watts, R. A Survey of Workforce Communication Skills. Journal of Organizational Culture, Communications and Conflict, 6(1-2), 1-23.

Culture and Learning in the Context of Globalization: Research Directions. ChildhoodEducation, 85(1), 65.

Musolino, G. M., & Mostrom, E. Reflection and the Scholarship of Teaching, Learning,and Assessment. Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 19(3), 52-76.

Newman, I., & Benz, C. R. Qualitative-Quantitative Research Methodology: Exploringthe Interactive Continuum. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

Poggenpoel, M., Myburgh, C. P., & Van der Linde, C. Qualitative Research Strategies asPrerequisite for Quantitative Strategies. Education, 122(2), 408-428.

Rao, M. S. Myths and Truths about Soft Skills. T&D, 66(5), 48-76.

Richens, G. P., & McClain, C. R. Workplace Basic Skills for the New Millennium.Journal of Adult Education, 28(1), 29-56.

Wu, L., & Looi, C. Agent Prompts: Scaffolding for Productive Reflection in anIntelligent Learning Environment. Educational Technology & Society, 15(1), 339-345.

1.1 Introduction to ICT and KS3

Information communications technology (ICT) has increased in complexity, accessibility and availability, and applicability to key areas of education across the past two decades with developed nations; literature ranging from scholarly studies to government operations have understood this, while they have examined optimization in both programs and ICT usage. This literature review emphasises the relationship between ICT and formative assessment, and considers the other aspects of the research question (key stage 3 (KS3), ICT and developments in KS3, and the relationship between ICT and assessment in KS3).

1.2 ICT and Formative Assessment

ICT has played a major role in education in general, as it provides both teachers and students (as well as administrative staff) with tools to improve efficiency and effectiveness, accessibility to resources and learning materials, and instruments for unique classroom activities.

While all areas of a classroom's curriculum can be influenced by ICT, the impact on formative assessment has been particularly unique and an area of concern; improvements in ICT have allowed students to be assessed in a way which improves efficiency but separates the instructor from some areas of the data. Online testing has furthered the prevalence of this area, and even areas with less concrete (and less easily graded by automated programs) topics have slowly increased in ICT assessment; Hunt, Neil, and Barnes (2007) report on the specific topic of language and formative assessment through ICT, stating "the ever increasing explosion of highly attractive multimedia resources on offer has boosted the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in the teaching and learning of modern languages. The use of ICT to assess languages is less frequent, however, although online testing is starting to develop...speaking is inadequately served by online testing as tests currently focus primarily on receptive language skills. The implications for future successful online testing include the incorporation of interactive skills and effective formative feedback" (p. 195). Although this is only one specific topic, the potential for ICT to improve formative assessment has been taken with caution by other researchers and organizations for similar reasons, as described in greater detail in following sections.

Two years following the research of Hunt, Neil, and Barnes, Franklin, Stam, and Clayton (2009) published their three year analysis of processes and representatives from 13 European Union (EU) statistical offices (and other less powerful figures) to find that ICT continues to be a facilitator of further innovation, in areas ranging from business to educational organizations; with this, the faults of areas discussed in studies such as Hunt, Neil, and Barnes' were assumed to be the results of a lack of innovation in development and application, rather than the nature of ICT. The following year, Rodiiguez et al. questioned the impact of ICT on student attainment, claiming that concrete evidence was lacking despite two decades of progress; assessments were considered in the range of topics analysed in this research effort, while the main points of this recent analysis included "the mismatch between the methods used to measure the effects and the type of learning promoted, the absence of information regarding the specific types of ICT used, and the scarce attention paid to the monitoring and evaluation of ICT for Education (ICT4E) programs. A monitoring and evaluation scheme would provide qualitative and quantitative data to refine, adjust and improve an ICT4E project, to learn from the experience gained, and to determine whether the program has served its client communities and how it might be replicated" (p. 166). Moreover, the study found positive correlations between the effectiveness of testing and programs in control groups which had chosen to adopt such organized programs, supporting studies which claim ICT has potential for education, but it has been generally difficult for institutions to achieve this potential.

Also in 2010, Savage explained that using ICT is a main component of KS3's national curricula within the UK, and thus it has been especially challenged by the areas of concern covered across the aforementioned research. Savage (2010) assessed the availability and use of ICT, and ultimately only came to positive conclusions regarding the impact of aspects outside of assessment. Although the developments of ICT have been progressive and substantial, and the potential for improvements in education have also been positive, the impacts on assessment have been less positive and an area of concern realized by academic and non-academic institutions alike.

1.3 ICT and Developments in KS3

ICT's role in KS3 developments have been as substantial as their role in other programs within developed nations, and ICT has been implemented in formative assessments across a range of topics. Ball analysed the role of ICT in formative assessment for mathematics within KS3, and found that ICT software is best used to develop critical thinking through activities rather than effective assessment. In 2008, Mansell analysed pupils between years seven and nine in the KS3, and he also found that ICT implementations were only clearly effective outside of assessment. ICT changes are assumed to have major continued impacts on formative assessment and KS3 as a whole.

Mansell, in another piece of literature, described the repercussions of a governmental decision to change assessment policy, writing "more than two-thirds of English secondary schools have ordered key stage 3 papers this year, despite the Government's decision to axe the Sats as a statutory exam from 2009. A total of 2,207 of 3,163 schools (or 70 per cent) have ordered the assessments for 2009, with a week still to go until the deadline for requesting the tests. Of these, only 321 (10 per cent) requested the papers before the Government announced on October 15 that it was scrapping KS3 tests, suggesting that 60 per cent of schools have consciously decided to continue with the tests even though they are now voluntary. Observers have greeted the figures with surprise, although the findings follow warnings from the NASUWT teachers' union in last week's TES that many schools would retain the Year 9 exams" (Mansell, 2008b, p. 14). Later, Evans and Fisher would assess new policy initiatives responsible for altered KS3 framework regarding formative assessment, language, and teaching. Although this research effort did not lead to any unique conclusions outside of the area of language, it demonstrated the urgency for on-going research with regards to teaching and the structure of KS3.

1.4 ICT and Assessments in KS3

The research outlined in prior sections has shown the nature of ICT's impact on formative assessment, its potential in assessment in other areas, research regarding KS3 and governmental initiatives, and an introduction to governmental concerns regarding ICT and assessment. This section will explain the initiatives impacting ICT in an active attempt to alter its role in formative assessment within KS3.

In 2008 and 2009, the QCA found alarming data in KS3 Year 9 writing test data, as it discovered ICT was partially or wholly responsible for incorrect grading on nearly half of the writing tests observed, as well as a substantial portion of science tests observed. Also in the same time frame, unions began to call for the cessation of all national testing across KS3, leading to drastic changes and many critical implications for the future of ICT (QCA, 2009). The present system was criticized for being invalid, mismanaged, and damaging, and some experts felt that national sample testing was the most desirable alternative. In late 2008, England's national assessment policy would remove national tests from KS3, while research on the topic would continue in consideration of improved solutions. In a related analysis, the Education Publishing Worldwide Ltd would support the demand for continued improvements in testing structures (and also find a gap between Welsh and English performance that varied across the years of KS3).

In 2010, Lawson focused on ICT more directly, both as an individual topic and in terms of its relationship to ICT. Key points of his study included a lack of consistency in ICT assessment, a lack of understanding of this relationship in schools, inconsistency in other assessment-related practices, and the government's partially effective attempts to facilitate improved ICT assessment practices.

1.5 Summary

Clearly, the potential for ICT to impact formative assessment remains great, however, academia has been limited by inconsistency and ineffective aspects of practice. KS3, meanwhile, has been generally troubled by testing in the past few years, while the government has attempted to facilitate improvements. There is a clear demand for improvements in ICT, formative assessment, and research and data for any related topic.

References

Ball, B. (2007), 'Knowing the Answers', Mathematics Teaching Incorporating Micromath, no. 200, pp. 17-18.

Education Publishing Worldwide Ltd. (2010), 'Welsh children falling behind English pupils by KS3', Education, no. 399, p. 4.

Evans, M. and Fisher, L., 'Translating Policy into Practice: The Impact of the KS3 Framework for MFL on Language Teaching and Learning in Schools in England', Research Papers in Education, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 479-493.

Franklin, M., Stam, P., and Clayton, T. (2009), 'ICT impact assessment by linking data', Economic & Labour Market Review, vol. 3, no. 10, pp. 18-27.

Hunt, M., Neill, S., and Barnes, A. (2007), 'The use of ICT in the assessment of modern languages: the English context and European viewpoints', Educational Review, vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 195-213.

Lawson, M. (2010), 'An Investigation Into The Process Of Teacher Assessment Of ICT Capability In A Sample Of Schools In The North West Of England', [Online]

Doctoral thesis, University of Huddersfield.

Mansell, W. (2008), 'KS3 goes fully functional', Times Educational Supplement, no. 4801, p. 21.

Mansell, W. (2008b), 'Tests still in demand despite their KS3 demise', Times Educational Supplement, no. 4817, p. 14.

National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER) (2009), 'Policy and research seminar on National Assessment Arrangements for Key Stage 3', [Online] The Nuffield Foundation.

Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) (2009), 'Huge marking inaccuracies revealed during KS3 test study', Education, no. 348, p. 1.

Rodiiguez, P., Nussbaum, M., Lopez, X., and Sepúlveda, M. (2010), 'A Monitoring and Evaluation Scheme for an ICT-Supported Education Program in Schools', Journal of Educational Technology & Society, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 166-179.

Savage, J. (2010), 'A survey of ICT usage across English secondary schools', Music Education Research, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 89-104.

Job at a Law Firm - Application Essay

Significantly fewer students are applying to law school these days: They are responding to the fact that a law degree no longer guarantees a Golden Ticket. Success and money is their first interest--how they obtain it, their second. That may be their mindset: It definitely is not mine. Generating income to care for my wife and two young children naturally is critical. Yet, it is also essential for me to fulfill an important need in society and to receive personal satisfaction from the work I accomplish every day.

I began working for my uncle, a prominent products liability attorney in Los Angles in 1997. Throughout these past 11 years with the firm, first working part time as a law clerk while in high school and then full time in the accounting department during college. Frequently I wear several different hats in the office, assuming far more responsibility than that assigned to my position title, such as handling IT and network management tasks. Over this past decade in the law office, my interest and appreciation for the legal profession has continued to grow.

After graduating from Ferrahian High School in 1999, I began attending Santa Monica college and then transferred to California State University--Northridge several years later. In 2003, I received my bachelor's degree in psychology and then followed up at Gnomon School of Visual Effects for a Certificate in High-End Computer Graphics.

Now, at the age of 30, I am ready to take on my next new challenge. I am eager to make a positive impact by helping others with my professional expertise. Given my experience in the law firm and growing interest in this field, I look forward to receiving my law degree at University of West LA and following in my uncle's footsteps. Seeing the thankful look on the clients' faces after our attorneys achieve a favorable result is strong motivation for me to assist people in the same way.

It is always my hope that the products people purchase will be safe to use and not cause them or their loved ones any physical or emotional harm. Unfortunately, sometimes products are manufactured that have defective design and cause unexpected catastrophic injuries. Even as a kid, I had a passion for cars and engineering. I grew up around cars, was very interested in what makes them work, and have a fairly advanced understanding of the mechanics involved. Over the years, our firm has been involved in several automobile liability cases, and this knowledge has been very helpful. For example, our firm was the first to receive a verdict in a Ford Explorer rollover case where the jury voted that the design was indeed defective. More recently in Pannu v Land Rover, one of our clients was rendered a quadriplegic from a similar rollover in his Land Rover "Discovery."

I am very fortunate to have gained a great deal of knowledge and experience about a variety of pertinent legal subjects prior to pursuing a degree in law. In addition, I know firsthand how personally rewarding this career will be in the years and decades to come. I look forward to continually dedicating myself to the family firm and using my additional education to provide more clients with the professional help and support they so deserve.

1. Creative Thinking - Promoting It in the Classroom

One of the key points that I noted was that creative thinking is a process rather than a one off event. The NCTE describes it as developing an 'attitude of suspended judgment' whilst also emphasizing the need for reflection and skepticism (Siegel and Carey), all of which imply that the skills need to be practiced over time.

A practical example of this approach in the classroom could include encouraging students to explain out loud their thinking process and providing enough time for students to think before answering (Tobin) or being told the answer by the teacher. Creative thinking can be applied as part of an overall approach to developing communication and analytical skills through actively encouraging reading, research and debate both inside and out of the classroom.

One of the difficulties of this approach could be in encouraging debate which may prove quite challenging for students and teachers alike (Festinger) and lead to an opting out of any potential conflict or debate. Future training and support for teachers in using this methodology could be important if this approach is to be adopted in a meaningful way across our schools.

2. Assessment For Learning and As Learning

One of things I noted was that assessment is designed to enhance and support learning as well as supporting students to become independent in their own learning process (Ministry of Education). I also noticed that there are a variety approaches that can be used in gathering information but most important is how the information is used.

Central to the assessment process is, I think, the collaborative role of both students and teachers in gathering the information. In the classroom students need to understand what the criteria for assessment is, possibly by reviewing sample answers or seeing other students work on the topic. The language used by teachers needs to be understood and be relevant to students. Finally feedback needs to be given to students so that they can understand how to improve, or what aspects of their work achieved them higher grades.

I can understand how some teachers may feel that too much student involvement in assessment might seem to undermine the role of grading. If students have been involved in setting the criteria and collaborating with teachers is there a blurred line between the teachers' and student's work?

3. Critical Literacy

The most important point I learnt was that our relationship with language has changed over the years. Cultural influences and media has expanded the way in which we interact with text. For students this has implications in how they communicate and understand what is being communicated to them. Critical literacy is described as a lens (The Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat) to help understand and interpret written text. I think this is important because it is contrary to the more traditional approach where reading was seen as a passive act.

In the classroom a more critical approach is adopted by encouraging students to question the meaning and perspective of authors. Critical literacy also advocates that changes can be made to texts and that opinions are not static but rather evolving and developing as more information is gathered. The students can become actively involved in this by being encouraged to answer critical questions about texts or comparing and contrasting two different articles on the same topic.

As with most new techniques teachers need to be critically literate themselves, and that may pose a challenge to more traditional teachers. Perhaps by encouraging students to bring in their own materials and using a broader range of media materials rather than relying solely on books, may help to change the learning landscape and the methodologies that go along with it.

4. Embedding Historical Thinking

What interested me about this article was that it took aspects of both topics of critical thinking and critical literacy and embedded it within a specific subject, history. (Denos). The principles are similar, in that students have to determine and evaluate which information is relevant to their work and then justify and explain their thinking processes.

This used a practical classroom application whereby students worked collaboratively on a project and had to go beyond their traditional understanding of historical facts. The focus was on students understanding history and be able to think within an historical context such as the project topic.

This approach could be time consuming for teachers as it requires students to review all the materials provided rather than merely reciting or learning dates and information. It also shifts the focus to group work and might make assessment more challenging if this hasn't been incorporated into the overall planning process. A further area of research might include developing specific group self-assessment tools to incorporate factors such as range of ideas discussed, changes in attitudes as well as capturing the overall process and participation levels.

5. Backward Design

This article questioned the way in which traditional lesson and curriculum planning is undertaken. I was interested that it suggested that lesson plans should be directed by desired results or outcomes rather than starting with resources and traditional approaches to teaching the subject. I also liked that assessment techniques were included at the beginning of a backwards design rather than being added on at the end, so that assessment tools can became incorporated into the lesson.

One of the potential drawbacks to this approach is that it appears theoretical rather than practical, and this might not suit a lot of teachers. Perhaps if activities remained the focus say through project work but outcomes, desired results and assessments were linked into them this might overcome the perception of being very idealistic and possibly untenable.

I think this approach might be considered very different for many teachers to adapt to, it also requires a thorough understanding of the desired results and appropriate assessment tools. I also think that a higher level of training and/or many teachers having to undergo further training would be required for it to be effective across the whole curriculum.

6. Beyond Inert Facts

This topic addressed the challenge that teachers often face when trying to cover a content based curriculum within a limited time scale, with students retaining all the information. The main point that I liked was that students should be developing a sense of understanding for the topic rather than simply able to recall facts and figures (Case). In particular the need to challenge student's thinking and perhaps encourage them to question the motives behind a writer's intentions.

For the classroom the article provided examples of the types of question that would encourage critical thinking, such as having to make judgments on a situation or solve a mystery/ puzzle. I liked that not all the work was time consuming, there are critical thinking approaches that can be used such as providing a short critique of an book / account rather than just recounting or summarizing it. Also encouraging students to solve small challenges when looking at a historical scene - e.g. what would it have like for .... And why?

I think that this approach could be challenging for teachers who may not be used to having to think up situations or questions, which elicit these types of responses. It would be time consuming, certainly at the beginning until teachers became more accustomed to the approach.

7. Four Principles of Authentic Assessment

One of the most important points I learnt was the role of assessment planning and how it is crucial to effectively capture students' learning. The emphasis was on a focused approach to assessment rather than testing what was perhaps easiest to measure. The article provided a practical rubric that outlined the variety of skills to assess including; critical thinking, information gathering, understanding and co-operative engagement as well as the factual recall which is traditionally used for assessments.

Another point mentioned was the need to use real life assignments and assessments with students. The example was given that students can answer problems in the classroom, where the background information is provided, but this isn't an indicator that the same problem outside the classroom where they have to source the background information for themselves, can also be solved.

Clear communication was another essential component, which means that teachers also have to be clear what they are assessing and what criteria they will use to determine achievement at each grade. I liked the emphasis on using teacher's time efficiently and that checklists are simple to use once developed, or that students can be encouraged to peer assess or rewrite drafts using peer comments before submitting a final assessment.

8. Co-operative Learning in Elementary Social Studies

I learnt that co-operative learning and traditional group work are different teaching approaches. Co-operative learning is not just a teaching tool but more a philosophy on life, and its values need to be applied within the classroom all the time, not just in certain 'group' activities. I particular liked how (Morton) was quite open about the difficulties many teachers face in embracing this approach and the importance of providing appropriate training and support, rather than just glossing over or ignoring the difficulties.

Another important component is the active rather than passive role that the teacher plays in supporting the work, i.e. observing interactions, setting tasks that can enable groups to interact and focusing on the social skills elements as well as the academic output. This is important because traditionally project work has been set outside the classroom with some students doing more work or parents becoming involved and the teacher sees none of the process that was undertaken.

There are plenty of challenges for teachers because it does require a complete commitment to this teaching approach. Ongoing support from colleagues would probably be a requirement for teachers as well, otherwise they might become overwhelmed and the classroom slightly chaotic without space to talk through what happened when things don't go according to plan.

References

Case, Roland. "Beyond Inert Facts: Teaching for Understanding in Elementary Social Studies." Case, Roland. The Anthology of Social Studies. Canada: Pacific Educational Press 33-47. Print.

Case, Roland. "Four Principles of Authentic Assessment." Case, Roland. The Anthology of Social Studies. Pacific Educational Press, 2008. 319-328. Print.
Denos, Mike. "Portals to Understanding - Embedding Historical Thinking in the Curriculum." n.d. Print.

Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Evanston, Illinois: Row Peterson. Print.

Ministry of Education. Growing Success: Assessment, Evaluation and reporting in Ontario Schools. First Edition Grades 1-12. Ontario: Ministry of Education, 2010. Print.

Morton, Tom. Co-operative Learning in Elementary Social Studies. Toronto, n.d. Print.

Siegel, Marjorie and Robert,F Carey. Critical Thinking and Reading: Empowering Learners to Think and Act. Monographs on Teaching Critical Thinking, Number 2.

Illionois: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication SKills and the National Council of Teachers of English, 1989.

The Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat. Critical Literacy #9. Ontario: Ontario Ministry of Education ISSN: 19138490, 2009. print.

Tobin, Kenneth. "The role of wait time in higher cognitive learning." Review of Educational Research, 57(1) (1987): 69-95.

Formulation of the Problem

UK universities are a growing source of education for foreign students. According to a 2009 Report in The Guardian, international student enrollment doubled between 1998 and 2008, with over 229,000 non-EU students (approximately 10% of students) enrolled in 2008. Many of these students (around 20,000) came from China, but other developing countries also played a significant role in this increased enrollment. This is in part due to the state of development of higher education in developing countries, which is often not clearly focused and defined and may not be a priority. This is particularly true in areas such as technology-based education (engineering, computer science, and other sciences), where education in foreign universities is a key source of technology transfer to developing nations and a significant means of increasing economic growth. According to a 2003 World Bank report, the demand for foreign education in developing countries is driven by factors including lack of capacity and excess demand for domestic university education, the demand for international qualifications for graduates, and highly skilled labour demands (Bashir). Overall, there are considerable advantages to foreign education in terms of development, as it encourages technology transfer and increases the human resource stocks of the developing economy (De Ferranti). In many cases, developing countries prioritize the use of foreign tertiary education as a policy measure to improve human resource stocks and technological capabilities of the country. Overall, tertiary education in foreign countries is considered to be a positive factor for students.

However, the use of foreign education as a means of improving human resource stocks has some potential difficulties for developing countries that engage in it. One difficulty is lost revenues and potential development of the domestic educational system. One estimate indicates that Nigeria's domestic university system loses between N200 billion and N300 billion annually due to the loss of students to foreign institutions (which is largely driven by neglect and underdevelopment of the tertiary education sector). However, another difficulty is that students may not choose to return to their countries of origin. This is often encouraged by the immigration policies of the host country. For example, the United Kingdom offers a Tier-1 Post Study Visa, which allows international students to gain access to a one-year specialty visa allowing them to work without a work permit. This scheme focuses on medical and nursing, science and engineering graduates - in other words, exactly those workers that are most required by their home countries. This is part of along-observed phenomenon known as the 'brain drain'; workers that can gain access to higher wages in developed countries, encouraged by immigration policies that give them priority, will often leave developing countries permanently, reducing human resources stocks and impeding further development. There are some positive effects from this brain drain, including increased integration into global networks. This effect has historically been a problem for development. An International Labour Organisation (ILO) report indicated that between 10% and 30% of skilled workers migrated from developing countries during the 1990s (OECD). African losses to the brain drain phenomenon are estimated to be in the billions, and over 30% of skilled workers were seen to migrate during the 1980s and 1990s. Brain drain is more recently seen in migration of central and eastern European migrants to the UK. A 2008 estimate by the Home Office indicated that some 45,000 applications for the Worker Registration Scheme were seen from the A8 nations in 2008. However, what is not known is how many potential workers do not choose to return to developing countries following their foreign education, in effect permanently removing their potential labour from the capital market. This research will examine the connection between foreign education and the brain drain and examine the effects on the home country's economy.

Aims and Objectives

The aim of this research is to quantify economic migration of highly skilled individuals from one developing country and identifying the effects of this migration on the developing economy. The objectives include:

1. Quantification of the likelihood of economic migration for highly skilled individuals.
2. Identification of reasons why highly skilled individuals migration.
3. Determination of ways to prevent some portion of this migration from occurring.
3. Research Design and Methods.

The research design chosen is a quantitative methodology, which will rely on primary data collection and statistical analysis. The quantitative method chosen was the survey. A survey, or series of quantitative questions designed to elicit information that can be analyzed statistically, is commonly used in social sciences research because it is relatively simple to construct and inexpensive to distribute to the target population. A survey makes it possible to examine a much wider sample of the population as well, which will be to the advantage of this research project.

Data Collection and Analysis

Instrument

There are no instruments that currently exist that study the area of interest of this research. The researcher will construct an instrument consisting of a planned 30 items, addressing the experience of respondents, educational levels, and other issues related to the intent to migrate. It will also collect demographic information and information on area of study. This will be pilot tested using a small sample (N=60) in order to confirm the construct validity of the survey using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), ensure there are no confusing or poorly worded questions that will elicit incorrect responses from survey respondents, and ensure reliability of the survey. The survey will be designed for email collection in order to increase uptake and reduce cost.

Population and Sample

The population will be foreign students from developing countries studying in the UK. For the sample, a total of 1,500 students from universities across the UK will be randomly selected.

Data Collection

The link to the survey will be distributed electronically via a number of methods, including email lists, Web pages, and academic communities of the target audience. The researcher will establish a home page that describes the reason for the survey, and then gains consent prior to completion. Data will be collected automatically using an online survey collection site such as Google Docs survey generator or Survey Monkey.

The survey will run for three months or until the target number of surveys (1,000) have been collected. The survey collection point will then be closed and data will be prepared for analysis. This preparation will include scrubbing of any incomplete surveys and preparation for analysis in SPSS.

Analysis

The analysis of the data will take place in SPSS. The main analysis techniques will be inferential statistical techniques including ANOVA, linear and multiple regression, and other techniques (which will be chosen following consideration of survey design, item data types, and the type of relationship being considered). The researcher will also use descriptive statistics in order to provide a brief data profile of respondents.

Potential Users and User Engagement

Potential users for this research include education authorities, political workers and policymakers in developing countries, economists, and the student population that is being studied itself. Educational authorities in developing countries will be able to consider the research in terms of the role of foreign education in their development schemes, and determine whether changes should be made. Politically, this report will be able to inform policymakers of the effects of foreign education on the brain drain and identify any potential issues or problems that they may face. It may also be able to identify areas of concern for these countries. The study will also provide economic information regarding the connection between foreign education and the brain drain. Finally, students will be able to see the general effects of their decision to either remain in the UK or to return to their home country in the study.

Potential Difficulties

The main difficulties seen in this study are the potential for Type I and II error (which will be mitigated by study design principles) and the selection of students. The large sample is larger than required for statistical validity, however, and as such if the sample size is reduced the research will remain valid.

Ethical Considerations

The main ethical consideration in this case is the potential for repercussions for respondents to the survey, particularly those that may be receiving funding from their governments and identify themselves as intending to migrate. In order to protect respondents from this potential negative outcome, the researcher will conduct the study in anonymity, and will not include any follow-up research into the questions raised by the study with individual respondents.

Bibliography

Bashir, S. (2003). Trends in international trade in higher education: Implications and options for developing countries. Genev: The World Bank.

BBC News. (2001). Brain drain costs Africa billions.

Brace, I. (2008). Questionnaire design (2nd ed.). London: Kogan Page.

De Ferranti, D. M. (2003). Closing the gap in education and technology. Geneva: World Bank.

Entzinger, H. B., Martiniello, M., & de Wenden, C. W. (2004). Migration between states and markets. London: Ashgate.

Ewuzie, K. (2007). Neglect of tertiary edcuation robs Nigeria huge foreign exchange.

Grubel, H. G., & Scott, A. (1977). The brain drain: determinants, measurement, and welfare effects. Waterloo, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.

Healey, J. F. (2005). Statistics: A Tool for Social Research. London: Cengage.

Home Office. (2008). Eastern European immigration statistics released by the UK.

OECD. (2008). Cross-border higher education and developing. Policy Brief.

OECD. (2003). Migration and the labour market in Asia: Recent trends and policies. Geneva: OECD Publishing.

Staines, G. M., Johnson, K., & Bonacci, M. (2007). Social sciences research. London: Rowman & Littlefield.

The Guardian. Twice as many foreign students at UK universities.

UK Border Agency. (2010). Post-study workers. Retrieved from Home Office.